Unit 10. Lexicon. Characteristics of word formation in the English language.

Prefixation, suffixation & compounding.

Linguistics (units 10 & 11)

● Definition of linguistics; the study of language (structure & development) either in

general or a particular language (English in our case). It is divided into 4 branches (1)
Phonetics, (2) morphology, (3) syntax, (4) semantics (study of meaning).
● Coding & decoding language = 4 levels of linguistic analysis
1) Sound level = (1) phonetics (sounds in general), (2) phonology (specific sounds of language)
2) Morphological level = morphemes (basic units meaning) & morphology (internal structure of
words).
3) Syntactic level = Syntax = aka = rules governing language functioning.
4) Semantic level = (1) semantics (meaning words & sentences), (2) Pragmatics (speakers’
intended meaning).
● Morphology = focus on structure/derivation of words = study of the structure & formation of
elements of the language, which are combined to produce a message.
● Two types of morphology = (1) inflectional (meaning of the stem. E.g. “corrupt-ed”), (2)
Lexical (different lexical item = often unpredictable meaning. E.g. greenhouse)

Morpheme (unit 10 & 11)

● Smallest unit in language with useful & meaningful meaning = can’t be segmented any
longer
● Able to change the meaning of a word (or part of it) = love-ed
● STEM (base) = the most basic form = other morphemes can be added to the STEM =
new meanings
● Two types of morphemes;
1) Lexical (semantic) refering to objects, states, facts, relationships...: (1) open class category, (2)
free (stems) = full words, (3) Bound (affixes) like “dis, “ness” used to create new words
(lexemes) through word formation processes
2) Grammatical (functional) refer to grammar functions: (1) closed inventary, (2) free (function
words) such as articles, conjunctions, prep.., (3) bound (inflectional) as in “ed”, “ing”, “s”, (4)
combination is possible according to rules of word inflection.
● Bound morphemes = either inflectional or derivational. That is, they modify the
tense/number of verbs/nouns & change the meaning of the word class, respectively.
● Features of bound morphemes = (1) allomorphs (variants into which a morpheme
appears, as the pronunciation of “S” in plural or “ed in past form) & (2) Productivity
(2) productivity (the number of morphemes that can be added to a STEM.
Lexeme
A family of lexical items, with limited number and listed alphabetically. For instance, the
lexeme “love” has several meanings and various word categories (noun and verb). It has
several forms (inflected ones) as in “loved”, “loving” and derivational morphemes (lover,
lovely). Lexemes appear in the dictionary
 Word Formation

● Most common process = derivation = achieved by means of “affixation” &

“conversion”
● Affixation = bound morphemes added to the base. Two types (1) initial position
(prefixation) & (2) final position (suffixation).
● Conversion (aka functional shift) = words are assigned to another word class without
changing form (milk = to milk)
Other morphological processes include:

● Compounding = two/more stems are combined to create a new word. The most
common types are (1) noun + noun, (2) adjective + noun, and (3) verb + noun. They can
be written with one word, with a hyphen, or all together.
● Complex words = Reapplication of word formation processes (more than 1 process)
● Reduplicative = case of compounding = similar elements (walkie-talkie)
● Clipping = word reduction (lab, bus, flu..)
● Blending = two words become one as in “brunch”
● Acronym/Initialism = only the first initials of words are employed as in P.D.A (Public
Display of Affection).
Prefixation; Types of prefixes (I)
Process of forming a new word = prefixes are added to the stem
● Prefixes don’t generally change the word-class of the stem
● Prefixes normally have light stress, as the main one comes on the stem
Negative Degree/size/locative

A Lacking in ANTE Locative - Before

adj = amoral Adj = antediluvian
nouns = atheist N = antecedent, antechamber
in the process of
V = asleep, ablaze

DE Reverse action ARCH Highest

V = defrost, decode N = archduke, archangel

DIS The opposite of /not/ HYPER To an excessive degree

Adj = dishonest, disloyal Adj = hyperactive
N= discount, distrust N = hypermarket

IN The opposite of /not/ MINI Small

 Adj = infinite, insane Nouns = mini-cab, mini-bus, mini-
skirt
Adv = incorrectly
V = incapacitate

