Chapter 2

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
PSYCH-BC 212 Psychological Statistics
Lectures in the Chapter Target Course Learning Outcomes
Lecture 03 – Frequency • Apply the underlying principles of statistical techniques
Distributions and • Interpret statistical data
Frequency
Distribution Table

Lecture 04 – Grouped Frequency

Intended Learning Outcomes for the Chapter
Distribution Tables
• Use frequency distribution tables and graphs to summarize
Lecture 05 – Frequency Distribution
psychological data
Graphs
 Traffic Violators per Day
Can Nonfunctional Surveillance Date JULY 2018 AUGUST 2018
01 25 26
Cameras still be Effective against 02 33 30
03 34 24
Traffic Violators? 04 29 26
05 31 25
06 27 23
07 28 31
Starting August 2018, a certain city here in Region VII 08 30 23
started installing surveillance cameras in the roads. 09 25 18
10 30 17
However, the supply for the wirings of these cameras 11 31 19
have been delayed for a month so the gadgets are 12 31 35
13 29 21
basically just there technically not doing anything for 14 30 11
the entire month of August. 15 33 30
16 33 29
17 24 21
To the city’s official’s surprise, the traffic enforcers 18 21 26
19 26 25
(who also did not know the cameras were not yet 20 31 23
working) reported that they felt a sudden reduce in 21 30 26
22 41 29
the number of traffic violators after the installation of 23 19 27
the cameras. 24 25 22
25 36 33
26 26 22
They then quickly verified this with the city’s traffic 27 22 24
28 32 25
command office. 29 40 20
30 43 19
31 22 40
 Frequency of Number of Traffic
Violations per Day
14

12 The figure on the left is called a

frequency distribution graph. This
10 graph shows how many days there
were 11-15, 16-20, 21-25, 26-30,
8 31-35, 36-40, and 41-45 violators.

6 With this graph, it would be easier for

the officials to assess the claim of
4 the traffic enforcers if the
nonfunctional cameras have actually
2
been surprisingly effective.
0

11 to 15 16 to 20 21 to 25 26 to 30 31 to 35 36 to 40 41 to 45
JULY AUGUST
 Key Features of this Chapter

Prerequisites you need

Calculating fractions, decimals, and percentages; distinguishing scales of measurements; identifying discrete and continuous
variables; creating charts in Microsoft Office® Excel

Activities you will do

Summarize data sets into frequency tables and frequency graphs; create tables and charts using Microsoft Office ® Excel
and other electronic tools; interpret data based on frequency tables and graphs

Learnings you will earn

Manage descriptive data; draw conclusions out of frequency tables and graphs; appreciate the role of frequency tables and
graphs in psychological research
 Frequency
Lecture Distributions and
03 Frequency
Distribution Tables
 1. Create frequency distribution tables

2. Interpret data based on a frequency

distribution table

Objectives 3. Calculate ∑𝑋, ∑𝑋 2 , proportions, and

percentages

4. Determine percentiles and percentile

ranks
Frequency Distribution
Tables
Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of individuals located in each category on the scale
of measurement.

Raw Data Frequency Distribution Table

𝑿 𝒇 A frequency table has two

10 1 components:

7 7 5 4 4 9 1 1. the set of categories that

8 0 make up the original
5 9 7 5 6 7 4
measurement scale
(column X); and,
6 2 2. a record of the frequency,
10 5 7 4 6 or number of individuals
5 4 in each category (column
4 3 f)
 Examples

From Ettman, et al. (2020.)

Prevalence of depression
symptoms before and during
the COVID-19 pandemic.

See full paper here.

 Examples
From Jameel & Shamim (2019). Relationship of self-confidence with self body image of visually impaired children

See full paper here.

Examples

From Mortier, et al.(2017). The

prevalence of suicidal thoughts and
behaviours among college students: a
meta-analysis

See full paper here.

