MODULE 6: Social and Emotional Development of

Children and Adolescents

Module Overview:

Our enthusiastic and persevering students, we are now in the last module of
this course. Module 6 is composed of three lessons. In each lesson, we will be
discussing different perspectives from well-known theorists in their proposed social
and emotional stages of development among children and adolescents. You are
expected to complete this module by having a thorough examination of these theories
and being able to answer or perform the assessment tasks in each lesson and by
answering the reflective questions in Module Assessment.

Module Objective/Outcome:

At the end of Module 6, you will be able to:

1) Analyze how the various theories of development can best improve the social
and emotional aspects, moral reasoning, attitudes and beliefs of children and
adolescents.

Lessons in the Module:

Lesson 1: Theories of Socio-emotional and Moral Reasoning Development

Lesson 2: Socialization and the Development of Identity and Social Relations

Lesson 3: Factors Affecting Social and Emotional Development and Exceptional

Development

1
LESSON Theories of Socio-emotional and Moral
1 Reasoning Development

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. Identify the various theories of socio-emotional and moral reasoning development
b. Examine how these theories can be applied in life-like situations.

Introduction:

Theories related to the way children grow and mature have influenced greatly
the scientific approach to child development. Social development is a long and
complicated process which is influenced by many of the biological, genetic, and
cognitive factors discussed in the previous lessons. Social development refers to how
a person develops a sense of self or a self-identity, develops relationships with others,
and develops the kind of social skills important in social interaction. Several
psychologists have proposed different stages which a person has to undergo to attain a
socially developed being.

Activity: Situation Analysis

1. Eric's kindergarten teacher is very concerned about him. He is hesitant to get

involved in group activities, and though he seems bright verbally, he tells his teacher
he "can't" do the work and will not start assignments unless the teacher is there to help
and reassure him. Additionally, he always waits for the teacher to help him put on his
coat and shoes, even though she has encouraged him to do so himself. Why do you
think Eric behaves this way even though he already know what to do?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Joe is a college junior with a mediocre academic record. Though he is very
intelligent, his teachers often describe him as lacking in initiative and creativity. He
does well in lecture classes, but is hesitant to participate in group discussions and has
difficulty coming up with ideas for independent learning projects. He is hesitant to
take chances and try new things, though he often would like to try them. What might
Joe experienced in the past that he hesitates to express himself? Enumerate at least
three possible reasons why he acts the way he do in school.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2
3. Karl is a 78-year-old widower who lives in a senior-citizens apartment complex.
Though he is reasonably healthy, both physically and mentally, Karl rarely gets out
and typically does not take part in activities offered through the local senior citizens
center. Rather, he mostly sits at home and broods. He rarely interacts with his
neighbors in the apartment complex, and even his children and grandchildren avoid
visiting him because all he does is complain about how bad his life has been. Do you
agree that old people tend to behave and react like Karl? Yes or No. Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Analysis

1. In activity No. 1, what can the teacher further do to help Eric do the things he is
already capable of doing on his own?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. In activity No. 2, as a college student, can you relate to what Joe is experiencing?
What can you suggest for Joe to be able to overcome this situation?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

3. As everyone gets old, how can you see yourself when you reach this stage? What
can you do to have a contented and happy old age?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Abstraction

I - Theories of Socio-emotional Development: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages,

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development, Bandura’s Social-
Cognitive Learning, Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

A. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Sigmund Freud (1940) said that each of us goes through five successive
psychosexual stages. These stages are five different developmental periods - oral,
anal, phallic, latency and genital stages during which the individual seeks pleasure
from different areas of the body that are associated with sexual feelings. Freud
emphasized that a child’s first five years were most important to social and
personality development and would influence future social development or
personality problems.

3
Period/Age Stage Description

Infancy - 18 Oral  pleasure seeking is centered on the mouth; pleasure

months seeking activities include sucking, chewing, and biting
 A child who have been gratified too much or too little at
this stage would continue to seek oral gratification as an
adult (fixation)

1 1/2 years Anal  pleasure seeking is centered on the anus and its function
to 3 years on elimination
 if a person is locked into or fixated at this stage, he/she
will continue to engage in behavioral activities related to
retention (being very neat or behaviorally rigid) or
elimination (being generous or messy)

3 years to Phallic  pleasure seeking is centered on the genitals

6 years  the child competes with the parent of the same sex for
the affection and pleasures of the parent of the opposite
sex; (Oedipus complex-boy; Electra complex - girl)
 Problems in resolving this competition may result in
feelings of inferiority for women and having something
to prove for men

6 years to Latency  the child repressed sexual thoughts and engages in

puberty nonsexual activities, such as developing social and
intellectual skills.
 at puberty, sexuality reappears and marks the beginning
of a new stage

Puberty to Genital  the individual has renewed sexual desires that he/she
Adulthood seeks to fulfill through relationships with members of
the opposite sex
 If he/she successfully resolved conflicts in the first three
stages, he/she will have the energy to develop loving
relationships and a healthy and mature personality

B. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development

Erikson’s psychosocial development reflects on how relationships with others

influence one’s search for his or her identity. He views achievement of a healthy
personality through successful resolution of a crisis at each of the eight stages of
development where each crisis consists of a pair of opposing possibilities, such as
trust versus mistrust or integrity versus despair. When a crisis is solved, there is a
development of the positive side of the dichotomy.

