Block-01 Industrial Pollution - Textile, Mining, Pesticide and Tanning Industries

ignou MEVE-004
THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY Industrial Sector
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Mining,

Pesticide and Tanning Industries 1
MEVE-004
Industrial Sector
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Block
1
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION: TEXTILE, MINING,
PESTICIDE AND TANNING INDUSTRIES
UNIT 1
Textile Industry 5
UNIT 2
Mining Industry 20
UNIT 3
Pesticide Industry 34
UNIT 4
Tanning Industry 51
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani Dr. Rachna Agarwal Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
Professor, National Institute of Urban School of Vocational Education and Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Affairs (NIUA) India Habitat Centre Training, Indira Gandhi National School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
New Delhi Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
New Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. R. Baskar University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Department of Environmental Science Prof. Daizy R Batish
& Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar Department of Botany, Panjab Prof. Ruchika Kuba Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
University of University, Chandigarh School of HealthSciences, Indira School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Science & Technology, Hisar Haryana Gandhi National Open University, disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
Prof. M. Krishnan New Delhi National Open University
Prof. H.J. Shiva Prasad Vice Chancellor, Madurai Kamraj New Delhi
Professor of Civil Engineering University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
College of Technology, G.B. Pant School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
UniversityofAgriculture & Technology Dr. Chirashree Ghosh Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand Department of Environmental Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Universityof Delhi, University, New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Dr. T.K. Joshi New Delhi New Delhi
Director, Occupational & Dr. Shachi Shah
Environmental Programme, Centre for Mr. Ravi Agarwal Environmental Studies,
Director, Toxic Link, Jangpura Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
Occupational & Environmental School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and
Health, Maulana Azad Medical Extension, New Delhi Trans-disciplinary Studies Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
College, New Delhi Prof. Jaswant Sokhi Indira Gandhi National Open Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, New Delhi New Delhi
Prof. Nilima Srivastava
School of Gender and Development National Open University, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open New Delhi Environmental Studies
University, New Delhi Dr. B. Rupini School of Interdisciplinary and
Environmental Studies, School Trans-disciplinary Studies
Prof. S.K. Yadav Indira Gandhi National Open
School of Agriculture of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi University, New Delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi National Open University,
New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Dr Gurmeet Kaur Dr. Geetha Srikanth, Amrita Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Studies, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi Dept of Geology, Panjab Vishwa Vidyapeetam, Coimbatore, Environmental Studies, SOITS,
University, Chandigarh) Tamil Nadu IGNOU, New Delhi
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Ruchika Kuba
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, Indira
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi Gandhi National Open University,
Open University, National Open University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATORS CONTENT EDITORS

Dr. Deeksha Dave Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, Soits, Ignou, New Delhi
Environmental Studies, Dr.Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, Soits, Ignou, New Delhi
Trans-disciplinary Studies, Prof. Ruchika Kuba, school of health science, ignou, new delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi
FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
University, New Delhi New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance: Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. S. Burman Mr. Y. N. Sharma Mr. Sudhir
Deputy Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Asst. Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Section Officer (P) IGNOU, New Delhi
February, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88980-08-1
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Post Graduate Diploma in Environmental and Occupational
Health (PGDEOH) of IGNOU. The curriculum prepared for this programme is
relevant and significant in the present day scenario. This programme is in
consensus with the mission of Environmental and Occupational Health which is
to prevent adverse health effects related to chemical and biological contaminants
in the Environmental and Occupational exposures through education, research
and service.
This elective course is entitled “Industrial Sector”. This course consists of 4

blocks comprising of 14 Units.
Block 1 deals with Industrial Pollution: Textile, Tanning, Pesticide and Tanning
Industries. In this block we tried to explain the main link between industrial
pollution and effects of these industrial pollutants on the natural environment
and human health. The block also deals with the treatment, disposal and
management of the wastes generated from these industries.
Block 2 deals with Industrial Pollution: Automobile, Paint, Pharmaceutical,