IL words beginning “L” OUT Surpassing

illogical, illegal V = outgrow, outnumber

IR words beginning “R” OVER Too much

irregular, irresponsible V = overear, oversleep
N = overdose
Adj = overhead

MAL Badly SUB “less than”

V = malfunction Adj = subhuman, subnormal
N = malnutrition

MIS Wrongly SUPER More than

V = misquote N = superman, supermarket
N = Mismatch Adj = supernatural

NON Not SUR Outside

Adj = non-stopping N = surround, surface
N = nonsense

PSEUDO False ULTRA Beyond

Adj = pseudo-intellectual Adj = ultrasonic, ultraviolet
N = pseudoscience

UN The opposite of /not/ UNDER Not enough

Adj = unfair V = Undersell
P.P. = unexpected Below
Adv = Unhappily N & V = undergrowth, undergraduate
N = unbelief

Prefixation; Types of prefixes (II)

Attitude Number
ANTI Against UNI/MONO One
Adj = antisocial, anti-nuclear Unilateral
N = antibody, anti-hero Monotheism
CO Jointly BI/DI Two
Adj = cooperative Bilingual
V = coordinate Bisexual
N = Co-driver, coeducation Dipole
COUNTER Against/in response to TRI Three
N = counter-attack Tripartite
V = counter-attack Tricolor
Adv = counter-clockwise Tridimentional
PRO In favor of MULTI/POLY Many
Adj = pro-abortion Multilingual
N = proponent Polyglot
Time & Order Others

EX Former AUTO Self

N = ex-president, ex-husband Autobiography
FORE Before NEO New
V = foresee, foresee Neolithic
N = foreknowledge, forehead Neo-Gothic
POST After PAN All
Adj = post-classical Pantheism
N = post-war Pan-African
PRE Before SEMI Half
Adj = Prehistoric Semi-circle
N = predestination Semitone
V = pre-cook, prefabricate
PROTO First VICE Deputy
 Prototype, protocol Vice-president
RE Again/back Vice-chancellor
V= reactivate
Adj = reborn, re-elected

Suffixation
This is a process by which suffixes are added at the end of the root/stem for the sake of
creating a new word in the English language.
Unlike prefixation, suffixation does change the word class of the root word. They can be
classified in line with (1) the class of word they form, (2) the class of root they are added
to. The following chart displays the array of suffixes in the English language according to
their classification
N from N STER Connected to N from ADJ CY Adj ending in ant/ent

Ganster excellency

ER Concerned with DOM State

Astronomer Boredom, freedom

DIMINUTIVE LET Small ITY Quality

Booklet diversity

ETTE Small NESS State

Cigarrete happiness

Y Familiar Verb suffixes EN Causative meaning

Daddy blacken

STATUS DOM Domain IFY Causative meaning

Kingdom Intensify

(E)RY Place where ISE Causative meaning

Brewery Popularize

HOOD Abstract N Adj from EN Material

Brotherhood NOUNS Golden, wooden

OCRACY Class FUL Having

Aristocracy Helpful, useful

SHIP Condition IAN In the tradition of

 Friendship Rafaelian

MATERIAL FUL Amount ISH Nationality

Handful Spanish

IANA Connected with LESS Without

Victoriana Homeless, careless

ING Activity LIKE Quality

Glassing Childlike

N/ADJ from (E)RY State LY Quality

N/ADJ
Bravery Friendly, lovely

ESE Nationality Y With

Chinese Creamy, hairy

(I)AN People Borrowings AL elemental

Italian classical IAL

languages
Indonesian ICAL

ISM Current of thought IC heroic

communism

IST Membership IVE Cohesive

Socialist ATIVE Negative

Violinist ITIVE

ITE Follower OUS Humorous

Israelite IOUS Deleterious

N from VERBS AGE Activity Others ABLE Added to verbs

drainage IBLE Unthinkable

AL Action ED Added to nouns

Refusal Legged

V-ANT Agent ISH Added to adj

Inhabitant Greenish

ATION Action Adv suffixes LY Added to adj

Exploration happily

EE Passive agent WARDS Added to nouns

Employee backwards
 MENT Result WISE Added to nouns

Amazement Humanwise

ING Activity

working

ER/OR Performer

Worker, lover

Conversion (a.k.a. functional shift)

