E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 22

LESSON 5
COMPUTER HARDWARE
I. Module Overview

When you use a computer or any digital device, you need to communicate
with it. To tell a computer what to so, you input information. To input the
information, you use an input device. And while working on a computer, you will
want to see what’s going on. You want to look at the output. You need storage
devices to save your files in your computer.

In this module, the students will learn the different types of computer
hardware, the input and output devices, internal components and storage
devices. This will give the students a better understanding about the uses of
computer hardware.

II. Desired Learning Outcome

At the end of this topic, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the categories of computer hardware
2. Identify and describe how to use input and output devices
3. Familiarize the parts of the keyboard
4. Name the internal components and storage devices and explain their
uses

III. Take off/Motivation

The instructor/professor will show actual examples of hardware available in

the laboratory room.
IV. Content Focus HARDWARE
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer
i.e. the components that can be seen and touched.

Quite simply, computer hardware is the physical components that a computer

system requires to function. It encompasses everything with a circuit board
that operates within a PC or laptop; including the motherboard, graphics card,
CPU (Central Processing Unit), ventilation fans, webcam, power supply, and so
on.
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Computer hardware
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search

PDP-11 CPU board

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the case,

[1]
 central processing unit (CPU), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data
storage, graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.[2]
By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by
hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to
changes, whereas software is "soft" because it is easy to change.
Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command
or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a
usable computing system, although other systems exist with only hardware.

Examples of hardware are following:

• Input devices - keyboard, mouse etc.
• Output devices - printer, monitor etc.
• Internal components - CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.
• Secondary storage devices - hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
Input Devices
• Any data or instruction entered into the computer is known as
INPUT.
• An input device helps you to communicate with the computer.
• To enter information and issue commands, you use input devices.
• Examples of hardware are following:
o Keyboard o Mouse o Scanner o
Microphone
o Digital Camera or Web Camera

Keyboard - The keyboard is the most common and widely used input
device. It is made up of buttons called ‘keys’. The keys are arranged into
sections.
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Different sections of the Keyboard

Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Typewriter’s keyboard
Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Mouse - a pointer device.

• Primary button – left button of the mouse.
• Secondary button – right button of the mouse
• Scroll Wheel – located between the buttons use to help you scroll
thru documents and webpages more easily.

Note: You will use the primary button most often.

How to properly hold a computer mouse?

Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Mouse Actions:
• Click – Selects an Item on the Screen
• Double-Click – Opens Document or Program
• Right-Click – Displays a List of Commands
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 25

• Drag and Drop – Moves Item on Screen  Wheel Mouse – Scroll

and Zoom
Left click or click – clicking the primary button
Double click – clicking the primary button two times
Right click – clicking the secondary button
Drag and Drop – click on an object, hold the button down while
dragging to a different area of the screen.
Scanner - is an input device that reads printed
text and graphics and the image or text obtained
can be saved or changed on the computer.

Image Source:
DICTDigital Literacy Module 1a
Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Microphone - allows you to record your voice to

the computer. It also lets you speak to other
people using computers or even on the
telephone.
Image Source:
DICT Digital Literac
y Module 1a
Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Camera - records and stores images in digital

form, which can then be viewed on a screen.
Used to transmit video images in real time or for
videoconferencing over the Internet.

Output Devices Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a

Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

• Computer is fed with a lot of data to be processed and organized.

• The data that has been processed into a useful form is called
OUTPUT.
• Output is the result we get through output devices.
• Examples of output devices are:
o Monitor o Printer o Speaker o Headphone

Monitor - is an output device similar to a television

screen. It is used to display text and graphics.

Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a

Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Printer - is an output device that print text and

graphics from a computer onto paper. A printer can
produce both black and white and colored images.

ImageComputer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a

Speaker - allows you to hear the sound generated

by your computer. Speaker produces sound or
music.
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 26

Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a

Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Headphone - is used to listen to music and sounds.

Headphone usually have strap that rests on top of the
head and a pair of speakers over both ears.

Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a

Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation

Internal Components
Central Processing Unit
• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (program). Image

Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a  It controls the operation of all parts of Computer

Essentials PowerPoint Presentation computer. Motherboard

• The motherboard serves as a single

platform to connect all of the parts of
a computer together.
• A motherboard connects
CPU, memory, hard drives, optical
drives, video card, sound card, and
other ports and expansion cards
Image Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a
 It can be considered as the backbone of Computer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation
a computer.

Random Access Memory

directly or via cables.

 Alternatively referred to as main

memory, primary memory, or
system memory, Random Access
Memory
(RAM).
A hardware device that
allows information to be stored and retrieved on a computer. As soon as
the machine ImageComputer Essentials PowerPoint Presentation Source: DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a is switched off,
data is erased.

Secondary Storage Devices

• Also known as the secondary memory which serves as the storage
area of the computer system.
o Hard Disk o USB Flash Drive o CD (Compact Disk)
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 27

o DVD (Digital Versatile Disk or Digital

Video Disk)

Mem
Card
SD C
Onlin
File
Stora

Types of computer systems[edit]

Personal computer[edit]

Basic hardware components of a personal computer, including a monitor,

a motherboard, a CPU, a RAM, two expansion cards, a power supply, an optical disc
drive, a hard disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse

Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan
The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and
relatively low price. Desktop personal computers have a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse, and
a computer case. The computer case holds the motherboard, fixed or removable disk drives for
data storage, the power supply, and may contain other peripheral devices such as modems or
network interfaces. Some models of desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into
the same case as the processor and power supply. Separating the elements allows the user to
arrange the components in a pleasing, comfortable array, at the cost of managing power and data
cables between them.
Laptops are designed for portability but operate similarly to desktop PCs.[1] They may use lower-
power or reduced size components, with lower performance than a similarly priced desktop
computer.[5] Laptops contain the keyboard, display, and processor in one case. The monitor in the
folding upper cover of the case can be closed for transportation, to protect the screen and
keyboard. Instead of a mouse, laptops may have a touchpad or pointing stick.
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Tablets are portable computer that uses a touch screen as the primary input device. Tablets
generally weigh less and are smaller than laptops.
Some tablets include fold-out keyboards, or offer connections to separate external keyboards.
Some models of laptop computers have a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be
configured as a touch-screen tablet. They are sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable laptops" or
"tablet-laptop hybrids".[6]

Case[edit]
Main article: Computer case
The computer case encloses most of the components of the system. It provides mechanical
support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power
supplies, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case is
also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer and
protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple
disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less
expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable
and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit. Hobbyists may
decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called case modding.
Power supply[edit]
Main article: Power supply unit
A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage direct
current (DC) power for the computer. Laptops can run on built-in rechargeable battery.[7] The PSU
typically uses a switched-mode power supply (SMPS), with power MOSFETs (power metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistors) used in the converters and regulator circuits of the SMPS.[8]

Motherboard[edit]

Computer motherboard
Main article: Motherboard
The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry that
connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives
(CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or
the expansion slots. The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of
tiny metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).[9]
Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

 The CPU (central processing unit), which performs most of the calculations which enable a
computer to function, and is referred to as the brain of the computer. It takes program
instructions from random-access memory (RAM), interprets and processes them and then
sends back results so that the relevant components can carry out the instructions. The CPU is
a microprocessor, which is fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated
circuit (IC) chip. It is usually cooled by a heat sink and fan, or water-cooling system. Most
newer CPU includes an on-die graphics processing unit (GPU). The clock speed of CPU
governs how fast it executes instructions and is measured in GHz; typical values lie between
1 GHz and 5 GHz. Many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which
enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved
cooling.
 The chipset, which includes the north bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and
the other components of the system, including main memory; as well as south bridge, which is
connected to the north bridge, and supports auxiliary interfaces and buses; and, finally,
a Super I/O chip, connected through the south bridge, which supports the slowest and most
legacy components like serial ports, hardware monitoring and fan control.
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 29