 ∑𝑓

The expression ∑𝑓 is the sum of all frequencies in the frequency distribution table. Equivalently, it is equal the sample
size or population size. That is, ∑𝑓 = 𝑛 or ∑𝑓 = 𝑁 depending on whether the data was taken from a sample or the
population

𝑿 𝒇
10 1
9 1
8 0
To obtain ∑𝑓, simply add all
7 4
entries under the 𝑓 column.
6 2
5 4
4 3
∑𝑓 = 15
 ∑𝑋𝑓

The expression ∑𝑋𝑓 is the sum of all scores in the raw data. Equivalently, it is the summation of the 𝑋𝑓 column in a
(extended) frequency distribution table. In sum books, ∑𝑋 is used instead of ∑𝑋𝑓. Note that these two refer to the
same expression.

𝑿 𝒇 𝑿𝒇
10 1 10
9 1 9
To obtain ∑𝑋𝑓, add a column
8 0 0 𝑋𝑓 to the frequency
distribution table which
7 4 28
contains products of 𝑋 and 𝑓.
6 2 12 Then, add all the entries
under this new column.
5 4 20
4 3 12
∑𝑋𝑓 = 91
 ∑𝑋 2 𝑓

The expression ∑𝑋 2 𝑓 is the sum of all squares in the raw data. Equivalently, it is the summation of the 𝑋 2 𝑓 column in a
(extended) frequency distribution table.

𝑿 𝒇 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝒇
10 1 100 100
9 1 81 81 To obtain ∑𝑋 2 𝑓, add
columns 𝑋 2 and 𝑋 2 𝑓 to the
8 0 64 0
frequency distribution table
7 4 49 196 which contains products of 𝑋
and 𝑓. Then, add all the
6 2 36 72 entries under this new
5 4 25 100 column.
4 3 16 38
∑𝑋 2 𝑓 = 587
 Using the raw data at the left,
3 4 5 4 3
7 6 3 3 6
• Create a frequency distribution table; and,
3 5 5 5 3
6 8 4 2 4
• Calculate ∑𝑓, ∑𝑋𝑓, and ∑𝑋 2 𝑓.

This can also be done using Microsoft Office ® Excel.

Proportions and
Percentages
Proportion

The proportion (also called relative frequency), denoted 𝑃, of a value or category is the ratio of the frequency of the
value or category to the sample or population size.

𝑿 𝒇 𝑷
10 1 0.07 To obtain proportion or relative frequency, we first need
the sample or population size 𝑛 = ∑𝑓. Then, divide the
9 1 0.07 frequency of the category or value by the sample or
population size. In other words,
8 0 0.00 𝑓
𝑃= .
7 4 0.27 𝑛
The 𝑃 column should total to 1 (although due to
6 2 0.13 rounding, only a close value might be obtained).
5 4 0.27
We will agree to round off proportions to the second
4 3 0.20 decimal place.
𝑛 = 15
Percentages

The percentage of a category or value is the number or amount of parts per hundred units of the frequency.
Equivalently, it is 100 times the proportion or relative frequency.

𝑿 𝒇 %
To obtain percentage, we first need the sample or
10 1 6.7 population size 𝑛 = ∑𝑓. Then, divide the frequency of
the category or value by the sample or population size
9 1 6.7
and then multiplying it by 100%. In other words,
8 0 0.0 𝑓
percentage = × 100%.
7 4 26.7 𝑛
The percentage (%) column should total to 100
6 2 13.3 (although due to rounding, only a close value might be
obtained).
5 4 26.7
4 3 20.0 As a rule, we round off percentages to not more than
two decimal places, whichever is more comfortable.
𝑛 = 15
 Using the raw data at the left,

• Using the same frequency table you had for

3 4 5 4 3
the previous exercise, add two columns
7 6 3 3 6
indicating:
3 5 5 5 3
6 8 4 2 4
• Proportions

• Percentages

This can also be done using Microsoft Office ® Excel.

 Cumulative Frequency,
Cumulative Percentage,
Percentile, and Percentile
Rank
Cumulative Frequency

Note that usually, rows of the frequency distribution table are arranged in the descending order of the 𝑋 column
(although it is not wrong, and sometimes they are still arranged in ascending order). The cumulative frequency of a
category or value is the frequency of the other categories or values that are less than or equal to this value.