Personal care products, Construction and other industries. The block explains
the linkages between industrial pollution and effects of these industrial pollutants
on the ecosystem and human health. The block also deals with the treatment,
disposal and management of the wastes generated from these industries. The
last unit in the block explains the types of waste generated at construction industry,
iron and steel industry, sugar/distilleries industry, paper and pulp, computer/
so ftware ind ustry and the petroleum industry. The occupational and
environmental hazards of these industries have also been explained.
Block 3 deals with Industrial risk assessment and safety acts. The block explains
on the Industrial Risk Assessment and Hazard Identification, Industrial safety
laws, and Industrial standards. The units describe the various hazard identification
processes and techniques to handle hazards in the industries. Further the acts
related to the industrial sector for the health and safety of workers is also detailed.
The last unit in the block explains the Bureau of Indian standards on safety and
health.
Block 4 deals with Industrial Safety Management. The block details on the
industry safety policies, accident statistics and reporting systems. Some case
studies on industrial disasters have been explained. The functions of safety
managers in industries have been described along with safety organization.
Finally the block describes the training for safety programmes in industries and
the importance of trade unions.
All these Blocks will provide you with sufficient knowledge about the pollutants,
management, hazards, risk assessment, standards and laws pertaining to the
industrial sector.
Industrial Pollution: Textile,
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning INTRODUCTION TO BLOCK 1
Industries
This block focuses on the sources and types of pollutants in the textile, mining,
pesticide and tanning industry. The industrial sector is very important for the
economy of a country, for providing job opportunities to the population and in
the export/ import of materials in and out of the country. The industrial workers
can be exposed to various chemicals, physical and biological hazards due to the
various processes involved. This can impact the health of the workers. The
industrial hazards can cause injury or death to personnel or loss of product or
property.
Unit 1 deals with the textile industry and its impacts on the environment and
human health. The textile industry is a major sector in our country. Textile
manufacturing uses a number of processes and these use different types of
chemicals which can be harmful and toxic to human health as well as the
environment. The unit also explains the occupational hazards of the textile
industry. Finally it discusses the management aspects for health and safety in
the sector.
Unit 2 deals with the mining industry and its impacts on the environment and
human health. Minerals account for natural wealth of any country. The economic
well being and development of a country to a great extent depends on its mineral
resources. The unit describes in detail the sources and different types of waste
generated by the mining industry. The lack of safety measures and hazardous
mining practices make the workers in this industry more vulnerable to diseases
and accidents. The unit also explains the various effects on health and
environment and the management practices in this industrial sector.
Unit 3 deals with the pesticide industry and its impacts on the environment and
human health. Pesticides are used in the agricultural sector to destroy the harmful
bugs. The over use of these cause environmental and human health disorders.
The unit explains the types of pesticide wastes and also the management practices.
Unit 4 deals with the tanning industry and its impacts on the environment and
human health. The tanning industry or the leather industry is one of the most
polluting industries and it has been designated as a hazardous industry under
the Factory Act, 1948. The use of different chemicals during leather processing,
produces toxic wastes in solid, liquid and gaseous forms. The unit finally
describes the occupational and environmental hazards faced in this industry and
some management practices.
4
Textile Industry
UNIT 1 TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Sources and Type of Pollutants in the Textile Industry
1.2.1 Background
1.2.2 Sources and Type of Pollutants
1.3 Waste from Textile Industries
1.4 Occupational and Environmental Hazards
1.4.1 Occupational Hazards
1.4.2 Environmental Hazards
1.5 Effects on Human Health
1.6 Management of Waste and Hazards
1.6.1 Treatment Methods
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Key Words
1.9 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the various sources and types of pollutants in the textile industry;
 understand the occupational hazards associated by working in this industry;
 explain the effects on human health; and
 describe the different management practices involved in handling textile
wastes.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The industrial sector is very important for the economy of a country, for providing
job opportunities to the population and in the export/ import of materials in and
out of the country. There are so many industries and the textile industry is a
major sector in our country. We all love to wear different clothes be it woollen,
cotton, silk and so on. We also possess blankets and shawls to keep us warm.
Textile processing uses chemicals which can be harmful and toxic to human
health. Let us see from the starting regarding the type of the crop used for the
production of textiles. The farms which produce raw materials for fabrics use a
lot of water. These crops include: flax, hemp and cotton. In order to protect
these crops from insects and weed infestation the farmers use variety of
agricultural pesticides and herbicides. These chemicals finally show up in our
environment. Cotton is supposed to be the most pesticide-intensive crops in the
world. Certain other textile crops consume lot of natural resources. Rayon is an
artificial fabric made from wood pulp. It has depleted many forest resources. 5
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Further rayon processing uses hazardous chemicals that also harm our
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning
Industries
environment. Nylon processing releases greenhouse gasses that are harmful to
the environment. Textile manufacturing uses a number of processes. They include:
bleaching, dyeing, and washing which consume large amounts of water. The
waste of the textile industries release salts and surfactants and also heavy metals
like lead, mercury, and arsenic. All these are toxic to human health as they can
enter the groundwater and contaminate our drinking water supplies.
Let us now learn about the textile industry wastes and their impacts on human
health and our environment in detail.
1.2 SOURCES AND TYPE OF POLLUTANTS IN

THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY
1.2.1 Background
The textile industries create a lot of employment opportunities as clothes are
essential and also a fashion. Therefore these industries have great economic
importance. In India, there are approximately 2324 textile industries which
include 83 composite mills, 2241 semi composite and processing units. The
states of Maharashtra (Bombay known as the Manchester of India), Tamil Nadu,
Gujarat and Punjab have large number of textile industries with 81 % of the
total industries in the country. The textile industries convert the obtained fibres
into yarn. The yarn is converted to fabrics. Various dyes, chemicals, sizing and
finishing agents are used in the different stages of production. So the waste
released also can have various types which can be hazardous to the environment
as well as human health.
Let us now learn about the various chemicals and sources of pollutants in the
textile industry.
1.2.2 Sources and Type of Pollutants

1) Air pollutants
Textile mills release gaseous emissions giving rise to air pollution. The air
emissions can be from boilers, ovens, storage tanks, solvent-based
wastewater treatment plants, warehouses, spills, thermo pack and diesel
generators that generate gaseous pollutants and suspended particulate matter.
Textile mills generate nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides from boilers.
Table 1.1: Sources of air pollutants from textile industries
Source Type of air pollutant
Boilers Nitrous oxide, sulphur dioxide, particulates
Coating, drying, curing Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Sizing Nitrous oxide, sulphur oxide, carbo n
monoxide
Dyeing Aniline vapours, hydrogen sulphide
Printing Hydrocarbons, ammonia
Finishing Formaldehyde vapours, VOCs, combustion
gases
6
Air pollutants are also released from resin finishing, drying operations, Textile Industry
printing, dyeing, fabric preparation, and wastewater treatment plants.
Hydrocarbons, mineral oils, formaldehyde, acids, softeners, and other
volatile compounds are emitted from drying ovens and high-temperature
drying/curing processes.
2) Water Pollutants
Several mills discharge millions of gallons of toxic hazardous effluents
loaded with chemicals, dyes, sulphur, naphthol, vat dyes, nitrates, acetic
acid, soaps, chromium compounds and heavy metals like copper, arsenic,
lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt and certain auxiliary chemicals.
Other harmful chemicals present in the water may be formaldehyde based
dye fixing agents, hydro carbon based softeners and non bio degradable
dyeing chemicals. Solvents are released during dyeing processes and from
wastewater treatment plants. Carriers are used in batch dyeingthat disperses
dyes. These lead to the volatilization of aqueous chemical emulsions during
heat setting, drying, or curing stages. The water pollutants vary according
to the production facilities. The pollutants include salts, surfactants, ionic
metals and their metal complexes, toxic organic chemicals, biocides and
toxic anions.
Table 1.2: Sources of water pollutants from textile industries
Source Type of water pollutant
Waste water treatment Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Scouring Insecticides, disinfectants, detergents, oils,
solvents
Bleaching Chlorine compounds, hydrogen peroxide
Mercerising High pH, sodium hydroxide
Dyeing Metals, salts, surfactants, dyes
Printing Urea, solvents
Finishing Spent solvents, suspended solids
3) Solid Waste Pollutants
Table 1.3: Sources of solid waste pollutants from textile industries
Source Type of solid waste pollutants
Mechanical processes: Yarn, Fibres, yarn, cloth scraps
knitting, weaving
Dyeing and finishing processes: Cloth scraps, dye and chemical
Sizing, desizing, mercerising, containers
bleaching, washing
Wool processing: Scouring, dyeing, Wool, wax, vegetable matter,
finishing
Waste water treatment plants Fibre, sludge
Workshops Scrap metal, cloth, oil
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Industrial Pollution: Textile, These pollutants include fabric and yarn materials. The wastes are released
Industries
from the cutting rooms, chemical storage drums, cardboard reels for storing
fabric and cones used to hold yarns for dyeing and knitting.
1.3 WASTE FROM TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

