Chapter 3

Central Tendency
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Chapter 3
Central Tendency
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Intended Learning Outcomes

Calculate the mean, median, and mode of a dataset.

Interpret the meaning of central tendency in a research study.

Appreciate the role of central tendency in summarizing data.

 Intended Learning Outcomes

Calculate the mean, median, and mode of a dataset.

Interpret the meaning of central tendency in a research study.

Appreciate the role of central tendency in summarizing data.

 Lectures in this Chapter

Lecture 06 The Mean

Lecture 07 The Median

Lecture 08 The Mode

Lecture 09 Interpretating Measures of Central Tendency

 Lectures in this Chapter

Lecture 06 The Mean

Lecture 07 The Median

Lecture 08 The Mode

Lecture 09 Interpretating Measures of Central Tendency

 In 2017…
Introduction and Overview
Spanish dyslexia research expert Dr. Luz Rello in
collaboration with human-computer interaction (HCI)
researcher Jeffrey Bigham published a landmark paper
about the readability of a text with different background
Luz Rello colors for people with and without dyslexia. A copy of
their paper can be freely downloaded from here.

In their study, they asked participants (some with, and

some without dyslexia) to read texts from a computer
screen with different background colors: warm and cool.

They measured the time for the participants to completely

read the text: the faster the reading time, the better the
Jeffrey Bigham readability is.
 In 2017…
Spanish dyslexia research expert Dr. Luz Rello in
collaboration with human-computer interaction (HCI)
researcher Jeffrey Bigham published a landmark paper
about the readability of a text with different background
Luz Rello colors for people with and without dyslexia. A copy of
their paper can be freely downloaded from here.

In their study, they asked participants (some with, and

some without dyslexia) to read texts from a computer
screen with different background colors: warm and cool.

They measured the time for the participants to completely

read the text: the faster the reading time, the better the
Jeffrey Bigham readability is.
 Reading Time in Seconds
6 21 9 23 22
15 12 15 25 20
30 24 26 23 9
19 9 23 35 24 Cool Colors

Reading Time in Seconds

8 16 16 9 21
22 12 21 22 19
19 18 17 14 14
Warm Colors 17 15 26 10 14

*Not the actual data; these figures were simulated only based on the mean and standard deviation of the experimental group
(w/ dyslexia) provided in p.76 (for peach (warm) and blue (cool) background colors) of the paper.
 Reading Time in Seconds
6 21 9 23 22
15 12 15 25 20
30 24 26 23 9
19 9 23 35 24 Cool Colors

Reading Time in Seconds

8 16 16 9 21
22 12 21 22 19
19 18 17 14 14
Warm Colors 17 15 26 10 14

*Not the actual data; these figures were simulated only based on the mean and standard deviation of the experimental group
(w/ dyslexia) provided in p.76 (for peach (warm) and blue (cool) background colors) of the paper.
 Average Reading Time in Seconds
COOL

19.5
WARM

16.5
 Average Reading Time in Seconds
COOL

19.5
WARM

16.5
 The principal goal of descriptive
statistics is to organize and
summarize data.

Frequency distribution is already one

of the tools under descriptive
statistics in organizing data.

Now, we will introduce one of the

most effective family of tools for
summarizing data: central tendency.
 The principal goal of descriptive
statistics is to organize and
summarize data.

Frequency distribution is already one

of the tools under descriptive
statistics in organizing data.

Now, we will introduce one of the

most effective family of tools for
summarizing data: central tendency.
In statistics, summarizing means taking just one
single figure to represent an entire data set.
Measures of central tendency can do this.

A measure of central tendency summarizes

the data set into a single value.

It represents the entire data set.

In statistics, summarizing means taking just one
single figure to represent an entire data set.
Measures of central tendency can do this.

A measure of central tendency summarizes

the data set into a single value.

It represents the entire data set.

 Lecture 06
The Mean
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture 06
The Mean
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture Objectives

Calculate sample and population means; weighted mean,

and mean from a frequency distribution.

Describe the behavior of the mean, especially when there

are changes in the scores.

Interpret the meaning of the mean as a measure of central

tendency.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the mean as

a descriptive statistic.
 Lecture Objectives

Calculate sample and population means; weighted mean,

and mean from a frequency distribution.

Describe the behavior of the mean, especially when there

are changes in the scores.

Interpret the meaning of the mean as a measure of central

tendency.

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the mean as

a descriptive statistic.
 Population Mean and Sample Mean

Population Mean:

σ𝑋
Population and Sample Mean 𝜇=
𝑁

The mean, also known as the (arithmetic) where 𝑁 is the population size and σ 𝑋 is
average, is computed by adding all the scores the sum of all scores in the population.
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores. Sample Mean:

Population mean is usually denoted by the σ𝑋

𝑀=
Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually 𝑛
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀). where 𝑛 is the sample size and σ 𝑋 is the
sum of all scores in the population.
 Population Mean and Sample Mean

Population Mean:

σ𝑋
Population and Sample Mean 𝜇=
𝑁

The mean, also known as the (arithmetic) where 𝑁 is the population size and σ 𝑋 is
average, is computed by adding all the scores the sum of all scores in the population.
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores. Sample Mean:

Population mean is usually denoted by the σ𝑋

𝑀=
Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually 𝑛
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀). where 𝑛 is the sample size and σ 𝑋 is the
sum of all scores in the population.
 Population Mean and Sample Mean

Population and Sample Mean

Example:

The mean, also known as the (arithmetic) Find the mean of the following population:
average, is computed by adding all the scores 3, 4, 7, 4, 6
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores. Solution:

Population mean is usually denoted by the σ 𝑋 24

Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually 𝜇= = = 4.8
𝑁 5
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀).
 Population Mean and Sample Mean

Population and Sample Mean

Example:

The mean, also known as the (arithmetic) Find the mean of the following population:
average, is computed by adding all the scores 3, 4, 7, 4, 6
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores. Solution:

Population mean is usually denoted by the σ 𝑋 24

Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually 𝜇= = = 4.8
𝑁 5
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀).
 Population Mean and Sample Mean
Population and Sample Mean
The mean, also known as the (arithmetic)
average, is computed by adding all the scores
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores.
Population mean is usually denoted by the
Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀).
In Microsoft Office Excel, the formula
=AVERAGE(range)
can be used.
Online, the following can be used:
• CalculatorSoup Mean, Median, Mode
Calculator [click here]
• Calculator.net Mean, Median, Mode, Range
Calculator [click here]
• StatisticsHelper Mean, Median, Mode
Calculator with an Easy Step-by-Step Solution
[click here]
 Population Mean and Sample Mean
Population and Sample Mean
The mean, also known as the (arithmetic)
average, is computed by adding all the scores
in the distribution and dividing by the number
of scores.
Population mean is usually denoted by the
Greek letter 𝜇 while sample mean is usually
denoted by 𝑋ത (or in psychological research,
denoted by 𝑀).
In Microsoft Office Excel, the formula
=AVERAGE(range)
can be used.
Online, the following can be used:
• CalculatorSoup Mean, Median, Mode
Calculator [click here]
• Calculator.net Mean, Median, Mode, Range
Calculator [click here]
• StatisticsHelper Mean, Median, Mode
Calculator with an Easy Step-by-Step Solution
[click here]
Exercise
Population Mean and Sample Mean

Find the mean of the following sample:

20 17 24 21 25

17 23 18 23 25
Exercise

Find the mean of the following sample:

20 17 24 21 25

17 23 18 23 25
 The Weighted Mean

Mean for a combined group of samples:

𝑀1 𝑛1 + 𝑀2 𝑛2
𝑀=
Weighted Mean 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

where 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 are the means of the two

There are two instances where a behavioral
subgroups while 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are their sizes.
researcher may have to use weighted means:

• in computing the overall mean of a

Weighted mean for scoring:
combined group of samples, when the
mean and size of each subgroup is known; σ 𝑋𝑤
and, 𝑀=
σ𝑤
• when the assessment instrument requires
where 𝑤 symbolizes the weight and 𝑋𝑤 is
so in its scoring procedure.
the product of the score and its weight.
 The Weighted Mean

Mean for a combined group of samples:

𝑀1 𝑛1 + 𝑀2 𝑛2
𝑀=
Weighted Mean 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

where 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 are the means of the two

There are two instances where a behavioral
subgroups while 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are their sizes.
researcher may have to use weighted means:

• in computing the overall mean of a

Weighted mean for scoring:
combined group of samples, when the
mean and size of each subgroup is known; σ 𝑋𝑤
and, 𝑀=
σ𝑤
• when the assessment instrument requires
where 𝑤 symbolizes the weight and 𝑋𝑤 is
so in its scoring procedure.
the product of the score and its weight.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean A class has 16 boys and 14 girls. The mean

score of the boys in a quiz was 20 while
the mean score of the girls was 25. What is
There are two instances where a behavioral the mean score of the whole class?
researcher may have to use weighted means:
Solution
• in computing the overall mean of a
combined group of samples, when the 𝑀1 𝑛1 + 𝑀2 𝑛2
mean and size of each subgroup is known; 𝑀=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
and, 20 16 + 25(14)
=
16 + 14
• when the assessment instrument requires = 22.33
so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean A class has 16 boys and 14 girls. The mean

score of the boys in a quiz was 20 while
the mean score of the girls was 25. What is
There are two instances where a behavioral the mean score of the whole class?
researcher may have to use weighted means:
Solution
• in computing the overall mean of a
combined group of samples, when the 𝑀1 𝑛1 + 𝑀2 𝑛2
mean and size of each subgroup is known; 𝑀=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
and, 20 16 + 25(14)
=
16 + 14
• when the assessment instrument requires = 22.33
so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Now since,
σ𝑋
𝑀= ,
Weighted Mean 𝑛
by cross-multiplication,

There are two instances where a behavioral ෍ 𝑋 = 𝑀𝑛

researcher may have to use weighted means:

• in computing the overall mean of a Therefore, 𝑀1 𝑛1 = σ 𝑋1 and 𝑀2 𝑛2 = σ 𝑋2 .

combined group of samples, when the Hence, we can rewrite the formula as
σ 𝑋1 + σ 𝑋2
mean and size of each subgroup is known; 𝑀=
and, 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

• when the assessment instrument requires

so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Now since,
σ𝑋
𝑀= ,
Weighted Mean 𝑛
by cross-multiplication,

There are two instances where a behavioral ෍ 𝑋 = 𝑀𝑛

researcher may have to use weighted means:

• in computing the overall mean of a Therefore, 𝑀1 𝑛1 = σ 𝑋1 and 𝑀2 𝑛2 = σ 𝑋2 .

combined group of samples, when the Hence, we can rewrite the formula as
σ 𝑋1 + σ 𝑋2
mean and size of each subgroup is known; 𝑀=
and, 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

• when the assessment instrument requires

so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean Girls’ scores:

20, 25, 22, 23
Boys’ scores:
There are two instances where a behavioral 20, 17, 23, 21, 24
researcher may have to use weighted means: Find the overall mean.