Period Stage/Developmental Crisis Positive

4
 Characteristics
Gained
Birth to Trust vs. Mistrust Hope - trust in
18  Interaction the infants have with other people in primary caregiver
months their environment are positive, then the infant will and in one’s own
learn that people in their environment can be ability to make
trusted; trust is developed. things happen
 If the interaction lacks in warmth caring and the
basic needs of the infant go unsatisfied, the infant
will learn to mistrust those around him/her.
18 mos. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Will - new
to 3  It is important for a toddler to explore his/her physical skills
years environment in an effort to establish some lead to demand
independence from parents (attempts to dress or eat for more choices,
on his/her own); the crisis will more likely to most often seen
resolve in the direction of autonomy, a sense of as saying “no” to
independence. caregivers; child
 If the toddler’s exploration and attempts to be learns self-care
independent are discouraged, he/she will likely feel skills such as
ashamed of these efforts, and develop doubts toileting
about his/her ability to deal with the environment.
3 to 6 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose - ability
years  Children are attempting to develop initiative, adds to organize
to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, activities around
and attacking a task for the sake of being active and some goals; more
on the move, they attempt to undertake grown-up assertiveness and
tasks. aggressiveness
 If their interactions and explorations during play are
encouraged, if their questions are recognized and
answered sincerely, positive resolution of the
developmental crisis is more likely.
 If the child’s effort to explore or his/her questions
are treated as nuisance, the child may feel guilty
about “getting in the way”.
6 to 12 Industry vs. Inferiority Competence -
years  As the child enters school and advances through the cultural skills and
elementary grades, the developmental crisis focuses norms, including
on the child’s ability to win recognition through school skills and
performance. The child who is encouraged to tools use
complete tasks and who receives praise for his/her
performance is likely to develop a sense of
industry, an eagerness to produce.
 If the child does not experience success - if his/her
efforts are treated as unworthy and intrusive - the
child will develop a sense of inferiority.
12 to 18 Identity vs. Role Diffusion (Adolescence) Fidelity -
years  The developmental crisis of adolescence centers on adaptation of
the youth’s attempt to discover his or her identity - sense of self to
to identify those things about himself or herself that pubertal changes,

5
 are unique, a sense of knowing where one is going. consideration of
 If the nature of the adolescent’s interactions support future choices,
the sense of who he/she is, the resolution of the achievement of a
developmental crisis is positive. A positive more mature
resolution instills a sense of self-confidence and sexual identity,
stability and search for
 Negative experiences that do not allow an new values
adolescent to integrate his/her various social roles
into a unitary, stable view of self lead to role
diffusion.

18 to 30 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) Love - person

years  This is the period when young adults are influenced develops intimate
by the efforts to establish an intimacy, a close relationships
psychosocial relationship with another person. beyond
Among young adults, the need for intimate adolescent love;
relationships can be seen at any number of places: many become
work, health clubs, single bars, church functions, parents
athletic teams, recreation groups.
 Failure to establish a close relationship with another
leads to a sense of isolation, a feeling of being
alone.
30 to Generativity vs. Stagnation Care - people
Middle  Erikson identifies generativity as a concern for rare children,
Age future generations. Childbearing and nurturing focus on
occupy the thoughts and feelings of people at this occupational
stage in the life span. The classic career versus achievement or
family decision reflects the developmental crisis in creativity, and
this stage. train the next
 Unsuccessful resolution leads to a sense of generation; turn
stagnation, the feeling that one’s life is at a “dead outward from the
end.” self toward
others
Late Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom - person
Adult-  According to Erikson, integrity is a sense of conducts a life
hood to understanding how one fits into one’s culture and review, integrates
Old age accepting that one’s place is unique and unalterable. earlier stages and
 An inability to accept one’s sense of self at this comes to terms
stage leads to despair - the feeling that time is too with basic
short and that alternate roads to integrity are no identity; develops
longer open. self-acceptance

A student’s personality contains positive and negative qualities. Positive

resolution of any developmental crisis simply means that the positive quality of that
stage is present to a greater degree than the negative quality.
A teacher who is knowledgeable about developmental crises will be alert to
the kinds of “emotional baggage” students might carry into the classroom.

C. Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

6
 Albert Bandura introduced a social learning theory through observation or
modeling. He proposed that learning may also occur as a result of watching someone
else perform an action and experience reinforcement or punishment. This kind of
learning called observational learning or modeling, involves a wide range of
behaviors.
In his famous “Bobo Doll experiment”, Bandura demonstrated that children
learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in his
study observed an adult acting violently in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to
imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

a) A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or
acting out a behavior.
b) A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
c) A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying
behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.
Modeling Process
A child goes through four sets of processes to produce a behavior that
matches that of a model.
1. Attention - The child’s attention in a particular situation or experience
influences his ability to achieve a modeled behavior.
2. Retention - whatever skills are retained from what a child has observed
are a collection of cognitive skills.
3. Reproduction - the reproduced behavior is dependent on other cognitive
skills, that includes feedback from others.
4. Motivation - the motivation to produce the behavior is influenced by
various incentives; his/her own standards, and his/her tendency to compare
himself/herself with others.

D. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that affords the
individual the ability to monitor his own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among
them, and to use the information to guide his thinking and actions.

There three components of EQ:

1. The awareness of one’s own emotion;

7
 2. The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately; and
3. The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile objectives.