 Random-access memory (RAM), which stores the code and data that are being actively
accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes
up memory; this is stored in the RAM until the web browser is closed. It is typically a type
of dynamic RAM (DRAM), such as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), where MOS memory chips
store data on memory cells consisting of MOSFETs and MOS capacitors. RAM usually comes
on dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs) in the sizes of 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much
larger.
 Read-only memory (ROM), which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on
or otherwise begins execution, a process known as Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting up".
The ROM is typically a nonvolatile BIOS memory chip, which stores data on floating-gate
MOSFET memory cells.
o The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) includes boot firmware and power management
firmware. Newer motherboards use Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead
of BIOS.
 Buses that connect the CPU to various internal components and to expand cards for graphics
and sound.
 The CMOS (complementary MOS) battery, which powers the CMOS memory for date and time
in the BIOS chip. This battery is generally a watch battery.
 The video card (also known as the graphics card), which processes computer graphics. More
powerful graphics cards are better suited to handle strenuous tasks, such as playing
intensive video games or running computer graphics software. A video card contains
a graphics processing unit (GPU) and video memory (typically a type of SDRAM), both
fabricated on MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) chips.
 Power MOSFETs make up the voltage regulator module (VRM), which controls how
much voltage other hardware components receive.[8]
Expansion cards[edit]
Main article: Expansion card
An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion
slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the
motherboard.
Storage devices[edit]
Main article: Computer data storage
A storage device is any computing hardware and digital media that is used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and
permanently and can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar computing device.
Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers.
Fixed media[edit]
Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are found in
virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives (SSDs)
are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives in terms of
dollar per gigabyte,[10] so are often found in personal computers built post-2007.[11] SSDs use flash
memory, which stores data on MOS memory chips consisting of floating-gate MOSFET memory
cells. Some systems may use a disk array controller for greater performance or reliability.
Removable media[edit]
To transfer data between computers, an external flash memory device (such as a memory
card or USB flash drive) or optical disc (such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or BD-ROM) may be used.
Their usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have
an optical disk drive (ODD), and virtually all have at least one Universal Serial Bus (USB) port.
Additionally, USB sticks are typically pre-formatted with the FAT32 file system, which is widely
supported across operating systems.
Input and output peripherals[edit]
Main article: Peripheral
Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The
following are either standard or very common to many computer systems.
Input device[edit]
Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 30

a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks,

and image scanners.
Output device[edit]
Output devices are designed around the senses of human beings. For example, monitors display
text that can be read, speakers produce sound that can be heard.[12] Such devices also could
include printers or a Braille embosser.

COMPUTER HARDWARE BY BRITANNICA

Computer hardware

The physical elements of a computer, its hardware, are generally divided into the central
processing unit (CPU), main memory (or random-access memory, RAM), and peripherals. The last
class encompasses all sorts of input and output (I/O) devices: keyboard, display monitor, printer,
disk drives, network connections, scanners, and more.

The CPU and RAM are integrated circuits (ICs)—small silicon wafers, or chips, that contain

thousands or millions of transistors that function as electrical switches. In 1965 Gordon Moore, one
of the founders of Intel, stated what has become known as Moore’s law: the number of transistors
on a chip doubles about every 18 months. Moore suggested that financial constraints would soon
cause his law to break down, but it has been remarkably accurate for far longer than he
first envisioned. It now appears that technical constraints may finally invalidate Moore’s law, since
sometime between 2010 and 2020 transistors would have to consist of only a few atoms each, at
which point the laws of quantum physics imply that they would cease to function reliably.

Moore's law
Moore's law. Gordon E. Moore observed that the number of transistors on a computer
chip was doubling about every 18–24 months. As shown in the logarithmic graph of the
number of transistors on Intel's processors at the time of their introduction, his “law” was
being obeyed.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Central processing unit

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The CPU provides the circuits that implement the computer’s instruction set—its machine

language. It is composed of an arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) and control circuits. The ALU carries out
basic arithmetic and logic operations, and the control section determines the sequence of
operations, including branch instructions that transfer control from one part of a program to
another. Although the main memory was once considered part of the CPU, today it is regarded as
separate. The boundaries shift, however, and CPU chips now also contain some high-speed cache
memory where data and instructions are temporarily stored for fast access.