• in computing the overall mean of a Solution

combined group of samples, when the σ𝑋1 = 90; 𝑛1 = 4
mean and size of each subgroup is known; σ𝑋2 = 105; 𝑛2 = 5
and,
σ 𝑋1 + σ 𝑋2 90 + 105
• when the assessment instrument requires 𝑀= = = 21.67
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 4+5
so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean Girls’ scores:

20, 25, 22, 23
Boys’ scores:
There are two instances where a behavioral 20, 17, 23, 21, 24
researcher may have to use weighted means: Find the overall mean.

• in computing the overall mean of a Solution

combined group of samples, when the σ𝑋1 = 90; 𝑛1 = 4
mean and size of each subgroup is known; σ𝑋2 = 105; 𝑛2 = 5
and,
σ 𝑋1 + σ 𝑋2 90 + 105
• when the assessment instrument requires 𝑀= = = 21.67
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 4+5
so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Just like our grades at school wherein

Weighted Mean
There are two instances where a behavioral
researcher may have to use weighted means:
courses have their corresponding units,
some psychological assessment
instruments also put weights to categories
of items. An example is what DeMars and
Erwin (2005) did in their paper using the
Erwin Identity Scale.

• in computing the overall mean of a

combined group of samples, when the
mean and size of each subgroup is known;
and,

• when the assessment instrument requires

so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Just like our grades at school wherein

Weighted Mean
There are two instances where a behavioral
researcher may have to use weighted means:
courses have their corresponding units,
some psychological assessment
instruments also put weights to categories
of items. An example is what DeMars and
Erwin (2005) did in their paper using the
Erwin Identity Scale.

• in computing the overall mean of a

combined group of samples, when the
mean and size of each subgroup is known;
and,

• when the assessment instrument requires

so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean Find the weighted mean based on the

following table:

There are two instances where a behavioral Category Weight Score

researcher may have to use weighted means: Category 1 40 25
Category 2 30 26
• in computing the overall mean of a
combined group of samples, when the Category 3 20 30
mean and size of each subgroup is known; Category 4 10 25
and,
Solution
• when the assessment instrument requires (to use Excel)
so in its scoring procedure.
 The Weighted Mean

Example

Weighted Mean Find the weighted mean based on the

following table:

There are two instances where a behavioral Category Weight Score

researcher may have to use weighted means: Category 1 40 25
Category 2 30 26
• in computing the overall mean of a
combined group of samples, when the Category 3 20 30
mean and size of each subgroup is known; Category 4 10 25
and,
Solution
• when the assessment instrument requires (to use Excel)
so in its scoring procedure.
 Exercise
The Weighted Mean

1. In the study of Rello and Bigham (2017), 48 people with dyslexia participated and
obtained an average of 16.5 seconds reading in warm background color, while 51 people
without dyslexia participated and obtained an average of 13.6 seconds reading in the
same background color. What is the overall mean reading time?

2. Calculate the average grade:

Course Units Grade

ENG 1 3 1.2
FIL 1 3 1.5
MATH 1 5 1.4
SCI 1 4 1.8
PE 1 2 1.9
 Exercise

1. In the study of Rello and Bigham (2017), 48 people with dyslexia participated and
obtained an average of 16.5 seconds reading in warm background color, while 51 people
without dyslexia participated and obtained an average of 13.6 seconds reading in the
same background color. What is the overall mean reading time?

2. Calculate the average grade:

Course Units Grade

ENG 1 3 1.2
FIL 1 3 1.5
MATH 1 5 1.4
SCI 1 4 1.8
PE 1 2 1.9
 Mean from a Frequency Distribution

Mean from a frequency distribution:

Mean from a frequency distribution σ𝑋𝑓 σ𝑋𝑓

𝑀= =
𝑛 σ𝑓

where σ𝑋𝑓 is the summation of the 𝑋𝑓

In order to calculate the mean from a
frequency distribution, add an 𝑋𝑓 column to
the frequency distribution table, then divide
σ 𝑋𝑓 by 𝑛 or 𝑁.
column, and 𝑛 = σ𝑓 is the number of
scores in the sample.
We will use this formula if a frequency
distribution is given instead of the raw
data.
 Mean from a Frequency Distribution

Mean from a frequency distribution:

Mean from a frequency distribution σ𝑋𝑓 σ𝑋𝑓

𝑀= =
𝑛 σ𝑓

where σ𝑋𝑓 is the summation of the 𝑋𝑓

In order to calculate the mean from a
frequency distribution, add an 𝑋𝑓 column to
the frequency distribution table, then divide
σ 𝑋𝑓 by 𝑛 or 𝑁.
column, and 𝑛 = σ𝑓 is the number of
scores in the sample.
We will use this formula if a frequency
distribution is given instead of the raw
data.
 Exercise
Mean from a Frequency Distribution

Calculate the mean:

𝑿 𝒇
10 8
9 9
8 7
7 3
6 2
5 1
4 1
 Exercise

Calculate the mean:

𝑿 𝒇
10 8
9 9
8 7
7 3
6 2
5 1
4 1
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

All the scores in the data set contribute to the value of the mean. That means any
changes in any of the scores would affect the value of the mean.