Conversion is described as the derivational process by which an item changes its word class
without the need to resort to affixation. The most common types are described in the chart
below:
FROM VERB From stative verbs Doubt, love Minor From closed must
CLASS TO categories of system words to
NOUN CLASS conversion N

From dynamic Laugh, walk From phrases to Alsoran (looser)

verbs nouns

Objects Answer, catch From phrases to Under-the-weather

adjs

Subjects Bore, cheat From affixes to Isms (doctrine)

N

Instrument Cover, wrap Change of From non- Paints, difficulty

secondary countable to
word-class: countable
nouns
Manner Throw, walk From countable Floor, room
to non-countable

Place Retreat, return From proper to Several Cambridges

common nouns

FROM The noun is Daily, comic, From stative to To be a fool

ADJECTIVE ellipsed marrieds dynamic
TO NOUN
CLASS

To put smth in/on Bottle, corner Change of From To run the water
smth else secondary intransitive to
word-class: transitive
verbs
To give smth Coat, mask From transitive A door opened
FROM NOUN to intransitive
CLASS TO
To deprive of smth Peel, skin From Fall flat
intransitive to
VERB CLASS intensive

To do smth with Knife, brake From intensive Turn sour

an instrument to intransitive

To make/change Cripple, cash Monotransitive Wipe smth clean

smth to intransitive

To send by smth Mail, ship Change of From gradable A legal turn of mind
secondary to non-gradable
To go by smth Bicycle, motor word-class:
FROM ADJ To make Calm, dirty adjectives From stative to Being friendly
CLASS TO (transitive) dynamic
VERB CLASS
To become Dry, empty
(intransitive)

Compounds
It is a word formation process consisting of putting teo words together to crate a third word.
The spelling rules may vary in terms of hyphenation, separation of words, one single word.
The resulting words are free in terms of the class type of their constituents and that’s why
they are classified in tune with the function they have in the sentence.
Noun Compounds Subject & verb Noun + deverbial N Sunrise, earthquake
compounds
V+N Rattlesnake, hangman

Verbal N + N Washing machine

Verb and Object N + Verbal N sightseeing

compounds
N + agent N songwriter

N + deverbial N Self-control, haircut

V+N Knitwear, call-girl

V Noun + N Chewing gum

Verb and Verbal N + N Typing paper

Adverbials
compounds N + Verbal N daydreaming

N + Agentive N Baby-sitter

N + Deverbial N Homework, daydream

Verb + N searchlight

Verbless Noun + N Motorcycle, toy factory

 compounds Adj + N blackboard
Adjective Verb and adverbial N + ING participle Mouth-watering
compounds compounds
N + ED participle Self-employed

Adj/adv + ING Hard-working

Adj/adj + ED Quick-frozen

Verbless N+ ADJ Homesick

compounds
Adj + adj Deaf-mute

Verb compounds These compounds N+V babysit

are strange and the
meaning is hard to V+N pickpocket
grap oftentimes
V+V Make-believe

Adj + V deepfreeze

ADV/PREP + V Downcast

Unit 11. The “word” as a linguistic sign. Homonymy. Synonymy & Antonymy. The
concept of “False Friends”. Lexical Creativity.

● Semantics = meaning conveyed in a message = interpreted through prepositional

content of an utterance.
● Pragmatics = study of the interpretation of intended meaning in a speech act in so far
as prosodic elements (stress, rhythm & intonation), communication strategies, use of
deictics, and other extralinguistic elements (body language).
The linguistic sign
Semantics = study of meaning based on how words & sentences are related to other
objects/processes to which they refer. 2 types of relationships; (1) syntagmatic
(functioning of words in a sentence) & (2) paradigmatic ( chosen words according to
class, sub-class, category/grade to configure meaning).
The linguistic sign = psychic entity formed by 2 parts; (1) a concept, (2) its acoustic image
= (1) the signifier & (2) the signified (Saussure 1945).
2 principles = (1) arbitrariness (no natural relation between signifier & signified,
(2) linearity (simultaneous linguistic signs are not possible).
Two characteristics = (1) not valuable in itself, (2) signs can alter their signified but this
doesn’t depend on speakers.
Units of meaning (take theory from unit 10 = MORPHEMES)
Words = basic units of semantics = minimal elements that can change position in a sentence
= BUT = words can have more than one meaning/share the same meaning = ISSUE! =
TAKE INTO ACCOUNT DIFFERENCES OF (1) Lexical units, (2) Morphemes, (3)
lexemes.
Homonymy