Major qualities that make up emotional intelligence and how they can be
developed:

1. Self-awareness. The ability to recognize a feeling as it happens is the

keystone of emotional intelligence. People who have greater certainty about
their emotions are better pilots of their lives.
2. Mood management. The ability to change mood from good to bad and vice
versa. What should be done to relieve rage? Reframing is an effective
technique which means reinterpreting a situation and looking at it in a more
positive light; going off alone to cool down is another technique; and praying
also works for all moods.
3. Self-motivation. Trying to feel more enthusiastic and developing more zeal
and confidence to arrive at concrete achievement.
4. Impulse Control. The essence of emotional self-regulation is the ability to
delay impulse in the service of a goal.
5. People Skills. The ability to feel for another person, whether in job, in
romance, and friendship and in the family.

II - Theories of Moral Reasoning Development: Piaget; Kohlberg, and Gilligan

A. Piaget’s Framework of Moral Reasoning

Jean Piaget loved to observe children as they reacted to their environment. He

concluded that there are general types of moral thinking:

1. Morality of constraint. This is sometimes referred to as moral realism. Rules

define what is right and what is wrong and come from external authority. For students
in the elementary grades, rules are sacred, they are meant to be obeyed. There is no
allowance made by the young realist for the context in which events occur. The
intention of a person, for example, is not taken into account when judgments of right
and wrong are made. Furthermore, the seriousness of of a crime, is determined by its
consequences.

2. Morality of cooperation. Older children practice the morality of cooperation,

alternatively called moral relativism or moral flexibility. The older child is a relativist;
rules are not “carved on stone.” As applied to moral judgments, it is evident in older
children’s awareness that others may not share their perceptions of rules. Rules, as
older children understand them, provide general guidelines. Rules should be obeyed
not just because some “authority” has established them, but because they guard
against violation of the rights of others. According to Piaget, a person who with good

8
intentions causes an injury or damage is not as culpable as a person who with
premeditation commits an act of wrong.

B. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

Laurence Kohlberg, became fascinated with Piaget’s views on moral

development. He followed Piaget’s lead in using stories as informed ideas on moral
thinking to all ages, through adulthood. The stories Kohlberg created have become
well konwn as “moral dilemmas.” A classic example of a story used by Kohlberg and
others in research on stages of moral reasoning is as follows:

In Europe a woman was near death from cancer. One drug that might
save her, a form of radium a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost
him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or
let him pay later, but the druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband
have done that? Why? (Kohlberg, 1969).

By classifying the reasoning his subjects used to respond to this and other
moral dilemmas, Kohlberg formulated six stages of moral reasoning. These stages are
divided into three levels: preconventional morality; conventional morality; and
postconventional morality.

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Level 1 - Preconventional Morality (birth-9 years)

Preconventional morality refers to judgments made before children

understand the conventions of society. Children at this level base their reasoning
on two basic ideas: first, one should avoid punishment; and second, good behavior
yields some kind of benefit.
The child behaves in order to avoid punishment.
Bad behavior is a behavior that is punished; good
Stage 1: Obedience-
behavior, therefore, is behavior that is rewarded.
Punishment
Consider the moral dilemma Heinz faced and the
Orientation
question, “Should Heinz have stolen the drug?” A typical
Stage 1 answer is, “No, he could get arrested for
stealing.”
Stage 2: This stage represents the beginning of social
Instrumental reciprocity; the thinking here is “you scratch my back
Exchange and I’ll scratch yours.” The moral judgments that
Orientation children make at this stage are very pragmatic. They will
do good to another person if they expect the other person
to reciprocate or return the favor. In response to the
Heinz question, a typical Stage 2 response is, “He

9
 shouldn’t steal the drug and the druggist should be nicer
to Heinz.”

Level II - Conventional Morality ( 9 years - young adulthood)

Conventional morality refers to judgments based on the rules or

conventions of society; behaviors that maintain the social order are considered
good behaviors. The reasoning at this level is based on a desire to impress others.
Peer relationships become very important during this period.

Stage 3: Reasoning about morality focuses on the

Interpersonal expectations of other people, particularly the expectations
Conformity of people in authority and peers. This stage is sometimes
Orientation called the “good-boy/nice-girl” orientation. In order to
create and maintain good relations with other people, it is
important to conform to their expectations of good
behavior. By being nice or good, approval from others is
likely. A typical Stage 3 response to Heinz question is,
“If Heinz is honest, other people will be proud of him.”

Stage 4: Law-and- The conventions of society have been established

Order Orientation so that society can function. Laws are necessary and,
therefore, good. The moral person is one who follows the
laws of a society without questioning them. A typical
Stage 4 response to Heinz question is, “Stealing is
against the law.” If everybody ignored the laws, our
whole society might fall apart.

Level III - Postconventional Morality (Adulthood)

Postconventional morality is typified by judgments that recognize the

societal need for mutual agreement and the application of consistent principles in
making judgments. Through careful thought and reflection, the postconventional
thinker arrives at a self-determined set of principles or morality.

Stage 5: Prior Rights At this stage, laws are open for evaluation. A law is
and Social Contract good if it protects the rights of individuals. Laws should
Orientation not be obeyed simply because they are laws, but because
there is mutual agreement between the individual and
society that these laws guarantee a person’s rights. A
typical answer to the Heinz question is, “Sometimes laws
have to be disregarded, for example, when a person’s life
depends on breaking the law.”

Stage 6: Universal The principles that determine moral behavior are

Ethical Principles self-chosen. They unify a person’s belief about equality,
Orientation justice and ethics. If a person arrives at a set of
principles, the principles serve as guidelines for
appropriate behavior. A typical Stage 6 response to the
Heinz question is, “An appropriate decision must take

10
 into account all the factors in the situation. Sometimes, it
is mostly right to steal.”