The ALU has circuits that add, subtract, multiply, and divide two arithmetic values, as well as
circuits for logic operations such as AND and OR (where a 1 is interpreted as true and a 0 as false,
so that, for instance, 1 AND 0 = 0; see Boolean algebra). The ALU has several to more than a
hundred registers that temporarily hold results of its computations for further arithmetic operations
or for transfer to main memory.

The circuits in the CPU control section provide branch instructions, which make elementary
decisions about what instruction to execute next. For example, a branch instruction might be “If the
result of the last ALU operation is negative, jump to location A in the program; otherwise, continue
with the following instruction.” Such instructions allow “if-then-else” decisions in a program and
execution of a sequence of instructions, such as a “while-loop” that repeatedly does some set of
instructions while some condition is met. A related instruction is the subroutine call, which transfers
execution to a subprogram and then, after the subprogram finishes, returns to the main program
where it left off.

In a stored-program computer, programs and data in memory are indistinguishable. Both

are bit patterns—strings of 0s and 1s—that may be interpreted either as data or as program
instructions, and both are fetched from memory by the CPU. The CPU has a program counter that
holds the memory address (location) of the next instruction to be executed. The basic operation of
the CPU is the “fetch-decode-execute” cycle:

 Fetch the instruction from the address held in the program counter, and store it in a register.
 Decode the instruction. Parts of it specify the operation to be done, and parts specify the
data on which it is to operate. These may be in CPU registers or in memory locations. If it is
a branch instruction, part of it will contain the memory address of the next instruction to
execute once the branch condition is satisfied.
 Fetch the operands, if any.
 Execute the operation if it is an ALU operation.
 Store the result (in a register or in memory), if there is one.
 Update the program counter to hold the next instruction location, which is either the next
memory location or the address specified by a branch instruction.

Main memory

The earliest forms of computer main memory were mercury delay lines, which were tubes of
mercury that stored data as ultrasonic waves, and cathode-ray tubes, which stored data as
charges on the tubes’ screens. The magnetic drum, invented about 1948, used an iron oxide
coating on a rotating drum to store data and programs as magnetic patterns.

In a binary computer any bistable device (something that can be placed in either of two states) can
represent the two possible bit values of 0 and 1 and can thus serve as computer
memory. Magnetic-core memory, the first relatively cheap RAM device, appeared in 1952. It was
composed of tiny, doughnut-shaped ferrite magnets threaded on the intersection points of a two-
dimensional wire grid. These wires carried currents to change the direction of each core’s
magnetization, while a third wire threaded through the doughnut detected its magnetic orientation.

The first integrated circuit (IC) memory chip appeared in 1971. IC memory stores a bit in a

transistor-capacitor combination. The capacitor holds a charge to represent a 1 and no charge for
a 0; the transistor switches it between these two states. Because a capacitor charge gradually
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 32

decays, IC memory is dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must have its stored values refreshed
periodically (every 20 milliseconds or so). There is also static RAM (SRAM), which does not have
to be refreshed. Although faster than DRAM, SRAM uses more transistors and is thus more costly;
it is used primarily for CPU internal registers and cache memory.

In addition to main memory, computers generally have special video memory (VRAM) to hold
graphical images, called bitmaps, for the computer display. This memory is often dual-ported—a
new image can be stored in it at the same time that its current data is being read and displayed.

It takes time to specify an address in a memory chip, and, since memory is slower than a CPU,
there is an advantage to memory that can transfer a series of words rapidly once the first address
is specified. One such design is known as synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), which became widely
used by 2001.

Nonetheless, data transfer through the “bus”—the set of wires that connect the CPU to memory
and peripheral devices—is a bottleneck. For that reason, CPU chips now contain cache memory—
a small amount of fast SRAM. The cache holds copies of data from blocks of main memory. A well-
designed cache allows up to 85–90 percent of memory references to be done from it in typical
programs, giving a several-fold speedup in data access.