To obtain the cumulative frequency,

𝑿 𝒇
10 1 15
9 1
8 0
7 4
6 2
5 4
4 3
𝒄𝒇
• add a 𝑐𝑓 column into the frequency distribution
table.
• then, for the bottom row, the cumulative frequency
14
should equal the frequency of that row
13 • going to the upper row, add the frequency of the
current category to the cumulative frequency of the
13
row below it – this will be the cumulative frequency
9 of this row
7 The cumulative frequency gives the frequency of scores
3 that are equal or below a given category or value. The
cumulative frequency of the first row should equal the
sample or population size.
Cumulative Percentage

The cumulative percentage of a category or value is the percentage of the other categories or values that are less than
or equal to this value.

To obtain the cumulative percentage, it could be helpful

𝑿 𝒇 % 𝒄% if the % column is already added:
• add a 𝑐% column into the frequency distribution
10 1 6.7 100.0
table.
9 1 6.7 93.3 • then, for the bottom row, the cumulative percentage
should equal the percentage of that row
8 0 0.0 86.7 • going to the upper row, add the percentage of the
7 4 26.7 86.7 current category to the cumulative percentage of
the row below it – this will be the cumulative
6 2 13.3 60.0 percentage of this row
5 4 26.7 46.7
The cumulative percentage gives the percentage of
4 3 20.0 20.0 scores that are equal or below a given category or
value. The cumulative frequency of the first row should
equal 100 (or close to it if values are rounded off).
 Using the raw data at the left,

• Using the same frequency table you had for

3 4 5 4 3
the previous exercise, add two columns
7 6 3 3 6
indicating:
3 5 5 5 3
6 8 4 2 4
• Cumulative frequencies

• Cumulative percentages

This can also be done using Microsoft Office ® Excel.

Percentile & Percentile Rank

The percentile rank of a particular score is defined as the percentage of individuals in the distribution with scores at or
below the value. When a score is identified by its percentile rank, then the score is called a percentile.

𝑿 𝒇 𝒄% The percentile rank of a score can also be interpreted

10 1 100.0
9 1
8 0
7 4
6 2
5 4
4 3
as the cumulative frequency, if 𝑋 is arranged in a
descending order. For example, the percentile rank of a
93.3 score of 9 is 93.3%; the percentile rank of a score of
7 is 86.7%, and so on.
86.7
86.7 A percentile is the score that corresponds to a given
percentile rank. For example, if we are asked for the
60.0 60.0% percentile, then that would be 6 because the
46.7 cumulative percentage for this score is 60.0%. To
obtain other percentiles like the 70% percentile, one
20.0 may have to do interpolation (in this example, 70%
percentile is 6.4).
 Using the raw data at the left,
3 4 5 4 3
7 6 3 3 6
• What is your percentile rank if your score is
3 5 5 5 3
5?
6 8 4 2 4
• What is the 50% percentile?

This can also be done using Microsoft Office ® Excel.

Interpreting Frequency
Distribution Tables
 Interpreting Frequency Distribution Tables

What is “interpretation”?

Data interpretation is the process of converting data into a useful information. It is the step of giving meaning to the
findings of the study. It is where we “make sense” of the data.

Why do we have to interpret?

Data usually comes just as figures or statistics. Figures and statistics are not direct answers to the research problem. They
are “encrypted messages” which we need to decode so that we could understand them. The way to decode the message
of data or statistics is to interpret it.

How do we interpret?

According to Dates and Schoen (n.d.), the basic way to interpret data is to ask the research question again and generate
the answer based on the data collected or statistics obtained.
 Example

Suppose a study asks, 𝑿 𝒇 The researcher is the one who

“how likely are men to 10 2 makes the interpretation taking into
increase their confidence in account that he or she was the one
9 24
talking to women after who:
being drunk?” 8 48 • Formulated the research
7 23 question;
On a scale of 1 to 10 with • Conducted the study;
6 3
one being “very unlikely” • Has the appropriate knowledge to
and 10 being “very likely”, 5 0 make an interpretation.
100 men were asked the 4 0
question. The frequency If you were the researcher of this
3 0
table on the right shows study, how would you interpret the
the summary of their 2 0 frequency distribution table on the
responses. 1 0 right?
 Example

From Greig, A., MacKay, T., & Ginter,

L. (2019). Supporting the mental
health of children and young people:
a survey of Scottish educational
psychology services. Educational
Psychology in Practice, 35(3), 257-
270.