For example, consider the following data set:

20 15 11 16 12 12 16 11

The mean is 14.1.

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

All the scores in the data set contribute to the value of the mean. That means any
changes in any of the scores would affect the value of the mean.

For example, consider the following data set:

20 15 11 16 12 12 16 12

The mean is 14.3.

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Thethe
All effect
scores
tends
in the
to be
data
larger
set contribute
if the changes
to the
are
value
nearofthe
theextremes
mean. That
(i.e.,
means
very high
any or
changes
very low values).
in any of the scores would affect the value of the mean.

Precisely,
For example,
the change
considerinthe
thefollowing
value of the
datamean
set: is equal to the difference in the value
of the changed score divided by the number of scores.
20 15 11 16 12 12 16 12
So if there are five scores in the data set, and one was increased by 10, then the
The
mean mean
wouldis 14.3. 10
also increase by 5 = 2.
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

The effect tends to be larger if the changes are near the extremes (i.e., very high or
very low values).

Precisely, the change in the value of the mean is equal to the difference in the value
of the changed score divided by the number of scores.

So if there are five scores in the data set, and one was increased by 10, then the
10
mean would also increase by 5 = 2.
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or removing a score

By the same reason that each score is contributing to the mean, adding or removing
a score would also change the mean.

For example, consider the following data set:

20 15 11 16 12 12 16 12

The mean is 14.3.

 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or removing a score

By the same reason that each score is contributing to the mean, adding or removing
a score would also change the mean.

For example, consider the following data set:

20 15 11 16 12 12 16

The mean is 14.6.

 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or removing a score

Thethe
By effects
sameonreason
the mean
that each
also tends
score to
is contributing
be greater if to
thethe
values
mean,
added
adding
or removed
or removing
are
a score would
extreme valuesalso
suchchange
as highthe
scores
mean.or low scores.

Theexample,
For precise change
consider
in the value
following
of the
data
mean
set:when a score is added or removed is a
complicated expression. The following describes the increase or decrease:
• If the value added
20 is higher
15 than
11 the16 mean,12
then the
12mean16 would increase;
• If the value added is lower than the mean, then the mean would decrease;
The• mean
If theisvalue
14.6.removed is higher than the mean, then the mean would decrease;
• If the value removed is lower than the mean, then the mean would increase.
 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or removing a score

The effects on the mean also tends to be greater if the values added or removed are
extreme values such as high scores or low scores.

The precise change in the value of the mean when a score is added or removed is a
complicated expression. The following describes the increase or decrease:
• If the value added is higher than the mean, then the mean would increase;
• If the value added is lower than the mean, then the mean would decrease;
• If the value removed is higher than the mean, then the mean would decrease;
• If the value removed is lower than the mean, then the mean would increase.
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Adding or subtracting a constant value to each score would also affect the mean. For
example, the data
20 15 11 16 12 12 16
has a mean of 14.6.

If we add 5 to each of the scores, then we would obtain a new dataset:

25 20 16 21 17 17 21
The mean of this new data set is 19.6.
 Behavior of the Mean

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Adding
The change
or subtracting
in the value
a constant
of the mean
value
depends
to eachsimply
score would
on the also
valueaffect
addedtheto
mean.
or For
subtractedthe
example, from
dataeach score. If each score is added by 5, the mean would also
increase by 5; if each20score15is subtracted
11 by
165, then
12 the mean
12 would16 also decrease
by 5.a mean of 14.6.
has

If we add 5 to each of the scores, then we would obtain a new dataset:

25 20 16 21 17 17 21
The mean of this new data set is 19.6.
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant also affects the value of the mean.
For example, the data set
20 15 11 16 12 12 16
has a mean of 14.6.

If we multiply each score by 2, then we would obtain a new dataset:

40 30 22 32 24 24 32
The mean of this new data set is 29.2.
 Behavior of the Mean

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

Multiplying
The changeorin dividing
value depends
each score
solely
byon
a constant
the constant.
also affects the value of the mean.
For example, the data set
If each score is multiplied
20 by 152, then
11the mean
16 would
12 also 12double.
16 If each score is
divided
has a mean
by 2,
ofthen
14.6.
the mean would also be halved.

If we multiply each score by 2, then we would obtain a new dataset:

40 30 22 32 24 24 32
The mean of this new data set is 29.2.
 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 Behavior of the Mean

Changing a score

Adding or removing a score

Adding or subtracting a constant from each score

Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant

 When to use the mean?

The issue about using the mean for ordinal

data

Using the mean There is no question that the mean can be used
for ratio and interval data types and cannot be
on nominal data.
The mean can only be used for the following
levels of measurement: However, experts are disagreeing whether the
mean is applicable for ordinal data.
1. Ratio
2. Interval There are basically two sides:
3. Ordinal (but with caution) • Those who strongly say “NO!” and suggest
other measures of central tendency such as
That means, the mean cannot be used for median and mode; and,
nominal data. • Those who say “YES, but with caution”.
 When to use the mean?

The issue about using the mean for ordinal

data

Using the mean There is no question that the mean can be used
for ratio and interval data types and cannot be
on nominal data.
The mean can only be used for the following
levels of measurement: However, experts are disagreeing whether the
mean is applicable for ordinal data.
1. Ratio
2. Interval There are basically two sides:
3. Ordinal (but with caution)
• Those who strongly say “NO!”; and,
That means, the mean cannot be used for
nominal data. • Those who say “YES, but with caution”.
 When to use the mean?