C. Gilligan’s Stages of Moral Development

Gilligan’s theory is called a “morality of care and responsibility”. This

theory stresses relationships, care, harmony, compassion, and self-sacrifice. Some
have called Gilligan’s model a theory of female moral development.

Gilligan’s theory comprises three levels and two transitions:

Level 1: Individual survival - identifies selfishness as its primary concern. The

transition from individual survival to self-sacrifice and social conformity leads
to the realization that caring for others rather than just caring for oneself is
“good.”

Level II: Self-sacrifice and Social Conformity - is identified as the “conventional

view of women as caretakers and protectors.” The transition from the second
to the third level involves a growing realization that in order to care for others,
one must also take care of oneself. There is now a transition from the self-care
motive to the motives of the first transition.

Level III: Morality of Non-violence - the ethnic of this level is the equality of self
and others. It is wrong to serve oneself at the expense of others.

Gilligan’s theory presents us with a different set of values to consider. It is

confined to moral reasoning (i.e. cognitive judgments of right and wrong), but stresses
affect (i.e. feelings, attitudes, emotions).

Application:

1. Based on Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development, Fill in the

Table with your personal experiences during each stage until the current stage you are
in. Describe each crisis you went through and what kind of environment you have
during those times. Describe also how did you survive each stage with the help of the
people surrounding you. You may ask from your parents/guardians for information
about your environment and experiences from birth until six years old.

Period Developmental Crisis Characteristics you

(your personal experiences and gained from the crisis
environment during each stage)
Birth to Trust vs. Mistrust ____________________
18 _____________________________________ ____________________
months _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

11
 _____________________________________ ____________________

18 mos. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt ____________________

to 3 _____________________________________ ____________________
years _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

3 to 6 Initiative vs. Guilt ____________________

years _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

6 to 12 Industry vs. Inferiority ____________________

years _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

12 to 18 Identity vs. Role Diffusion (Adolescence) ____________________

years _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

18 to 30 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood) ____________________

years _____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________
_____________________________________ ____________________

2. CASE ANALYSIS: The Conjoined Twins Jodie and Mary

Jodie and Mary are conjoined twins, joined at the lower abdomen; spines
fused; one heart and one pair of lungs between them. Jodie the stronger was providing
blood for her sister. Without operation, Jodie and Mary will die in 6 months. Their
only hope is to operate and separate them, Jodie will be saved but Mary will die
immediately. Their parents refused permission for the operation but the hospital
believed it had an obligation to save one of the infants and got to the courts to agree to
operation to separate them. Jodie lived and Mary died.

12
What is your stand in Jodie and Mary’s case? Are you in favor with the court’s
decision to operate or do you prefer the parents’ choice not to operate the twins
and let God decide whether the twins will die or live? Explain.
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_

Congratulations on accomplishing Module 5

6 Lesson 1. You may now proceed to Lesson 2 - Socialization and the
Development of Identity and Social Relations.

13
LESSO Socialization and the Development of
N2 Identity and Social Relations

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Explain the development of identity and social relations.

Introduction:

Childhood experiences and family environment are vital in building emotional

resilience among children. A parent or guardian who actively promotes positive and
helpful environment for a child, invests in the child’s emotional maturity in the future.
As children become older, they need consistency and continuity of support
form their loved ones since childhood and early adolescent experiences play a vital
role in later adult behavior including how they cope with disappointments and
failures.

Activity:

Think of three persons whom you consider as role models. One from your
family members, one from your peers/friends, and one from your teachers. List down
their characteristics or qualities that you admire the most which help you become who
you are today.
 Person 1
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

 Person 2
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

 Person 3
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Analysis

1. Was it hard for you to identify the persons you look up to as role models? Why or
Why not?

14
2. How do these people help you in finding and forming your identity?

Abstraction

Socialization and the Development of Identity and Social Relations

The child’s sole interpersonal relationships in the early years are with his
parents who present their cultural beliefs, values and attitudes to their children. The
parents, own personalities as well as their own family backgrounds, attitudes, values,
education, religious beliefs, socioeconomic status, and gender influence the
socialization process.
Socialization is the process by which parents and others set the child’s
standards of behavior, attitudes, skills, and motives to conform closely to what the
society deems appropriate to his/her role in society.
Children interact with peers and the interaction is more free and more
egalitarian than their parents. This helps in the development of the children’s social
competence and acquisition of the concept of social justice.

Development of Identity

James E. Marcia, a psychologist, had figured well on researches that dealt

with identity issues during adolescence. For him, identity is internal, self-
constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, and individual history.
He has identified four identity or statuses and correlated them with other
aspects of personality. These are anxiety, self-esteem, moral reasoning, and patterns
of social behavior. These statuses do not form a progression and are not included in
the identity search. Hence, a person’s identity status may change as he or she
develops.
Marcia’s four identity statuses are determined by the presence or absence of
the two elements which to Erikson are crucial to forming identity: crisis and
commitment. Marcia defines crisis as a period of conscious decision-making while
commitment as a personal investment in an occupation or a system of beliefs
(ideology).
Marcia identifies four categories of identity formation: identity
achievement, foreclosure, diffusion, and moratorium.