See full paper here.

Example
 Example

Let us look at some

frequency tables from this
article and see how they
were interpreted.

See full paper here.

 ▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., &
Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for
the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ MathIsFun.com (2017). Frequency Distribution.

Retrieved from https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/
References frequency-distribution.html

▪ Statistics How To (2021). Frequency distribution

table: Examples, how to make one. Retrieved from
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-
statistics/descriptive-statistics/frequency-
distribution-table/

▪ Dates and Schoen (n.d.). Data interpretation.

Retrieved from https://www.umass.edu/mwwp/pdf
/intmanl.pdf
Lecture Grouped Frequency
04 Distribution Tables
 1. Choose when it is useful to set up a
grouped frequency table;
Objectives
2. Create a grouped frequency table
The Perks of Grouping
 However, if the gap between the
In a (an ungrouped) frequency table,
highest and lowest scores is too big, it
the number of rows would be
will not be practical to produce too
determined using the following formula:
many rows. For example, if the highest
score is 100, and the lowest is 32, then
rows = highest − lowest + 𝟏 If a frequency table would require too
there would be
many rows, most researchers would
So if the highest score is 10 and the report using a grouped frequency
100 − 32 + 1 = 69
lowest is 4, there would be distribution table.
rows.
10 − 4 + 1 = 7
Imagine how cumbersome such a long
rows.
table would be!
 Take for example this
99 90 75 48 51
data set of scores of 98 75 51 61 95
20 students in a 100-
item examination: 69 95 92 100 91
99 89 88 63 33
𝑋 𝑓
100 1
𝑋 𝑓
99 2
88 1
98 1 𝑋 𝑓
87 0
97 0 76 0 𝑋 𝑓
86 0
96 0 75 2 64 0
85 0 𝑋 𝑓
95 2 74 0 63 1
84 0 52 0 𝑋 𝑓
94 0 73 0 62 0
83 0 51 2 40 0
93 0 72 0 61 1
82 0 50 0 39 0
92 1 71 0 60 0
81 0 49 0 38 0 Here’s the ungrouped
91 1 70 0 59 0
80 0 48 1 37 0 frequency distribution
90 1 69 1 58 0
79 0 47 0 36 0 table.
89 1 68 0 57 0
78 0 46 0 35 0
67 0 56 0
77 0 45 0 34 0
66 0 55 0 44 0 33 1
65 0 54 0 43 0
53 0 42 0
41 0
 Take for example this
99 90 75 48 51
data set of scores of 98 75 51 61 95
20 students in a 100-
item examination: 69 95 92 100 91
99 89 88 63 33

𝑋 𝑓
90 - 100 9
80 – 89 2
70 – 79 2 Here’s a grouped
60 – 69 3 frequency distribution table
50 – 59 2
40 – 49 1
30 – 39 1
 Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables (GFDT)

What is a GFDT?

A grouped frequency distribution table is a frequency distribution table wherein we are counting groups of scores instead
of individual values.

Class intervals

Instead of individual values, the rows of a grouped frequency distribution table are composed of class intervals, which are
intervals or range of values of a predefined length.

Bounds and widths

The highest score in a class interval is called the upper bound; the lowest score is called the lower bound. The number of
values (equal to upper bound – lower bound + 𝟏) is the width of the interval.
General Guidelines in
Producing GFDTs
 General Guidelines in Producing GFDTs

22 rows
𝑋 𝑓
1 Keep about 10 class intervals. 99 to 100 1
97 to 98 0
If there are more class intervals, the grouped frequency distribution table would be 95 to 96 0
93 to 94 2
cumbersome. If there are fewer, you would lose information. 91 to 92 1
89 to 90 2
87 to 88 2
9 rows 85 to 86 4
𝑋 𝑓 5 rows 83 to 84 5
81 to 82 2
96 to 100 1 79 to 80 4
𝑋 𝑓
91 to 95 3 77 to 78 4
91 to 100 4
86 to 90 5 75 to 76 6
81 to 90 15 73 to 74 4
81 to 85 10
71 to 80 23 71 to 72 5
76 to 80 13 69 to 70 1
61 to 70 7 67 to 68 1
71 to 75 10
51 to 60 1 65 to 66 1
66 to 70 2 63 to 64 2
61 to 65 5 61 to 62 2
59 to 60 0
56 to 60 1 57 to 58 1
 General Guidelines in Producing GFDTs

2 Choose simple numbers for width.

It is easier to count in 2, 5, 10, 20, etc. than 3, 7, 8, etc.