Using the mean Those who say NO

argue that ordinal data are discrete and values

The mean can only be used for the following in between have no meaning. For example,
levels of measurement: what’s between “strongly agree” and “agree”?
Or “there is no such thing as 3.5th floor”.
1. Ratio
2. Interval They would suggest other descriptive statistical
3. Ordinal (but with caution) tools such as frequency distributions, median, or
mode for ordinal data.
That means, the mean cannot be used for
nominal data.
 When to use the mean?

Using the mean Those who say NO

argue that ordinal data are discrete and values

The mean can only be used for the following in between have no meaning. For example,
levels of measurement: what’s between “strongly agree” and “agree”?
Or “there is no such thing as 3.5th floor”.
1. Ratio
2. Interval They would suggest other descriptive statistical
3. Ordinal (but with caution) tools such as frequency distributions, median, or
mode for ordinal data.
That means, the mean cannot be used for
nominal data.
 When to use the mean?

Those who say YES

Using the mean
argue that it is OK to calculate the mean of an
ordinal data as long as the researcher is careful
The mean can only be used for the following not to draw an “interval-type” interpretation. For
levels of measurement: example, if 4 means agree and 5 means strongly
agree and the mean is 4.5, then the researcher
1. Ratio should not interpret it as “between agree and
2. Interval strongly agree”.
3. Ordinal (but with caution)
Instead, the researcher is encouraged to decide
That means, the mean cannot be used for categorically if the mean should be interpreted
nominal data. as “agree” or “strongly agree”.
 When to use the mean?

Those who say YES

Using the mean
argue that it is OK to calculate the mean of an
ordinal data as long as the researcher is careful
The mean can only be used for the following not to draw an “interval-type” interpretation. For
levels of measurement: example, if 4 means agree and 5 means strongly
agree and the mean is 4.5, then the researcher
1. Ratio should not interpret it as “between agree and
2. Interval strongly agree”.
3. Ordinal (but with caution)
Instead, the researcher is encouraged to decide
That means, the mean cannot be used for categorically if the mean should be interpreted
nominal data. as “agree” or “strongly agree”.
 References

▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., & Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for the
behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ Sauro, J. (2016). Can you take the Mean of Ordinal Data?. MeasuringU. From https://measuringu.com/mean-
ordinal/

▪ Tutor2u (n.d.). Measures of central tendency. From https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/measures-

of-central-tendency
 Lecture 07
The Median
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture 07
The Median
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture Objectives

Determine the median for discrete scores

Calculate the precise median for continuous scores

Interpret the median as a measure of central tendency

 Lecture Objectives

Determine the median for discrete scores

Calculate the precise median for continuous scores

Interpret the median as a measure of central tendency

 The Median

The goal of the median is to locate the midpoint of the distribution. We

will set no notations for this measure of central tendency. Instead, we will
just write it as “median”.

Furthermore, the computation of the median is identical for a sample and

for a population.
 The Median

The goal of the median is to locate the midpoint of the distribution. We

will set no notations for this measure of central tendency. Instead, we will
just write it as “median”.

Furthermore, the computation of the median is identical for a sample and

for a population.
 The Median

If scores in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to largest, the

median is the midpoint of the list. More specifically, the median is the
point on the measurement scale below which 50% of the scores in the
distribution are located (and above which are the other 50%).
 The Median

If scores in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to largest, the

median is the midpoint of the list. More specifically, the median is the
point on the measurement scale below which 50% of the scores in the
distribution are located (and above which are the other 50%).
Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

11 8 5 10 3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

3
11 5
8 8
5 10 11
3

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Arrange data set

in ascending
order.
Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

3 5 8 10 11

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Locate the
Arrange data set middle score. It
in ascending is located at the
𝑛+1
order. th position.
2
Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

3 5 8 10 11

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

If there are an odd
number of values,
Locate the
then you are done.
Arrange data set middle score. It
in ascending is located at the
𝑛+1
order. th position. But if there are an
2 even number, take
the mean of the two
middle values.
 Exercise
Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

Find the median of the following sets:

Data Set 1

8 7 1 5 4 1

Data Set 2

87 88 88 90 84 91 90
 Exercise

Find the median of the following sets:

Data Set 1

8 7 1 5 4 1

Data Set 2

87 88 88 90 84 91 90
 Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

We will next learn how to:

1. Calculate the precise median for

Limitations of the Simple Median continuous variables

2. Compare the median and the mean

This method that we have just learned is
applicable only for median of simple
distributions. It is appropriate for discrete
variables. This technique will always produce
either a whole number or a number and a half.

However, for continuous variables, there is a

need to calculate a more precise median.
 Finding the Median for Simple Distributions

We will next learn how to:

1. Calculate the precise median for

Limitations of the Simple Median continuous variables

2. Compare the median and the mean

This method that we have just learned is
applicable only for median of simple
distributions. It is appropriate for discrete
variables. This technique will always produce
either a whole number or a number and a half.