1. Identity Achievement (crisis leading to commitment). Those with identity

achievements are characterized by flexible strength and tendency to be
thoughtful, although not so introspective. These individuals function well under
stress, have sense of humor, are receptive to new ideas and ready for intimate
relationships in accordance to their own standards.
2. Foreclosure (commitment without crisis). Characterized by rigid strength; self-
assurance, self-satisfied, and strong sense of family ties. These are the people
who recognize the need for law and order, as well as obedience to a leader. They
can be dogmatic when their ideas are put to test.
3. Identity Diffusion (no commitment). They are those who shy away from
commitment. As carefree individuals, they drift in the absence of focus.
Oftentimes they are carefree, thus, in the absence of intimate relationship they
become unhappy.

15
4. Moratorium (in crisis). They may not necessarily be in good relationship but
express preference for intimacy. They are characteristically talkative,
competitive, lively, and anxious.

The Process of Identity Consolidation

Children’s identities are reflective of the conscious but simple identification

with parents. As observed, children take on what they see in terms of behaviors and
ways of fathers and mothers. Most likely, they develop the same patterns of doing
things and acting out roles in the family. It is when they reached the period of
adolescence that they move beyond from what they were able to organize by way of
identity, putting together all elements to create a new whole that will bear the new sets
of interests, values, and choices. This process is called identity formation. At this
stage, adolescents act and behave in a manner distinctly their own which when put
together will manifest an inner sense of self. The process begins in early adolescence
and even in early adulthood when individuals feel free to make choices about studies,
jobs, and relationships. Identity helps direct the adolescent’s commitment to
occupation, religious, political and gender roles, and values.
When individuals develop a sense of self thereby being able to identify what is
common to oneself from that of others, they understand their uniqueness, decide for
themselves, rely on personal judgments and evaluate themselves in terms of concrete
accomplishments. They can also become intimate with others without fear of blurring
their personal boundaries (Cobb, 2001).

Gender Differences in Identity Formation

Gender-based behaviors are influenced by both biological and psychological

factors. The process by which children acquire the motives, values and behaviors
viewed as appropriate for males and females within a culture is called gender typing.
Children develop gender based beliefs, largely on the basis of gender stereotypes.
Children adopt a gender identity early in life and develop gender role preferences as
well.

Gender based beliefs are ideas and expectations about what is appropriate
behavior for males and females.
Gender stereotypes are beliefs and characteristics typified in the behavior of
males and females and which are deemed appropriate and therefore acceptable.
Gender roles are the composites of behaviors typical of the male or female in
a given culture.
Gender identity is the perception of oneself as either masculine or feminine.

There are differences evident in males and females however, it should be

remembered that the overlap between the distribution is always greater than the
differences between them. Such differences have no direct explanation why they
exist. What is clear is that boys and girls have different opportunities and experiences
as they grow older, which are responsible for diverse outcomes in terms of behavior
patterns.
Hormones provide a biological predisposition to masculine or feminine which
occurs during the prenatal period. Any increase in hormones can activate the

16
predisposition. Further, social experiences or interaction with others may also alter the
hormonal level.
Men’s edge over women in the accomplishment of spatial and math tasks is
attributed to the greater laterization of brain function. In the same way, this also
explains the female tendency to be more flexible than males. There are differences in
the brain organization.
Androgynous persons are those with both masculine and feminine
psychological characteristics. They can be caring and loving in nurturing children,
successful in their endeavors but can be fiercely competitive and firmly decisive. The
gender-oriented interests and concerns change as individuals age. Women may
become ultra feminine and men more androgynous.
A child who has siblings of the opposite gender may likely model his/her
brother’s/sister’s behavior. Usually, the younger siblings model their older siblings’
behaviors, regardless of gender.

Application

Write a narrative essay entitled, “My Journey Towards Finding My

Identity.” The first paragraph contains your childhood dreams or make-beliefs of
who and what you want to be when you grow up. Describe what were the things you
did portraying the future self you imagined. How did you feel doing those things?
Who were the person/s who influenced you that time?
The second paragraph shall be about your identity formation in high school.
Were there any changes in the ways you want to portray or express yourself? What
were the obstacles or difficulties you undergone in finding your identity?
Finally, the third paragraph contains your present disposition. How did you
resolve the confusions you experienced in your identity formation? Or are you still in
the process of knowing who you really are? What are your realizations about yourself
in your journey towards finding your identity.

Congratulations! You have completed Lesson 2. You may now proceed to the last
topic, Lesson 3 - Factors Affecting Socio-emotional Development and Exceptional
Development

17
LESSO Factors Affecting Socio-emotional
N3 Development and Exceptional Development

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

1. Distinguish the different factors affecting development; and
2. Examine the exceptional development.

Introduction

This lesson tackles about the factors affecting the socio-emotional

development of children and adolescents. These factors include parenting, role
models, peer groups and interactions. As we discuss about these factors, try to
evaluate your own socio-emotional development and check how these factors affect
you positively or negatively to help you adjust and make your emotions work for you.
We will also discover the exceptional development in emotions among
children and adolescence.

Activity

Think of five adjectives (positive and negative) that other people often used to
describe your attitude, emotions, and the way you treat others. Give also five
adjectives that you describe yourself about these aspects. Be honest in describing
yourself whether it’s positive or negative.

HOW THEY DESCRIBE ME HOW I DESCRIBE MYSELF

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5

Analysis

1. Is there any description from other people that is similar to your description of your
self? How do you feel about it?

