REVIEW

CLAUSES AND
SENTENCES.
PASSIVE VOICE.
What is a clause?
Is the basic unit of grammar. A clause must contain a verb. Typically a clause is made up of a
subject, a verb phrase and, sometimes, a complement:

• I’ve eaten.
• The sale starts at 9 am.
• I didn’t sleep well last night.
• Are you listening to the radio?
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a unit of grammar. It must contain at least one main clause. It can contain more
than one clause. In writing, a sentence typically begins with a capital letter and ends with a full
stop:

• She spoke to me. (one clause)

• I looked at her and she smiled at me. (two main clauses connected by and)
• We didn’t go to the show because there weren’t any tickets left. (a main clause and a
subordinate clause connected by because)
Objects.
An object is one of the five major elements of clause structure.
Objects are typically noun phrases (a noun or pronoun and any dependent words before or
after it). Objects normally follow the verb in a clause:

• Everyone likes her. She knows everyone.

• They didn’t take their mountain bikes with them.

A: Have you seen the car keys?

B: Yes I had them earlier.
Objects
There are direct objects and indirect objects. A direct object (in bold) is the thing or person that
is affected by the action of the verb. An indirect object (underlined) is usually a person (or
animal) who receives a direct object:

• They gave her a present when she left.

• Can you get me some butter?

An indirect object always needs a direct object with it and always comes before the direct
object.
Relative clauses.
Relative clauses give us more information about someone or something. We can use relative
clauses to combine clauses without repeating information.
Defining and Non-defining relative clauses.
Defining and non-defining relative clauses define or describe the noun (or noun phrase) that
comes before them (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing that
is referred to is underlined.):

He’s going to show you the rooms that are available. (that are available defines the rooms; it
tells us which rooms)

Dodingson, 22, who boxed in two Olympics, will be managed by his close friend Colin
McFarllan. (who boxed in two Olympics describes Dodingson; it is extra information about him)
Defining relative clauses.
We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something –
information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining
relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.
We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a
defining relative clause:

• They’re the people who want to buy our house. subject

• Here are some cells which have been affected. subject
• They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most. object
They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.
[talking about an actress]

• She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb. We can exchange
who, which / that.
Non-defining relative clauses.
We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is
not necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.
We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining
relative clause.

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.
Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account
for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.
Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a
teaching course in the autumn.
In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses
Relative clauses –
defining relative clauses |
LearnEnglish
(britishcouncil.org)
Relative pronouns -
who, which, whose
- Exercise
(englisch-hilfen.de)
Passive voice.
We use passive voice when we don’t specify who performed an activity. We
use verb to be + past participle of the verb.

Leonard bought a house in the Eastern area.

A house was bought in the Eastern area.

You have to wash them with colour clothes.

They are washed with colour clothes.
Active or Passive sentences - Exercises (englisch-hilfen.de)
Active or Passive sentences in English - Online Exercise (englisch-hilfen.de)
Active and Passive voice - Complex Test English - Intermediate (englisch-hilfen.de)
 Participle clauses.
A participle is a form of a verb - either ING or Past Participle (3rd form of a verb). A participle clause
is a subordinate clause which begins with a participle. They act like adverbs and are linked to the
main clause of a sentence. They usually show things like event order, time, cause and effect:

• Stepping on camera, I relaxed completely. (When I stepped on camera)

• Filmed inside, the footage was too dark to use. (Because it was filmed inside)
• Fried in lemon, the fish would taste delicious. (if the fish were fried in lemon)
• Turning round slowly, I tried hard not to make a sound. (As I was turning round slowly)

An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (he sings

loudly), an adjective (very tall), another adverb (ended too
quickly), or even a whole sentence (Fortunately, I had brought
an umbrella).
Participle clauses.
It is very important to remember that participle verbs do not change their form to show tense. This
actually happens in the main clause, and participle clauses usually mimic the same tense as the main
clause:

Stepping on camera, I relaxed completely. (When I stepped)

Stepping on camera, I relax completely. (When I step)
Stepping on camera, I will relax completely. (When I step - future time clause)

However, it is possible to put a tense in a participle clause by itself. For example:

Knowing I was filming today, I wore a shirt.

Tense : (past, present, future…)

Participle clauses.
Participle clauses often have implied subjects. This means that the subject of the participle
clause is the same as the subject of the main clause and so it is omitted in the participle
clause. For example:

Seeing the mistake, she corrected it immediately. (When/ because she saw)
Feeling unwell, he went to the doctor. (Because he felt unwell)

However, it is possible for a participle clause to have its own subject – and this is a little
bit more formal. So, for example:

Seeing she had made the mistake, she corrected it immediately.

Be careful not to make a participle clause with a confusing subject:

Seeing it fall, the tree hit me in the back. (This implies the tree saw it fall - Better to say 'As I saw it fall' or
'When I saw it fall')
Feeling weak, the boy attacked the man. (Who is feeling weak here? - Better to say 'While the man was
feeling weak, the boy attacked him')
Participle clauses.
To make a participle clause negative, we use ‘not’, and this comes before the participle verb. So,
for example:

Not knowing the baby slept, she phoned.

Not seeing the bus, the dog stepped into the road.
Not saying anything, she poured the glass of water over his head.

To make clear that one action is finished before the action in the main clause is begun, we use Having
+ the past participle. And this basically works the same way as ‘because’ or ‘after’. So, compare:

Putting away the equipment, they talked about going home. (While putting away...)
Having put away the equipment, they went home. (After they had put away...)

Other examples:
Having been to France, I can speak French. (Because I have been)
Having unpacked the suitcases, she took a shower. (After unpacking.)
Having decided what to do, I made my move. (Because I had decided)
Finally, all sorts of prepositions can sit before the participle verb to further emphasise or clarify
events’ order, time, cause and effect. Words like after, before, since, while and with. So for example:

After eating, we sat on the couch.

Before leaving for work, they watched TV.
While waiting, I thought about my family.
Since coming to England, I have met a lot of new people.
By practising every day, she passed her driving test. (Because she practised - this describes the method)
Without knowing it, I had ruined everything. (Although I didn't know it)

1. Present participles have a similar meaning to active verbs.

2. Past participles normally have a passive meaning.
3. Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the
main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.

Participle clauses | LearnEnglish (britishcouncil.org)

Participle constructions in sentences - Exercise (englisch-hilfen.de)

Test English - Prepare for your English exam (test-english.com)

WORD
TRANSFORMATION

Exercises
Test Prep: B2 First (First Certificate in English) | Key
Word Transformations Exercise 2 | esl-lounge Student