CI length: 5 CI length: 6
𝑋 𝑓 95 to 100 1
96 to 100 1 89 to 94 5
91 to 95 3 83 to 88 11
86 to 90 5 77 to 82 10
81 to 85 10 71 to 76 15
76 to 80 13 65 to 70 3
71 to 75 10 59 to 64 4
66 to 70 2 53 to 58 1
61 to 65 5
56 to 60 1
 General Guidelines in Producing GFDTs

3 Set one of the bounds to be a multiple of the width.

If the width of each class interval is 5, then either the lower or upper bounds should be a multiple of 5 like 5,
10, 15, 20, etc. It is more usual to find this guideline applied for lower bounds.

Upper bounds Lower Bounds

𝑋 𝑓 𝑋 𝑓
96 to 100 1 100 to 104 1
91 to 95 3 95 to 99 0
86 to 90 5 90 to 94 5
81 to 85 10 85 to 89 6
76 to 80 13 80 to 84 10
71 to 75 10 75 to 79 11
66 to 70 2 70 to 74 10
61 to 65 5 65 to 69 2
56 to 60 1 60 to 64 4
55 to 59 1
 General Guidelines in Producing GFDTs

4 Keep a constant width for all class intervals.

All intervals should be of the same width. They should cover the range of scores completely with no gaps and
no overlaps so that any particular score belongs in exactly one interval.
Example
 Example

Make a grouped frequency distribution out of the following data set.

33 25 25 33 47 43 32 48 47 59

50 36 48 20 48 20 63 45 51 22

33 29 43 10 64 47 42 45 47 36

28 28 30 50 45 42 29 43 38 44

38 52 38 37 30 41 61 55 53 36
 Example

Step 1

Determine the number of ungrouped rows.

The highest score is 64. The lowest is 10. So, the range is,
This is in order to decide whether grouping is
really needed. Usually when this is greater than
15, it needs to be grouped.
𝑅 =𝐻 −𝐿+1
The number of ungrouped rows is given by
= 64 − 10 + 1
𝑅 =𝐻 −𝐿+1 = 55

where 𝑅 is the number of ungrouped rows; 𝐻 is

the highest score; and 𝐿 is the lowest score.
 Example

Step 2

Decide for the width of each class interval.

The number of ungrouped rows is 55. We can do (reduced) trial-

Remember that we want the width to be simple and-error to decide what should be the width of the class interval
like 2, 5, 10, 20, etc. Also, we want to choose so that 𝐺 is as close as possible to 10.
such class interval so that the number of rows
should be as close as possible to 10. The number 𝑤 = 2:
of grouped rows is given by 55 Among the three, 𝑤 = 5 appears
𝐺= = 27.5
2 to give the closest to 10
𝑅 𝑤 = 5:
𝐺= grouped rows with 11.
𝑤 55
𝐺= = 11
5
where 𝐺 is the number of grouped rows; 𝑅 is the 𝑤 = 10: So we should decide 5 as the
number of ungrouped rows; and 𝑤 is the width. 55 ideal length.
𝐺= = 5.5
10
 Example

Step 3

Construct the table with 𝐺 rows. The lower bound of the bottom class interval should be the highest multiple of the
width that is less than or equal to the lowest score in the data set.

First, note that we should set 11 rows first.

We construct the table by setting first the number
of rows. Then, starting from the bottom, we select
the lower bound of the class interval based on
what is recommended above.
The lowest score is 10. The width should be 5. The highest
multiple of 5 that is less than or equal to 10 is also 10. Therefore,
the lower bound of the bottom class interval should be 10.