However, for continuous variables, there is a

need to calculate a more precise median.
 Precise Median for Continuous Variables

Take for example the data set

The case for continuous variables
Continuous variables can be infinitely divided
into very small parts. For such variables, it will be
possible to calculate a more precise value of the
median.
1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6
Using the same procedure as earlier, we
would know that the median is 4 because
the middle terms are 4 and 4, and their
mean is 4.
However, such score does not appear to
divide the data set into two equal parts:
5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
 Precise Median for Continuous Variables

Take for example the data set

The case for continuous variables
Continuous variables can be infinitely divided
into very small parts. For such variables, it will be
possible to calculate a more precise value of the
median.
1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6
Using the same procedure as earlier, we
would know that the median is 4 because
the middle terms are 4 and 4, and their
mean is 4.
However, such score does not appear to
divide the data set into two equal parts:
5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Calculating Precise Median via Interpolation
 1
Step 1. Determine 𝑁.
2

Step 2. Count the number (𝑓𝐵 ) of scores below the tied middle score.

Step 3. Find the number (𝑓𝑆 ) of scores from 𝑓𝐵 to the middle.

Step 4. Divide 𝑓𝑆 by the number of tied scores.

Step 5. The median is the lower limit of the tied values plus the
value in Step 4.
 1
Step 1. Determine 𝑁.
2

Example
Step 2. Count the number (𝑓𝐵 ) of scores below the tied middle score.

Step 3. Find the number (𝑓𝑆 ) of scores from 𝑓𝐵 to the middle. Note
1
𝑓𝑆 = 𝑁 − 𝑓𝐵
2

Step 4. Divide 𝑓𝑆 by the number of tied scores.

Step 5. The median is the lower limit of the tied values plus the
value in Step 4.
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example 1
Step 1. Determine 𝑁.
2

Since there are 𝑁 = 10 scores, we have

1 10
𝑁= =5
2 2
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example Step 2. Count the number (𝑓𝐵 ) of scores below the tied middle score.

The tied scores in the 5th position are 4s. There are
𝑓𝐵 = 3 scores that are below the tied middle
scores.
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example Step 3. Find the number (𝑓𝑆 ) of scores from 𝑓𝐵 to the middle. Note
1
𝑓𝑆 = 𝑁 − 𝑓𝐵
2

1
Since 2 𝑁 = 5 and 𝑓𝐵 = 3, then 𝑓𝑆 = 5 − 3 = 2.
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example Step 4. Divide 𝑓𝑆 by the number of tied scores.

We had 𝑓𝑆 = 2. Also, there are 5 tied 4’s. Therefore,

𝑓𝑆 2
= = 0.4
5 5
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example Step 5. The median is the lower limit of the tied values plus the value in Step 4.

The lower limit for 4 is 3.5. (In general the lower

limits of a whole number 𝑛 is 𝑛 − 0.5). So, the
precise median is
median = 3.5 + 0.4 = 3.9
 1 2 3 4 4 4 4 4 6 8
Example Step 5. The median is the lower limit of the tied values plus the value in Step 4.

The lower limit for 4 is 3.5. (In general the lower

limits of a whole number 𝑛 is 𝑛 − 0.5). So, the
precise median is
median = 3.5 + 0.4 = 3.9
 Calculating Precise Median via Interpolation

Note:

1. Unless instructed, use the traditional

Seldom Used method in calculating medians instead
of interpolation.

This process, however, is seldom used in

literature. If not instructed, we will use the
traditional method of calculating for the median
whether continuous or discrete.
 Calculating Precise Median via Interpolation

Note:

1. Unless instructed, use the traditional

Seldom Used method in calculating medians instead
of interpolation.

This process, however, is seldom used in

literature. If not instructed, we will use the
traditional method of calculating for the median
whether continuous or discrete.
 Mean vs Median

“average” “midpoint”

every score in the data only the number of

set contributes scores affect the value
Mean Median

affected by outliers not affected by outliers

more commonly used in less common in higher

higher statistics statistics
 Mean vs Median

“average” “midpoint”

every score in the data only the number of

set contributes scores affect the value
Mean Median

affected by outliers not affected by outliers

more commonly used in less common in higher

higher statistics statistics
 References

▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., & Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for the
behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ Sauro, J. (2016). Can you take the Mean of Ordinal Data?. MeasuringU. From https://measuringu.com/mean-
ordinal/

▪ Tutor2u (n.d.). Measures of central tendency. From https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/measures-

of-central-tendency
 Lecture 08
The Mode
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture 08
The Mode
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture Objectives

Define mode as a measure of central tendency

Determine the mode of data sets

Appreciate the usefulness of the mode in summarizing data

 Lecture Objectives

Define mode as a measure of central tendency

Determine the mode of data sets

Appreciate the usefulness of the mode in summarizing data

 The Mode

NOMINAL
Central Tendency for All Data Types

ORDINAL

MODE
MEDIAN
For quantitative data (ordinal, interval, & ratio), INTERVAL
the mean and median are always available.

MEAN
However, for qualitative data (nominal), these
two might not be useful.
RATIO
 The Mode

NOMINAL
Central Tendency for All Data Types

ORDINAL

MODE
MEDIAN
For quantitative data (ordinal, interval, & ratio), INTERVAL
the mean and median are always available.