The time between two memory reads or writes (cycle time) was about 17 microseconds (millionths
of a second) for early core memory and about 1 microsecond for core in the early 1970s. The first
DRAM had a cycle time of about half a microsecond, or 500 nanoseconds (billionths of a second),
and today it is 20 nanoseconds or less. An equally important measure is the cost per bit of
memory. The first DRAM stored 128 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits) and cost about $10, or $80,000 per
megabyte (millions of bytes). In 2001 DRAM could be purchased for less than $0.25 per megabyte.
This vast decline in cost made possible graphical user interfaces (GUIs), the display fonts that
word processors use, and the manipulation and visualization of large masses of data by scientific
computers.

Secondary memory

Secondary memory on a computer is storage for data and programs not in use at the moment. In
addition to punched cards and paper tape, early computers also used magnetic tape for secondary
storage. Tape is cheap, either on large reels or in small cassettes, but has the disadvantage that it
must be read or written sequentially from one end to the other.

IBM introduced the first magnetic disk, the RAMAC, in 1955; it held 5 megabytes and rented for
$3,200 per month. Magnetic disks are platters coated with iron oxide, like tape and drums. An arm
with a tiny wire coil, the read/write (R/W) head, moves radially over the disk, which is divided into
concentric tracks composed of small arcs, or sectors, of data. Magnetized regions of the disk
generate small currents in the coil as it passes, thereby allowing it to “read” a sector; similarly, a
small current in the coil will induce a local magnetic change in the disk, thereby “writing” to a
sector. The disk rotates rapidly (up to 15,000 rotations per minute), and so the R/W head can
rapidly reach any sector on the disk.

Early disks had large removable platters. In the 1970s IBM introduced sealed disks with fixed
platters known as Winchester disks—perhaps because the first ones had two 30-megabyte
platters, suggesting the Winchester 30-30 rifle. Not only was the sealed disk protected against dirt,
the R/W head could also “fly” on a thin air film, very close to the platter. By putting the head closer
to the platter, the region of oxide film that represented a single bit could be much smaller, thus
increasing storage capacity. This basic technology is still used.
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 33

computer hard drive

Computer hard drive.
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
Refinements have included putting multiple platters—10 or more—in a single disk drive, with a pair
of R/W heads for the two surfaces of each platter in order to increase storage and data transfer
rates. Even greater gains have resulted from improving control of the radial motion of the disk arm
from track to track, resulting in denser distribution of data on the disk. By 2002 such densities had
reached over 8,000 tracks per centimetre (20,000 tracks per inch), and a platter the diameter of a
coin could hold over a gigabyte of data. In 2002 an 80-gigabyte disk cost about $200—only one
ten-millionth of the 1955 cost and representing an annual decline of nearly 30 percent, similar to
the decline in the price of main memory.

Optical storage devices—CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory) and DVD-ROM (digital

videodisc, or versatile disc)—appeared in the mid-1980s and ’90s. They both represent bits as tiny
pits in plastic, organized in a long spiral like a phonograph record, written and read with lasers. A
CD-ROM can hold 2 gigabytes of data, but the inclusion of error-correcting codes (to correct for
dust, small defects, and scratches) reduces the usable data to 650 megabytes. DVDs are denser,
have smaller pits, and can hold 17 gigabytes with error correction.
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DVD to CD comparison
The DVD player uses a laser that is higher-powered and has a correspondingly finer focus
point than that of the CD player. This enables it to resolve shorter pits and narrower
separation tracks and thereby accounts for the DVD's greater storage capacity.
encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
Optical storage devices are slower than magnetic disks, but they are well suited for making master
copies of software or for multimedia (audio and video) files that are read sequentially. There are
also writable and rewritable CD-ROMs (CD-R and CD-RW) and DVD-ROMs (DVD-R and DVD-
RW) that can be used like magnetic tapes for inexpensive archiving and sharing of data.

The decreasing cost of memory continues to make new uses possible. A single CD-ROM can store
100 million words, more than twice as many words as are contained in the printed Encyclopedia
Britannica. A DVD can hold a feature-length motion picture. Nevertheless, even larger and faster
storage systems, such as three-dimensional optical media, are being developed for handling data
for computer simulations of nuclear reactions, astronomical data, and medical data, including X-ray
images. Such applications typically require many terabytes (1 terabyte = 1,000 gigabytes) of
storage, which can lead to further complications in indexing and retrieval.