2. Which of these adjectives you like to hear from other people? And which you
don’t? and why?

3. Which of their descriptions is/are not true to who you really are?

18
Abstraction

Factors Affecting Development: Parenting, Role Models,

Peer Groups and Interactions

A. Parenting

Parenting is going out of one’s way to assist, help, listen, do something for a
child. Parenting is learned and picked up from how individuals are parented.
According to Cobb (2001), parenting is more a matter of who one is than what one
does, passed on from one generation to the next.
Diana Baumrind (1996) has distinguished four styles of parenting:

STYLES OF PARENTING
Parenting Style Characteristics Resulting Social
Behavior in Child
1. Authoritative parenting Demanding, encourages Social competence and
- is a style of parenting that independence; responsive, responsibility
stresses self-reliance and warm, and nurturing;
independence. Parents disciplines with
maintain open explanation; maintains
communication lines with open dialogue
children and give reasons
when instilling discipline.

2. Authoritarian parenting Demanding; consistent in Ineffective social

-is a style of parenting that enforcing standards; interaction; inactive
stresses obedience, respect restrictive; controlling
for authority, and traditional
values.

3. Indulgent parenting Responsive, warm and Social competence, well-

- is a style of parenting nurturing; undemanding; adjusted; peer oriented;
characterized by show of uses punishment misconduct
affection, love, warmth, and inconsistently and
nurturance but with little infrequently; exercises
supervision. little control

4. Neglectful parenting Unresponsive, little Poor orientation to work

- is a style of parenting warmth or nurturance; and school; behavior
characterized by little undemanding, sets few problems
warmth, nurturing, and limits and provides little
supervision. supervision

Discipline gives children a sense of mastery and accomplishment. On the part

of the children, discipline involves learning and self-control and on the part of the
parents, teaching and correction. Discipline necessitates consistent application of rules
along with encouragement in the form of rewards. Criticism and punishment are not
advisable, rather, children should be allowed to earn the responsibilities they request.

19
B. Role Models

The child’s need for parents is inherent in being human much more than
belonging to the group of mammals. Mother-infant bond precedes all others in time -
and is the basis for the development of the other bonds that humans are
“programmed” to be likely to have. The mother-child bond depends on feelings, and
the mother-deprived child is most commonly described as “affectless” - lacking the
motive power to love or care. It is here that the groundwork for “emotional maturity”
is laid: that the child will eventually become an adult capable of the full sexual
experience and of complete parental behavior. In general, the child learns to be
confident in his own ability to explore; develops self-confidence and security. Studies
show that children of both mothers who were full-time homemakers and mothers who
worked outside the home were similar in cognitive, socio-emotional, academic,
motivational, and behavioral domains from infancy through adolescence.
A significant and new idea of fatherhood is the premise that fathers parent
differently than mothers do. They play with their children more. Their interactions
tend to be more physical and less intimate, with more of a reliance on humor and
excitement. Such distinctions can mean a world of differences to kids. A father’s
more playful interactive style turns out to be critical in teaching a child emotional
self-control. Likewise, father-child interactions appear to be central to the
development of a child’s ability to maintain strong, fulfilling social relationships later
in life.
Peers also influence acquisition of knowledge behaviors. By serving as role
models, children are able to follow their actions and behave like them. Social skills
are learned by modeling or imitating. What the peers do are copied and followed by
those who observe them.

C. Peer Group and Interactions

As the young are experiencing rapid physical changes, they take comfort with
other people who are undergoing the same changes. At a time when they tend to
entertain questions about the value of adult standards and the need for parental
guidance, they turn to friends for advice.
Birth order and variations in sibling relations are related. Eldest children are
usually expected to help the younger children, and assume their responsibility. This
leads to nurturant behavior toward younger siblings. As expected, eldest children treat
parents as sources of social learning, whereas younger children use both parents and
older siblings as models and teachers.
Children who make friends with aggressive children may either become the
object of relational aggression or of being drawn into interactions with others. A
relatively stable characteristic of children is victimization other than aggression.
Those who are likely to be victimized are children who cry easily, have poor social
skills, and are submissive when attacked.
Adolescence is a stage which individuals can handle with ease and grace.
However, support from peers allows for more involvement with them which may put
pressure on their behavior, thus getting disapproval from parents.
Teens prefer friends who go for the same interests - sports, music, dance, and
so on. They are able to maintain their friendships through these activities which
contribute to a stable friendship in adolescence.

20
 Exceptional Development: Mental Disorders

Some people may demonstrate behavior that seems abnormal in the sense that
they are far beyond expectations - statistically, socially and maladaptive. These three
are ways given by Plotnik (1999) as gauge to decide whether a behavior is abnormal.
And yet Plotnik was of the opinion that neither of the three measures can accurately
describe abnormal behavior.

Gauge in Assessing Abnormal Behavior

 Statistical Frequency - the statistical frequency approach says that a behavior

may be considered abnormal if it occurs rarely or infrequently in relation to the
behavior of the general population. A farmer who plows his field in the middle of
the night would be considered abnormal in the sense that not one of the millions
of farmers would do the same. It would seem abnormal for a successful and
highly regarded lawyer to build his house amidst the graves in a city cemetery. It
would be absurd to people. And yet we would not consider these individuals to
necessarily have mental disorders.
Statistical frequency as used to define abnormality has limited usefulness.

 Social Approach - The social norm approach says that a behavior is considered
abnormal if it deviates greatly from accepted social standard values or norms.
However, a definition of abnormality based solely on deviation from social norms
runs into problems when social norms change with time. For example, some
decades ago it would be unnatural for men to wear earrings; but, recently they
appear very fashionable in them. In the early colonial times, it would be
derangement for ladies to wear shorts; but now no one cares to give a second
glance to anyone in such attire. Thus defining abnormality on the basis of social
norms can be risky as social norms change over time.