Waste is defined as any substance that has no further use or value for a person or
an organization and is discarded. Textile wastes create environmental problems
as tons of these wastes can lie piled up. Textile wastes in landfills forms leachates
and contaminates groundwater. Organic fibres and wool on decomposition release
ammonia and methane which are toxic to life and environment. Textiles like
polyester and nylon are non biodegradable and persist in the environment for
long periods. They take years to breakdown.
Industrial textile processes generate liquid, gaseous and solid wastes which can
be hazardous. The type of waste generated is dependent on the type of textile
facility, the processes and technologies that are used and also the type of fibres
and chemicals used for making the cloth.
a) Total Dissolved Solids: This includes salts, glauber salt and so on which
directly increase the total dissolved solids (TDS) levelin the effluents. Again
this is also difficult for treatment using conventional systems. The disposal
of textile wastes with high TDS can increase the TDS in the surface and
ground waters.
b) Toxic Metals: The textile waste waters are also characterized by toxic metal
contents. Caustic soda used for processing can contain mercury. Also dyes
contain metalized mordent dyes. Chromium is mostly used in the metal
complex dyes.
c) Residual Chlorine: Chlorine compounds are used frequently in textile

processing. The residual chlorine can react with other compounds in the
waste waters forming toxic substances.
d) Detergents: Detergents like nonyl phenol ethoylates are used and can be
toxic to aquatic organisms. They can increase the chemical oxygen demand
(COD) of the waste waters.
e) Organic pollutants: These pollutants include dyes, acids, sizing materials,

enzymes, tallow and so on. Such impurities are reflected in the analysis of
bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) and COD.
f) Stain remover: Oxalic acid is used for the stain removal of rust. Carbon
tetrachloride is used as solvents. These are hazardous substances.
g) Sequestering agents: They include chemicals like Trisodium polyphosphate

and sodium hexametaphosphate.
h) Printing gums: preservatives like pentachlorophenol can cause dermititis,

liver and kidney damage are all banned chemicals
i) Fixing agents: They include: formaldehyde and benzidine chemicals.
8
j) Bleaching agents: Chlorine is used in bleaching textiles. This is toxic and Textile Industry
known to cause irritation and water toxicity.
k) Dyeing: Azo dyes which release amines are banned because they are known
carcinogens
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Explain the sources and types of pollutants in textile industries.
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2) Describe the different types of wastes generated from textile industries.
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1.4 OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

HAZARDS
The textile industry sector employs millions of workers. A large number of women
are also employed in this sector. Both occupational hazards and environmental
hazards from these industries will be discussed in detail in the following
paragraphs.
1.4.1 Occupational Hazards

The textiles sector is hazardous for the workers. They are exposed to noise,
machinery, chemical substances which can lead to occupational hazards. Women
workers are at greater risk at the industries as they are more easily vulnerable to
the toxicants. The different processing stages from the production of materials
to the manufacturing, finishing, colouring and packaging have occupational risks
to the workers. The hazardous substances include:
9
Industrial Pollution: Textile, a) Substances used in work activities (e.g. adhesives, solvents, cleaning agents);
Industries b) Substances generated during work activities (fumes from soldering,
welding);
c) Naturally occurring substances (dust, fibres); and
d) Biological agents (bacteria, other micro-organisms).
a) Musculoskeletal disorders: These health issues arise during lifting, holding,
putting down, pushing, pulling, carrying or movement of a load. It is the
largest cause of injury in the textile industry. It can result in lower back
pain, cuts, and bruises. Musculoskeletal disorders normally arise from bad
postures when working with cutting of textiles, spinning, cutting, product
control and packaging processes.
Exposure to chemical agents: Workers are exposed to a variety of chemicals