Peripherals

Computer peripherals are devices used to input information and instructions into a computer for
storage or processing and to output the processed data. In addition, devices that enable
the transmission and reception of data between computers are often classified as peripherals.

Input devices

A plethora of devices falls into the category of input peripheral. Typical examples include
keyboards, mice, trackballs, pointing sticks, joysticks, digital tablets, touch pads, and scanners.

Keyboards contain mechanical or electromechanical switches that change the flow of current

through the keyboard when depressed. A microprocessor embedded in the keyboard interprets
these changes and sends a signal to the computer. In addition to letter and number keys, most
keyboards also include “function” and “control” keys that modify input or send special commands to
the computer.

Mechanical mice and trackballs operate alike, using a rubber or rubber-coated ball that turns two
 E L T 1 : L I V I N G I N T H E I T E R A P a g e | 35

shafts connected to a pair of encoders that measure the horizontal and vertical components of a
user’s movement, which are then translated into cursor movement on a computer monitor. Optical
mice employ a light beam and camera lens to translate motion of the mouse into cursor movement.

computer mouse
Computer mouse.
encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
Pointing sticks, which are popular on many laptop systems, employ a technique that uses a
pressure-sensitive resistor. As a user applies pressure to the stick, the resistor increases the flow
of electricity, thereby signaling that movement has taken place. Most joysticks operate in a similar
manner.

Digital tablets and touch pads are similar in purpose and functionality. In both cases, input is taken
from a flat pad that contains electrical sensors that detect the presence of either a special tablet
pen or a user’s finger, respectively.

A scanner is somewhat akin to a photocopier. A light source illuminates the object to be scanned,

and the varying amounts of reflected light are captured and measured by an analog-to-digital
converter attached to light-sensitive diodes. The diodes generate a pattern of binary digits that are
stored in the computer as a graphical image.

V. Output devices

Printers are a common example of output devices. New

multifunction peripherals that integrate printing, scanning, and copying into a single device are also
popular. Computer monitors are sometimes treated as peripherals. High-fidelity sound systems are
another example of output devices often classified as computer peripherals. Manufacturers have
announced devices that provide tactile feedback to the user—“force feedback” joysticks, for
example. This highlights the complexity of classifying peripherals—a joystick with force feedback is
truly both an input and an output peripheral.

Early printers often used a process known as impact printing, in which a small number of pins were
driven into a desired pattern by an electromagnetic printhead. As each pin was driven forward, it
struck an inked ribbon and transferred a single dot the size of the pinhead to the paper. Multiple
dots combined into a matrix to form characters and graphics, hence the name dot matrix. Another
early print technology, daisy-wheel printers, made impressions of whole characters with a single
blow of an electromagnetic printhead, similar to an electric typewriter. Laser printers have replaced
such printers in most commercial settings. Laser printers employ a focused beam of light to etch
patterns of positively charged particles on the surface of a cylindrical drum made of negatively
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charged organic, photosensitive material. As the drum rotates, negatively charged toner particles
adhere to the patterns etched by the laser and are transferred to the paper. Another, less
expensive printing technology developed for the home and small businesses is inkjet printing. The
majority of inkjet printers operate by ejecting extremely tiny droplets of ink to form characters in a
matrix of dots—much like dot matrix printers.

Computer display devices have been in use almost as long as computers themselves. Early

computer displays employed the same cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) used
in television and radar systems. The fundamental principle behind CRT displays is the emission of
a controlled stream of electrons that strike light-emitting phosphors coating the inside of the
screen. The screen itself is divided into multiple scan lines, each of which contains a number of
pixels—the rough equivalent of dots in a dot matrix printer. The resolution of a monitor is
determined by its pixel size. More recent liquid crystal displays (LCDs) rely on liquid crystal cells
that realign incoming polarized light. The realigned beams pass through a filter that permits only
those beams with a particular alignment to pass. By controlling the liquid crystal cells with electrical
charges, various colors or shades are made to appear on the screen.

REFERENCES

J.J. Parsons, D. Oja, 2013. Understanding Computer Concepts Second Edition.

DICT Digital Literacy Module 1a_Computer Essential v2.ppt