 Maladptive Behavior - This approach defines a behavior as psychologically

damaging or abnormal if it interferes with the individual’s ability to function in
one’s personal life or in society. As such, cases like hearing voices to do a
dangerous act, or committing murder and eating the flesh of victims is considered
maladaptive and therefore abnormal. Plotnik was of the idea that the most useful
definition of abnormal behavior is based on the maladaptive definition.

Treatment of Abnormal Behavior

There are three major approaches to understanding and treating mental

disorders: medical, cognitive, and behavioral (Plotnik, 1999).

 Medical Model Approach

The medical model approach views mental disorders as similar to physical
diseases with symptoms that can be diagnosed and treated. Doctors use drugs to treat
physical diseases in the same way psychiatrists use psychoactive drugs to treat mental
disorders.
One advantage of the medical model was the emphasis on the role of the
mervous system, genetic make-up and chemical balance in mental disorders. Genetic
factors have been found to run in families (Alanen, 1997). In addition, findings

21
showed anatomical and chemical differences in the brains of individuals with mental
disorders (Nemeroff, 1998).

 Cognitive-Behavioral Approach
It emphasizes that mental disorders result from deficits in cognitive processes,
such as thoughts and beliefs, and from behavioral problems such as deficits in skills
and abilities. It views mental disorders as resulting from maladptive ways of thinking
and behaving. Accordingly, treatment for mental disorders involves changing a
person’s maladaptive thoughts and behaviors.

 Psychoanalytic Approach
Psychoanalytic approach states that mental disorders are due to unconscious
conflicts or problems with unresolved conflicts at one or more of the psychosexual
stage. It would be remembered that Sigmund Freud divided the mind into three
functions: the id or pleasure seeker, the ego or rational peacekeeper; the superego or
conscience. If these three divisions are in conflict the result is anxiety. Freud believed
that various personality problems could result from the unsuccessful resolutions of
conflicts during the psychosexual states in early childhood. Fights, aggression,
disagreements, and abuse during childhood may lay the groundwork for personality
problems (Dahmer, 1994).

Common Mental Disorders

 Generalized Anxiety Disorder - This is characterized by excessive so unrealistic

worry about almost everything or feeling that something bad is about to happen.
These anxious feelings occur on a majority of days for a period of at least six
months (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

Symptoms: Generalized anxiety disorder includes both psychological and

physical symptoms. Psychological symptoms include being irritable, having
difficulty concentrating, and being unable to control one’s worry which is out of
proportion to the actual event constant worrying causes significant distress or
impaired functioning in social, occupational, or other areas. Physical symptoms
include restlessness, being easily fatigued, sweating, flushing, pounding heart,
insomnia, clammy hands, headache, and muscle tension or aches.

Treatment: Generalized anxiety disorder is commonly treated with

psychotherapy with or without drugs. The drugs most frequently prescribed are
tranquilizers. Researchers found that about 40% to 50% of clients treated for
generalized anxiety disorder with either psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioral) or
drugs (tranquilizers) were free of symptoms one year later (Brown, et. al. 1994;
Gould, et. al. 1997).

 Panic Disorder - this is characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks.

The person becomes so worried about having another panic attack that this
intense worrying interferes with normal psychological functioning (American
Psychiatric Association, 1994). People who suffer from panic disorder have an
increased risk of alcohol and other drug abuse, an increased incidence of suicide,
decreased social functioning, and decreased marital happiness.

22
 Symptoms: A panic attack is a period of intense fear or discomfort in
which four or more of the following symptoms are evident: pounding heart,
sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, feeling of choking, chest pain, nausea,
feeling dizzy and fear of losing control or dying.

Treatment: Successful treatment may require 3-8 months of drug therapy

and psychotherapy (Spiegel and Bruce, 1997). However, some clients relapsed
once drug treatment was stopped.

 Phobia - this is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense and irrational fear

that is out of all proportions to the possible danger of the object or situation.
Because of this intense fear, which is accompanied by increased physiological
arousal, a person goes to great lengths to avoid the feared event. If the feared
event cannot be avoided, the person feels intense anxiety.
Social phobias are characterized by irrational, marked, and continuous fear
of performing in social situations. The individuals fear that they will humiliate or
embarass themselves (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Specific phobias formerly called simple phobias are characterized by
marked and persistent fears that are unreasonable and triggered by anticipation of
or exposure to a specific object or situation (flying, height, spiders, water, blood)
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

 Mood Disorders - A mood disorder is a prolonged and disturbed emotional state

that affects almost all of a person’s thought and behavior.

Major depression is marked by at least two weeks of continually being in a

bad mood, having no interest in anything, and getting no pleasure from activities. In
addition, a person must have at least four of the following symptoms: problem in
eating, sleeping, thinking, concentrating, or making decision, lacking energy, thinking
about suicide, and feeling worthless or guilty. (American Psychiatric Association,
1994).
Researchers know that abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters can cause
disturbances in brain circuits and in turn predispose or put individuals at risk for
developing mood disorders. One group of neurotransmitters called the monoamines
(especially serotonin and norephinephrine) are known to be involved in mood
problems.
Psychosocial factors such as underlying personality traits, amount of social
support are believed to interact with predisposing biological factors that combine to
put one at risk for developing a mood disorder. Researchers believe that psychosocial
factors may combine to increase or decrease a person’s vulnerability to developing a
mood disorder.
A person’s personality is a psychosocial factor that contributes to depressive
moods. Some individuals have the kind of personality that makes their self-esteem
primary dependent on what others say or think and how much they are liked and
accepted. Individuals with this kind of socially dependent personality are more
vulnerable to becoming seriously depressed when feed with a particular kind of life
stressor, namely, the failure of a close personal relationship or friendship.
The answer to the question, “Why do some people get depressed while others
do not?” is necessarily complex because it depends on the interaction between both
biological and psychological factors.