like dyes, solvents, flame retardants, heavy metals, antimicrobial agents
and so on. They can cause respiratory and skin disorders. Some cases of
carcinogenesis are also reported in textile sectors. Studies have also shown
that there is an increased risk of nasal, laryngeal and bladder cancer in
women workers. Long-term and accidental over exposure to dyes and
chemicals cause health hazards. Reactive dyes cause respiratory problems.
The symptoms include: itching, watery eyes, sneezing, asthma, coughing
and wheezing. The dyes also are irritants and cause skin irritation, itchy or
blocked noses, sneezing and sore eyes. The chemicals such as formaldehyde-
based resins, ammonia, acetic acid, optical whiteners, soda ash, caustic
soda and bleach cause skin irritation. Further vat dyes and disperse dyes
are sensitive to the skin causing health effects. Working with corrosive
chemicals cause burns. Also certain chemicals like sodium hydrosulphite
can cause violent reactions that can be dangerous.
b) Fire: This is a common hazard that may arise from the use of flammable
liquids that are easily ignited. It can also be caused by oxidising agents that
make an existing fire more intense. The presence of large quantities of dry
fabric or paper can increase the risk and spread of fires. Faulty electrical
wiring can also cause fires.
c) Exposure to dusts and fibres: Workers are also exposed to silk, cotton, wool,
flax, hemp and jute dust. This occurs during the processes like weaving,
spinning, cutting, ginning and packaging. The exposure to fibres and yarns
are reported to cause nasal and bladder cancer.
d) Exposure to biological agents: They have been observed in cotton, flax and
jute industries. The workers are also exposed to these agents during processes
like carding and willowing. The agents are anthrax, Clostridium tetani,
Coxiella burnetti which causes tetanus and Q-fever. It can also result in
allergies and respiratory disorders. Raw cotton can be contaminated by
bacterial agents and raw wool may be contaminated by pesticides from
sheep dips. It can result in health problems and infections.
e) Exposure to physical agents: These include noise and vibrations. They can
arise during the processes of weaving, spinning, sewing, twistingand cutting.
Also loud noise exposure can result in permanent hearing damage and
10
tinnitus. In the same way vibration and electromagnetic fields can also induce Textile Industry
long term health effects.
f) Accidents: There can be accidents in the workplace from dangerous

equipments. They can be slips while working on wet floors, accidents when
handling heavy equipments, moving machinery parts and vehicles, chemical
disasters like acid burns and so on. Also occupational risks from fire and
explosions also can occur. Certain hot chemical liquids can lead to scalding
accidents.
g) Psychosocial issues in the textiles sector: These are issues related to work-
related stress. The workers experience this when they are overburdened
and unable to cope with heavy work etc. It can be related to repetitive and
monotonous work or fast paced work or difficult work.
h) Eye Strain and Eyesight: Long term continuous visual attention in the
industry leads to eye disorders among workers. Due to lack of adequate
lighting the eye muscles are strained and are fatigued. The symptoms of
eye watering, cataract, strains and swelling in the eyes are noted among the
workers.
These are some occupational hazards seen in the textile sector.

Byssinosis
It is an occupational lung disease most common in textile industry workers.
It affects workers in cotton, hemp and flax industries. It occurs due to the
inhalation of raw flax, hemp and cotton dust. It is also known as Monday
fever, brown lung disease, mill fever or cotton workers’lung. The symptoms
of byssinosis include: asthma, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest, flu,
fever, muscle pain, joint pain, dry cough, shivering, tiredness and so on. In
severe cases there can be lung impairment.
1.4.2 Environmental Hazards