Once you have the lower bound, the upper bound So if 10 is the lower bound, then the upper bound is
of this class interval is simply 10 + 5 − 1 = 14
𝑈 = 𝐿+𝑤−1 The next class interval would have a lower bound of 15 and an
where 𝑈 is the upper bound; 𝑤 is the width; and upper bound of
𝐿 is the lower bound.
15 + 5 − 1 = 19
and so on.
 Example

Table 1. Next we form the table:

Put Table Title Here

𝑿 𝒇 Take note of the APA standards for tables:

60 – 64 3
1. The Table Number (e.g. Table 1) appears above the Table Title and body in
55 – 59 2 bold font. Number tables in the order in which they are mentioned in your
50 – 54 5 paper.
45 – 49 10 2. The Table Title appears one double-spaced line below the table number. Give
40 – 44 each table a brief but descriptive title, and capitalize the table title in italic
7
title case.
35 – 39 7 3. Limit the use of Table Borders to those needed for clarity. In general, use a
30 – 34 6 border at the top and bottom of the table, beneath column headings
25 – 29 6 (including decked heads), and above column spanners. You may also use a
20 – 24 3
border to separate a row containing totals or other summary information
from other rows in the table.
15 – 19 0
10 – 14 1 For more APA guidelines on tables, click here.
 Grouped Frequency
Distribution using
Microsoft Office® Excel
Useful Excel Formulas and Syntax

COUNTIF Counts the number of cells that satisfy a particular criterion in a range
COUNTIFS Counts the number of cells that satisfy multiple criteria in multiple
ranges of cells
“<“ and “>” “less than” and “greater than”
“<=“ and “>=“ “less than or equal to” and “greater than or equal to”
& Concatenate text

33 25 25 33 47 43 32 48 47 59

50 36 48 20 48 20 63 45 51 22

33 29 43 10 64 47 42 45 47 36

28 28 30 50 45 42 29 43 38 44

38 52 38 37 30 41 61 55 53 36
 ▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., &
Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for
the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ American Psychological Association(2021). Table

Setup. Retrieved from
References https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/tables-figures/tables
Lecture Frequency
05 Distributions Graphs
 1. Create three types of frequency
distribution graphs: bar graphs,
histograms, and polygons.

2. Identify when to use which frequency

distribution graph

Objectives 3. Explain how frequency distribution

graphs differ from the graphs for
samples.

4. Identify the shape of a distribution:

symmetrical, positively or negatively
skewed by looking at the frequency
distribution table or graph
Data Visualization

Data visualization is the art of representing data using graphical techniques

such as charts, diagrams, or pictures. For this lecture, we will limit our data
visualization to frequency distributions.

There are generally two advantages of visualizing data:

• In analyzing frequency distribution, data visualization could give insights

about the data that might not be seen or unclear in the frequency
distribution table.

• In presenting data, data visualization could help the researcher explain

to his or her readers or listeners the results of the study.

There are a few graphical methods to present frequency distribution.

Basically, the choice of which method to use largely depends on the type of
data or in the scale of measurement: interval, ratio, ordinal, or nominal.
Graphs for Interval and
Ratio Data
 Interval and Ratio Scales

Interval and ratio data are usually continuous although they may also occur
in discrete form.

Histogram
Graphs for Interval and Ratio Data:

There are two choices for graphing interval and ratio data:

• Histogram – a bar graph-like chart that condenses the 𝑋-values into

columns called bins to represent frequencies

• Frequency Polygon – a line graph like chart that in which the midpoints
of the bins are connected by line segments
Frequency Polygon
To produce a histogram:

Step 1. List the numerical scores Histograms

or class intervals along the 𝑥- Histograms are favored for continuous variables. The main difference
axis. between histograms and bar graphs is that the columns of a histogram are
adjacent to each other while in bar graphs, there are gaps in between.
Step 2. Draw a bar above each
𝑥-value so that The recommendation is, if the data is continuous, use a histogram. If it is
discrete, use a bar graph. Except the matter about the gaps between the
a. The height of the bar column bars, the production of both graphs are exactly the same.
corresponds to the frequency
for that category.
b. The width of the bar extends
to the real limits of the
category.