● Definition: Relation between words with accidentally identical forms but different
meanings (“River bank” & “Savings bank”). Some other examples include “bear”
(animal, carry) & “ear” (of body, of corn). They are written & pronounced the same,
but the meaning is different. The parallel evolution of two words from 2 languages.
● Polysemy!!: a lexeme contains/is associated with multiple senses. In this case, the
meanings are related, while in homonyms, meanings aren’t related. Some examples of
polysemy are “assist/attend”, “fine (fee/superior), “and light (shine & low”). The result
of adding multiple related meanings to a lexeme.
Synonymy

● Definition: Relation of 2 or more lexical units with similar (but not exact) meaning.
“Lexical items with identical senses in relation to their “central” semantic traits, but
differ in minor or peripheral traits” (Lyons, 1981). = Context (key to choose appropriate
word).
● English is rich in synonyms due to the Anglo-Saxon, French & Latin Influence (see
topic 40).
● 3 types of synonyms; (1) fully synonymous (identical meaning in a range of contexts as
“nearly/almost”), (2) totally synonymous (same descriptive, expressive & social
meaning as “red/scarlet”), (3) completely synonymous (identical descriptive,
expressive & social meaning in all dimensions of meaning, as in
“start/begin/commence”).
● Absolutely synonyms words!! (synonyms meeting criteria for fully, totally &
completely synonymous), but these words do not exist = no motivations for exact
identical terms
● Synonyms differ in terms of (1) versions of standard English (fall & autumn), (2)
Styles/registers (gentleman, man, fellow, chap), (3) restricted collocation
(deep/profound sympathy), (4) closeness in meaning (mature, ripe, adult, perfect, due),
(5) euphemism (change of words because of social taboo as in “lavatory” for “toilet”,
“loo” & “WC”),
Oppositeness of meaning
1) Complimentarity: Incompatibility of pairs of lexical units = denial of one pair
implies the assertion of the other one (vice versa) as in male/female, single/married.
Negation of one = existence of the other
2) Antonymy = a case of opposition = the assertion containing one implies the
negation of the other, but not vice versa; good/bad.
3) Converseness = equivalent mirror-image relation in which the order of the
arguments is reversed = doctor/patient, husband/wife, teacher/student
 4) Hyponymy: relation of more specific to more general word. Relation of lexical
subordination/superordination as in “red” & “green” belong to color.
False Friends (Cognates)
Definition: words with a similar appearance in two languages, but the meaning differs
greatly if translated to another language. They are also referred to as “cognates”. They can
have (1) different meanings, (2) similar meanings, and (3) sometimes similar/dissimilar.
Some examples include (1) nouns as in “attend”, “gang”, “language”, “idiom”,
advertisement”, & (2) adjectives as in “excessive”, “disappointment”, “sensitive”,
“pregnant” and “embarrassed”.
The terminology is also used with “Phrasal verbs” (verbs combining with
preposition/adverb resulting in new meanings) & “idioms” (expressions formed by 2 or
more words forming a unit of meaning different from the original words.
Lexical Creativity
Definition: Ability to produce something new by using our intelligence. It needs various
strategies to come up with alternative solutions to deal with a task (a.k.a. “Lateral
Thinking”).
In language = literary devices + word formation processes
Some strategies to be accounted for in lexical creativity:

● Usage of representational/figurative meaning

● Combination of existing & new words
● Usage of common metaphors
● Foreign words/loans
● Use of synonyms, opposites & homonyms
● Neosemes (ascribing new meaning to common words)
● Interpretation/creation of new lexical analogies
● Clever usage of blends & neologisms for a perlocutionary effect
● The usage of innovative word formation processes (blending, clipping, affixation...).
● Lipka (2007) talks about “dynamic lexicology”, which lies upon 4 pillars (1)
morpho-semantic neologism, (2) semantic neologism/transfer, (3) morphological
neologism, (4) external loan/process.
Lexical creativity is common in slang, as it helps to create new words (an example is Jersey
Shore)