Colour and dyes are the most important chemicals used in the textile industry
which is associated with environmental hazards. Further mordants like chromium
which fix the dye to the fabric are hazardous and cause water pollution. Further
the nature of the waste depends on the type of fabric being processed, the
chemicals used, technology, operating practices and so on. The pollutants that
are generally found in the textile effluents include: dyes, toxic heavy metals,
residual chlorine, dissolved solids, non-biodegradable organics, gaseous
pollutants and suspended particulate matter. The industry may also have the raw
water treatment system, cooling towers, laboratory, workshops, fuel storage
facilities that generate waste.
a) Water pollution: Water becomes polluted when the chemicals from the
textile untreated effluents are discharged into nearby water bodies. The
effluents have high temperatures and pH that are damaging to aquatic life.
The colloidalmatter along with oily scum and colours increases the turbidity
of waters. It also gives a bad odour to the water bodies. This in turn stops
the sunlight to enter for the photosynthesis process. It interferes with the
oxygen transfer mechanism at the air-water interface. Hydrosulfides can
blocks the passage of sunlight through water body. The dissolved oxygen
11
Industrial Pollution: Textile, in water decreased which is important and essential for aquatic life. These
Industries
polluted water bodies can be a breeding place for bacteria and viruses. It
can affect the drinking water quality and is unfit for human consumption.
b) Soil pollution: The textile effluent waters can clog the pores of the soil
resulting in loss of soil productivity. The soil texture can get hard and
penetration of roots is prevented. It leads to increase in water soluble salts,
organic matter, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphate content
of soils. There is decrease in seed germination, growth, shoot and root
lengths. There is decrease in chlorophyll content in plants.
c) Air pollution: The fine fibres, dust and particulate matter can cause air
pollution. The gaseous matter released can be hazardous and toxic to the
environment.
1.5 EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

The untreated textile effluent can be harmful to human health causing long-term
health effects.
a) Dyes, chemicals and health: The textile effluent causes significant human
health disorders. Most of the dyes used are carcinogenic in nature. The
chemicals like volatile organic carbons (VOCs) evaporate into the air. This
can cause breathing problems and skin allergies. Heavy metals like copper,
arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt are not biodegradable.
They can bioaccumulate in the organs and cause organ toxicity. There can
be impairment in respiration, osmoregulation, reproduction, and finally lead
to death.
b) Noise and health: The noise levels in spinning looms can be as high as 94
– 99 decibals. It depends on the design, type of loom used and the room
size. The noise in weaving section is also almost 99 decibals. The noise is
impulsive. Many have ear pain, otitis, auditory canal problems and so on.
The workers have reduced work performance, sleeplessness, annoyance,
activation of central nervous system, increased blood pressure, high heart
rates and metabolic effects.
c) Dust, fibres and health: Dust and fibres from textile industries pose hazards.
The cotton dust causes a lung disease byssinosis. The inhalation of asbestos
dust causes asbestosis and lung disorders. As these workers are exposed to
a high amount of fibre dusts of different nature depending upon the type of
fibre used, they suffer from various respiratory ailments. The fibre dust
may contain fibres of different lengths which have different health
implications. The fibres longer than 8µm are trapped at the mesothelial
lining. The presence of Mg2+ ions on the fibres is of importance as it can
cause carcinogenicity. The fibre dusts also create oxidative stress which is
the imbalance between reactive oxygen species and the ability of the
biological system to detoxify these reactive moieties. The inhalation of
asbestos fibres causes asbestosis. Asbestos fibres have been reported to
generate reactive oxygen and nitrogen species which is reported to bring
about the oxidation and nitrosylation of DNA.
12
d) Gaseous pollutants and health: Sulphur dioxide can irritate the respiratory Textile Industry
system and cause bronchitis. Aldehydes irritate the respiratory system.
Chlorine can cause lung and eye irritation. Carbon dioxide gas combines
with h emoglobin and deprives the cells of oxygen. This causes
unconsciousness and breathing difficulties.
1.6 MANAGEMENT OF WASTE AND HAZARDS

Usually the textile waste waters have high chemical oxygen demand and high
biologicaloxygen demand. The organic pollutant load is also high and the colour
in the effluents is another important factor when treatment processes have to be
considered. There exist many pretreatment processes. These include: gravity
adsorption or neutralization, chemical oxidation, ultrafiltration, adsorption,
physico-chemicaland biological techniques. The effluent type and characteristics
determine the type of treatment technique to be used. For example, cotton based
effluents are alkaline in nature and the industry processing synthetic and woollen
textiles produce acidic effluents.
Let us now learn about some treatment techniques in the following paragraphs.
1.6.1 Treatment Methods