Notes
1. The column bars are called
bins.
2. About 10 bins are
recommended. Bar Graph
Histogram
Online Histogram
Generators
Easy Histogram Maker
https://www.socscistatistics.com/
descriptive/histograms/ Example
Use Microsoft Office Excel to generate a histogram of this height data.
Histogram maker – Statistics
Kingdom
https://www.statskingdom.com/h
istogram-maker.html

Google Sheets
sheets.google.com
To produce a frequency
polygon:

Step 1. List the numerical scores

or class intervals along the 𝑥-
axis.
Step 2. Place a dot above each
class interval or category
corresponding to the frequency.
Frequency Polygons
Histograms are usually intended for the purpose of highlighting
comparisons between class intervals. Frequency polygons are intended to
emphasize changes or movements of frequencies from one class interval to
another.

Step 3. At the nearest point at
the left of the lowest 𝑥-value,
starting at zero, connect the dots
by drawing lines and end at the
nearest point at the right of the
highest 𝑥-value at zero.
(Frequency polygons start at
zero and end at zero.)
Frequency polygons are sometimes confused with line graphs. Note that
frequency polygons are graphs of an independent variable vs frequency
while line graphs are a graph of the relationship between an independent
variable and a dependent variable. In other words, a frequency polygon is a
type of line graph (if we consider frequency as a dependent variable) but
not all line graphs are frequency polygons.

Notes
1. For class intervals, plot the
points at the midpoint.
Online Frequency
Polygon Generator
Easy Frequency Polygon Maker
https://www.socscistatistics.com/
descriptive/polygon/
Example
Use Microsoft Office Excel to generate a frequency polygon of this height
data.
There is no one-click feature in Excel to generate frequency polygons.
Instead, we follow the following steps:
1. Produce a grouped frequency distribution table (as in Lecture 04).
2. Insert a table between 𝑋 and 𝑓 and call it 𝑀.
3. The entries under 𝑀 should be the midpoint of each class interval. Note
that
1
𝑀 = (𝑈𝑐 + 𝐿𝐶 )
2
where 𝑈𝑐 and 𝐿𝑐 are the upper and lower bounds of the class interval,
respectively.
4. Use the “Scatter Plot with Straight Lines Chart”.
Graphs for Nominal or
Ordinal Data
 Nominal and Ordinal Data

Nominal and ordinal data are generally discrete.

Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data

Nominal or ordinal data are graphed using

• Bar graph – a chart which relates individual values of the nominal or

Bar Graph
ordinal data in the same way as the histogram, except that there are
spaces between the column bars.
Online Histogram
Generators
Bar Graph Maker – RapidTables
https://www.rapidtables.com/too
ls/bar-graph.html
(usable if frequency distribution
Example
Use Microsoft Office Excel to generate a bar graph of this favorite color
table is already available)
data.
Shapes of a Frequency
Distribution Graph
Normal Distribution
The most important symmetrical Symmetrical Distributions
distribution is the normal Symmetrical distributions show a “balance” between high scores and low
distribution. In the normal scores.
distribution, the mean, median,
and mode (to be discussed in the 300 3.5
next chapter) are equal. 250
3
2.5
200

Hence, the average, the middle 2

150
1.5
score, and the most frequent 100
1
score are all the same. Most data 50
0.5

are naturally normally 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
distributed.
6 3.5

5 3
2.5
4
2
3
1.5
2 1
1 0.5

0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Positively skewed
distributions
Skewed Distributions
Positively skewed distributions Skewed distributions are those of which the population tend to pile up in
imply that a larger part of the one end of the scale. They imply an “imbalance” between low and high
population have lower scores. scores.
Mathematically, MODE < MEAN
< MEDIAN. A usual example of
this is when a quiz is too difficult
that most students got lower 60 60

scores and only a few bright 50 50

ones have high scores. 40 40

30 30

20 20
Negatively skewed 10 10
distributions 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Negatively skewed distributions

Positive skew Negative skew
mean there are more with higher
scores than lower scores.
MEDIAN < MEAN < MODE.
 ▪ Gravetter, F. J., Wallnau, L. B., Forzano, L. A. B., &
Witnauer, J. E. (2020). Essentials of statistics for
the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning.

▪ American Psychological Association(2021). Table

Setup. Retrieved from
References https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-
guidelines/tables-figures/tables