MEAN
However, for qualitative data (nominal), these
two might not be useful.
RATIO
 Boys’ Favorite Colors
Blue Blue Yellow Orange Yellow
Red Red Blue Gray White
Blue Green Red Blue Green
Gold White Green Green Red

Girls’ Favorite Colors

Pink Blue Blue Pink Blue
Pink Pink Purple Pink Green
Purple Yellow Pink Pink Purple
Pink Pink Purple Purple Pink

Data from a Grade 2 class in a small private school based on their slambook activity
 Boys’ Favorite Colors
Blue Blue Yellow Orange Yellow
Red Red Blue Gray White
Blue Green Red Blue Green
Gold White Green Green Red

Girls’ Favorite Colors

Pink Blue Blue Pink Blue
Pink Pink Purple Pink Green
Purple Yellow Pink Pink Purple
Pink Pink Purple Purple Pink

Data from a Grade 2 class in a small private school based on their slambook activity
 In this particular example, it is impossible to summarize the
data sets using mean or median because the data is
nominal. It is in data sets like this that one would really
appreciate the unique importance of the mode. Creating a
frequency distribution graph, we have:

Boys Girls
6 12

5 10

4 8

3 6

2 4
1 2
0 0
Blue Red Green White Yellow Gold Orange Gray Pink Purple Blue Yellow Green
 In this particular example, it is impossible to summarize the
data sets using mean or median because the data is
nominal. It is in data sets like this that one would really
appreciate the unique importance of the mode. Creating a
frequency distribution graph, we have:

Boys Girls
6 12

5 10

4 8

3 6

2 4
1 2
0 0
Blue Red Green White Yellow Gold Orange Gray Pink Purple Blue Yellow Green
 The Mode

Usually, a data set has only one mode.

The Mode
The mode is simply the most frequent
score in the data set. So in a frequency
distribution, it is the score with the highest
frequency.
Such data sets are said to be unimodal.
When a data set has two modes, it is
bimodal.
It is considered multimodal when it has
more than two.
Having more than five modes usually
makes it less interesting and the data set
is just considered to have no mode.
 The Mode

Usually, a data set has only one mode.

The Mode
The mode is simply the most frequent
score in the data set. So in a frequency
distribution, it is the score with the highest
frequency.
Such data sets are said to be unimodal.
When a data set has two modes, it is
bimodal.
It is considered multimodal when it has
more than two.
Having more than five modes usually
makes it less interesting and the data set
is just considered to have no mode.
 References

▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., & Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for the
behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ Sauro, J. (2016). Can you take the Mean of Ordinal Data?. MeasuringU. From https://measuringu.com/mean-
ordinal/

▪ Tutor2u (n.d.). Measures of central tendency. From https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/measures-

of-central-tendency
 Lecture 09
Interpreting Measures
of Central Tendency
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture 09
Interpreting Measures
of Central Tendency
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics

JULIUS D. SELLE, M.S. Math

Cebu Technological University
 Lecture Objectives

Compare the three measures of central tendency

Decide when to use which based on type of data and their

interpretation

Analyze the distribution based on the values of the mean,

median, and mode

Investigate research works in psychology which use

measures of central tendency
 Lecture Objectives

Compare the three measures of central tendency

Decide when to use which based on type of data and their

interpretation

Analyze the distribution based on the values of the mean,

median, and mode

Investigate research works in psychology which use

measures of central tendency
 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

Applicable for interval, ratio; be Applicable for interval, ratio, ordinal; Applicable for all scales of
cautious with ordinal; not for nominal not for nominal measurement
 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

Applicable for interval, ratio; be Applicable for interval, ratio, ordinal; Applicable for all scales of
cautious with ordinal; not for nominal not for nominal measurement

Most popular and useful for higher Less popular; seldom used in higher Less popular; seldom used in higher
statistical tools statistical tools statistical tools
 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

Applicable for interval, ratio; be Applicable for interval, ratio, ordinal; Applicable for all scales of
cautious with ordinal; not for nominal not for nominal measurement

Most popular and useful for higher Less popular; seldom used in higher Less popular; seldom used in higher
statistical tools statistical tools statistical tools

Interpreted as the “midpoint” or Interpreted as the “most frequent

Interpreted as the “average”
“middle score” score”
 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

Applicable for interval, ratio; be Applicable for interval, ratio, ordinal; Applicable for all scales of
cautious with ordinal; not for nominal not for nominal measurement

Most popular and useful for higher Less popular; seldom used in higher Less popular; seldom used in higher
statistical tools statistical tools statistical tools

Interpreted as the “midpoint” or Interpreted as the “most frequent

Interpreted as the “average”
“middle score” score”

Denoted by 𝑀 Denoted by simply as median Denoted simply as mode

 Mean VS Median VS Mode

Mean Median Mode

Applicable for interval, ratio; be Applicable for interval, ratio, ordinal; Applicable for all scales of
cautious with ordinal; not for nominal not for nominal measurement

Most popular and useful for higher Less popular; seldom used in higher Less popular; seldom used in higher
statistical tools statistical tools statistical tools

Interpreted as the “midpoint” or Interpreted as the “most frequent

Interpreted as the “average”
“middle score” score”

Denoted by 𝑀 Denoted by simply as median Denoted simply as mode

 Central Tendency and the Distribution

Shape of the Distribution In this analysis, we infer the shape of the

distribution out of the measures of central
tendency simply by comparing their values.

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the The shape of the distribution could serve as
distribution can be drawn out just from the basis for important interpretations for the
values of the mean, median and mode. researcher and may even be considered as
a vital result of the study.
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

Shape of the Distribution In this analysis, we infer the shape of the

distribution out of the measures of central
tendency simply by comparing their values.