The processes for industrialeffluent treatment may be classified into the following
headings for easy understanding.
 Pre treatment (removes larger particles)
 Primary treatment (removes ~60% of solids and ~35% of BOD)
 Secondary treatment (removes ~85% of BOD and solids)
 Advanced treatment (removes ~95 % of BOD and solids, N, P)
 Final Treatment (disinfection)
 Solids Processing (sludge management)
1) Preliminary treatment: This step is the initial step that involves the removal
of large solids such as rags, sticks, grit and grease. Some textile industries
use screening, oil trap procedures for the removal of solids, oil and grease.
Then equalization is done so that the effluent has a uniform pollution load,
pH and temperature.
2) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Treatment
A) Primary treatment: In this the floating and settleable materials are removed.
The suspended solids and organic matter can be reduced. The waste waters
are mixed and homogenized.
a) Physico-chemical treatment: This is usually the first stage of treatment.

The effluent is subjected to coagulation with the addition of lime, alum,
ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, and processed in a flocculator and
settling tank. It precipitates and coagulates impurities to form
13
Industrial Pollution: Textile, microflocs. It is achieved by the adjustment of pH, using inorganic
Industries
coagulants or using organic coagulants.
b) Flocculation: After the previous stage the second step is flocculation.

The microflocs aggregate into larger agglomerates. This is done by
adding charged polyelectrolytes (anionic or cationic) with a very high
molecular mass. The method involves adsorption of the polyelectrolyte
onto particle surfaces. Then it forms physical bridges across particles
and bind them to a polymer particle matrix.
c) Solid-liquid separation: This is done using gravity sedimentation,

filtration and centrifugation. Also air floatation can be used. Here solids
are made to float through the introduction of microscopic air bubbles.
These bubbles get attached to the flocs and make the solids to float on
the surface. Finally the flocs are removed using mechanical scrapers
as sludge.
The chemical treatment helps in reduction of colour and suspended

solids. Wool effluents, colours, dyes and permethrin which is used a
moth repellent are removed using physico-chemical treatment
processes. Almost 50% reduction in chemical oxygen demand (COD)
and complete colour removal can be obtained with these techniques. A
significant reduction in BOD and COD values is also observed.
B. Secondary treatment: The physico-chemical treatment is followed by

biological treatment process which further reduces the BOD and COD
values. Aerobic and anaerobic treatments can be done using microorganisms.
Here the biodegradable organic matter and suspended solids are further
removed. Reed beds can be used with a settling tank. They help in the
reduction of colour, decrease in COD, increase in dissolved oxygen and a
reduction in heavy metal content. Here trickling filters, activated sludge
process and oxidation ditch can be used. Trickling filters are conventional
aerobic biological wastewater treatments. An example is rotating biological
contactors. They efficiently reduce organic matter. It is a fixed-bed,
biological reactor that works under aerobic conditions. Waste water is
continuously ‘trickled’ or sprayed over the filter and it goes through the
pores of the filter the organic pollutants are aerobically degraded by the
biofilm covering the filters. The activated sludge process is the most
commonly used method for textile effluents. It consists of multi-
chamber units which use microorganisms to degrade organic matter. A
continuous supply of oxygen is required in the tank. The unit consists of a
pre-treatment unit (primary settling tank), a post-settling unit (clarifier).
From the clarifier a part of the sludge is recirculated to the aeration tank
(Figure 1.1). The excess sludge is removed and the treated water comes
out. A high content of organic and suspended solids can be removed by this
process. The primary solids from the primary settling tank and the secondary
solids from the clarifier are sent to a digester. The sludge from the tank is
dewatered using filter press or centrifuges. Then it is sent to the landfill and
used as fertilizer, soil amendments and so on.
14
Textile Industry
Figure 1.1: Secondary treatment: Activated sludge process
C. Tertiary treatment: Here the residual suspended and dissolved solids are
removed. Some common tertiary processes used for the removal of residual
organic colour compounds are adsorption and removal of dissolved solids
by membrane filtration. The waste water is also treated with ozone or other
ox idizing agent to destroy many contaminants. Evaporation and
crystallization are other methods to minimize effluent disposal problems.
The different tertiary methods used are given below:
1) Adsorption: Activated carbon is used to remove colour and other soluble