23
 Bipolar Disorder - Bipolar disorder or manic depressive illness, as sometimes
referred to is a mood disorder (Reyes, 2008). It has two opposing conditions - at
one end is the “up” part called mania. This can last for months, if untreated.
When the person is in this cycle, he/she feels energetic, talkative, outgoing and
optimistic feeling that he is more creative and sharp thinker.
On the other side when the opposite cycle begins after the ebbing out of the
“up” part, the person becomes depressive, miserable, tense and irritable. He/She
hallucinates and resorts to reckless behavior. This state can lead him to sexual
indiscretion which later results to hasty and ill-advised marriages.
Bipolar disorder may lead to excessive sleep, overeating, and insomnia. It is
likely that this manic phase in bipolar depression result to emergency hospitalization
and be more dangerous. Bipolar disorder increases suicidal risks.
Bipolar disorder is difficult to diagnose. For one, it can be covered up by
alcoholism and drug abuse. Another worry is when the person has actually other
problems such as abuse, family conflict and when experiencing the normal ups and
downs of growing up.
Medications don’t cure bipolar disorder but can control the symptoms (Reyes,
2008). Drugs such as the following are often taken in combination: Lithium,
anticonvulsants, antipsychotics, and antidepressants. Beyond these drugs, Reyes
advises that most bipolar patients will do better if they’re educated about their illness,
understand the importance of taking medications, and organize the signs of relapse
early on. Reyes also encourages support groups and various kinds of psychosocial
treatment such as interpersonal therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. He
recommends an effective therapeutic regimen which takes more time.
Reyes believes that in spite of all these difficulties, there are reasons to be
optimistic that people with bipolar disorder can lead extraordinary productive and
creative lives.

Application

1. What type of parenting style your parents/guardians apply at home? Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of this type of parenting.

2. Do you agree that children’s success or failure are determined by the parenting
styles their parents use in rearing them? Why? Or Why not?

3. As you have learned, adolescence is the stage where an individual’s emotions are
heightened due to the many changes they are going through. Base on your
experiences, what are the emotional challenges you encounter and how did you
overcome them?

4. What can you suggest to the young individuals like you on how to take care of their
mental health to prevent mental and emotional disorders?

24
Module Summary

We have learned in this module the social and emotional development of

children and adolescents. We were able to explore the different theories of socio-
emotional as well as theories of moral reasoning development. These theories have
helped us understood that a person’s emotions, moral and social aspects undergo
development as a person continue to grow and mature.
It was also highlighted that an individual’s environment (family, peer groups,
school and community) is a vital factor in the person’s emotional and social
development. The child must feel constant and continuous love, care and affection
from his environment to guide him/her in his/her pursuit in finding his/her own sense
of self or identity. When the child matures, he/she will gain confidence and capable of
handling his/her own emotions.

Module Assessment

1. Among the Theories of Socio-Emotional Development, whose theory do you agree

the most? Explain.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

2. When you will become a parent someday, what type of parenting style you think is
the most suitable to use in order to help your children grow emotionally and socially
healthy? Elaborate.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

CONGRATULATIONS! Well done! You have completed the Module in Child

and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.

25
References:

Acero, V.D., Javier, E.S., and H.O. Castro (2010). The child and adolescent learners.
Child and Adolescent Development. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore, Inc.

Alanen, P.P. (1977). A critical review of genetic studies of psychozophrenic

epidemological and brain studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia (Cited by
Plotnik, 1999).

American Psychiatric Association (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

disorders 3rd ed. Washington, D. C.

Anonat, R.D. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development. Mandaluyong City: Books
Atpb. Publishing Corp.

Bataga, N.U., Castro, D.A., and Abregana, C.G.L. (2014). Introduction to

psychology: concepts and theories. Valenzuela City: Mutya Publishing
House, Inc.

Brown, T.A. et. al. (1994). The empirical basis of generalized anxiety disorder.
American Journal of Psychiatry. 151. (Cited by Plotnik, 1999).

Cobb, N. J. (2001). The child. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing

Company.

Corpuz, B., Lucas, M.R., Borabo, H.G., and Lucido, P. (2010). The child and
adolescent development: looking at learners at different life stages. Quezon
City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

Dahmer, L. (1994). A father’s story. New York: Morrow. (Cited by Plotnik)

Gould, R.A. et. al. (1997). Cognitive behavioral and pharmacological treatment
generalized disorder: a preliminary meta-analysis. Bahavior Therapy 28.
(Cited by Plotnik).

Nemeroff, C.B. (1998). The neurology of depression. Scientific Americana, (Cited by

Plotnik, 1999).

Plotnik, R. (1999). Introduction to psychology. California, USA: Wadsworth

Publishing Co.

Reyes, T. (2008). Bipolar disorder: emotions in motion. The Philippine Star. July 8,
2008.

26
Spiegel, D.A. & Bruce, T.J. (1997). Benzodiasepines and exposure-based time
behavior therapies for panic disorders: conclusions from combined treatment
trials. American Journal of Psychiatry. 154. (Cited by Plotnik).

27