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the The shape of the distribution could serve as
distribution can be drawn out just from the basis for important interpretations for the
values of the mean, median and mode. researcher and may even be considered as
a vital result of the study.
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean, median, and mode are equal,

then the distribution is symmetric and is
usually normal:
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean/Median/Mode
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean, median, and mode are equal,

then the distribution is symmetric and is
usually normal:
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean/Median/Mode
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean and median are equal, and

there are two modes, one less the other
greater, then it is symmetric bimodal:
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mode1 Mean Mode2

Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean and median are equal, and

there are two modes, one less the other
greater, then it is symmetric bimodal:
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mode1 Mean Mode2

Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean and median are equal, and

there is no mode, then the data is uniformly
distributed
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean/Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If the mean and median are equal, and

there is no mode, then the data is uniformly
distributed
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean/Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If mode < median < mean, then the data is

positively skewed.
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mode Mean
Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If mode < median < mean, then the data is

positively skewed.
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mode Mean
Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If mean < median < mode, then the data is

negatively skewed.
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean Mode
Median
 Central Tendency and the Distribution

If mean < median < mode, then the data is

negatively skewed.
Shape of the Distribution

For an interval or ratio data, the shape of the

distribution can be drawn out just from the
values of the mean, median and mode.

Mean Mode
Median
 When to Use Which Measure

Central Tendency
When deciding which measure of central
tendency is best to use, always ask the
If the data set is interval or ratio, it is usually question
possible to calculate the mean, median, and
mode. For most natural data, the three values
are just equal, or at least, close to each other. “Which one best represents the data set?”

However, when the three are unequal, the There are also several factors to consider in
researcher should decide which central
deciding which central tendency to use.
tendency to use.
 When to Use Which Measure

Central Tendency
When deciding which measure of central
tendency is best to use, always ask the
If the data set is interval or ratio, it is usually question
possible to calculate the mean, median, and
mode. For most natural data, the three values
are just equal, or at least, close to each other. “Which one best represents the data set?”

However, when the three are unequal, the There are also several factors to consider in
researcher should decide which central
deciding which central tendency to use.
tendency to use.
When to use the mean?
When the data is interval or ratio.

When the higher statistics you are planning to use requires so.

Make it your first choice.

When to use the mean?
When the data is interval or ratio.

You can use the mean if your data is in the scale of interval or
ratio. Remind yourself about the caution we noted if ever you
use it for an ordinal data.

When the higher statistics you are planning to use requires so.

(Make it your first choice.)

When to use the mean?
When the data is interval or ratio.

When the higher statistics you are planning to use requires so.

Studies that are beyond descriptive statistics in scope (e.g.

correlational and experimental research) would be using
descriptive results for higher analysis. Most tools from inferential
statistics are using the mean as the statistic to be tested.

(Make it your first choice.)

When to use the mean?
When the data is interval or ratio.

When the higher statistics you are planning to use requires so.

(Make it your first choice.)

The mean is the most popular and most preferred measure of

central tendency because each score in the data set contributes
to it. Hence, it serves as a better representative of the data set.
When to use the mean?
When the data is interval or ratio.

When the higher statistics you are planning to use requires so.

(Make it your first choice.)

When to use the median?
When there are extreme scores

When the data is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

Extreme scores or outliers, i.e., scores that are either too high or
too low, strongly influence the mean. So the researcher may
choose to use the median as an alternative.

When the data is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

When the distribution is highly skewed

Some distributions like income, wealth, salaries are highly

skewed. That means the distribution strongly favors one side of
the scale. In this type of distribution, the mean performs poorer
in representing the data set and the median becomes a better
measure.

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

When the distribution is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

Say in you research you measured how long children could solve
a puzzle and most participants solved it within seconds but
another child seems to be unable to solve it even after several
minutes. Such is an “undetermined value”. Undetermined values
function worse than outliers.

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

When the distribution is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

Close ended distributions are those with defined maximum or

minimum scores like scores in a quiz, etc. Some distributions are
unbounded or open ended such as wealth or income, hours
spent traveling abroad, etc.

When the data is ordinal

 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

When the distribution is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

As explained earlier, many researchers and statisticians believe

that mean cannot be applied on an ordinal data. So the median
can be the quickest alternative.
 When there are extreme scores

When to use the median?

When the distribution is highly skewed

When there are undetermined values

When the distribution is open ended

When the data is ordinal

When to use the mode?
When the data is nominal

When the data is discrete

When the goal is to describe the shape

When to use the mode?
When the data is nominal

No other measure of central tendency could summarize a

nominal data except the mode.

When the data is discrete

When the goal is to describe the shape

When to use the mode?
When the data is nominal

When the data is discrete

While the mean and the median are not limited for discrete data,
sometimes the mode becomes a better representative than the
other two. For example, number of children in the family, or
number of rooms in a house, when treated using mean or
median, may yield decimal values like 4.5 children or 4.33 rooms
which have no direct interpretation.

When the goal is to describe the shape

When to use the mode?
When the data is nominal

When the data is discrete

When the goal is to describe the shape

The mode can be determined without calculations and can be

applied for any scale of measurement. That means the mode is a
no-cost extra tool that can be used as a supplementary measure
for any research.

Determining the mode could give the researcher a better

picture of the data set compared the mean or median.
When to use the mode?
When the data is nominal

When the data is discrete

When the goal is to describe the shape

 References

▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., & Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for the
behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ Sauro, J. (2016). Can you take the Mean of Ordinal Data?. MeasuringU. From https://measuringu.com/mean-
ordinal/

▪ Tutor2u (n.d.). Measures of central tendency. From https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/measures-

of-central-tendency