organic pollutants from effluent. It also helps in the removal of toxic
chemicals such as pesticides, phenols, cyanides and organic dyes which
cannot be treated using conventional methods. Dissolved organics are
adsorbed on surface as waste water containing these is made to pass
through adsorbent.
2) Ion Exchange: It is used for the removal of inorganic salts and phenol.
It employs the principle of ion exchange. All salts have positive ion of
a base and a negative ion of an acid. Ion exchange materials exchange
soluble ions and cations with electrolyte solutions. An example is: a
cation exchanger in the sodium form when contacted with a solution
of calcium chloride, will replace calcium with sodium ions. So it can
efficiently remove hardness from the effluent. Natural zeolite and
synthetic ion exchange resins like phenolic , sulphonic styrenes can be
used.
3) Membrane Filtration: After primary, secondary and tertiary treatment

further purification is done by membrane filtration techniques. There
are different types. (a) Reverse osmosis: It is based on the ability of
certain specific polymeric membranes like cellulose acetate or nylon
to pass pure water at fairly high rates and to reject salts. In this process
the waste water stream is passed at high pressures through the
membrane. (b) Ultrafiltration: It is similar to reverse osmosis. The
difference between reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration is mainly the
retention properties of the membranes used. Reverse osmosis
membranes retain all solutes and salts. In the ultrafiltration only macro
molecules and suspended solids are retained. So salts, solvents and
low molecular weight organic solutes pass through ultrafiltration
membranes. (c) Nanofiltration: It can remove hardness, bacteria, 15
Industrial Pollution: Textile, viruses, and colour. It can be operated on lower pressure than reverse
Industries
osmosis and the treatment cost is much lower.
4) Ozonation: Ozone is a powerful oxidizer. Large, complex organic

molecules, detergents and phenols can be transformed to simpler ones
by this process. Ozone can decolourize all dyes except vat dyes that
react slowly and take a long time.
This way textile waste can be treated and then disposed so that harmful toxicants
are removed. Further textile scraps can be recycled and reused. Conservation of
heat and water in disperse dyeing can be done. Salts can be recovered and
reutilized in reactive dyeing. Also dyes that require small amounts of salts can
be used. Ecofriendly raw materials can be used and cleaner production
technologies can be employed for reducing the pollution load.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Explain the different occupational hazards associated with the textile
industry.
......................................................................................................................
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......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2) Describe the primary and secondary treatment processes used in the textile
industry.
......................................................................................................................
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3) Describe the tertiary treatment processes used in the textile industry.
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16
Textile Industry
1.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied about the textile industry and its effects on the
environment and human health. The textile industry is a leading economic sector
but the occupational risks to the workers are enormous. Further the effluents
and pollutants entering the water bodies, soil and air cause irreversible damage
to the environment as well as human health. Cleaner production is an approach
to handle environmental issues in the textile industry sector. Further the waste
should be treated properly and then disposed.
1.8 KEY WORDS

Waste: It is defined as any substance that has no further use or value for a person
or an organization and is discarded.
Reverse osmosis: It is based on the ability of certain specific polymeric

membranes like cellulose acetate or nylon to pass pure water at fairly high rates
and to reject salts.
Adsorption: It is a surface-based process while absorption involves the whole

volume of the material. It involves the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules
from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface.
Ion exchange: It is a process in which ions are exchanged between a solution

and an insoluble solid, usually a resin.
1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Agnihotram RV. An overview of occupational health research in India. Indian J
Occup Environ Med 2005;9(1):10- 4 5.
Knutsson A. Health disorders of shift workers. Occupational Medicine

2003;53(2):103-108.
Samiya A, Kelvin T, Alexandra C, Matthew C. Health and Safety in the Textile

Dyeing Industry. 2007
Slater, K. 2003. Environmental Impact of Textiles, Production, Processes and

Protection. 240 p. Elsevier.
1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1) Your answer should include the following points:
 Air pollutants
 Water pollutants
 Solid waste pollutants
17
Industrial Pollution: Textile, 2) Your answer should include the following points:
Industries
Industrial textile processes generate liquid, gaseous and solid wastes which can
be hazardous. The type of waste generated is dependent on the type of textile
facility, the processes and technologies that are used and also the type of fibres
and chemicals used for making the cloth.
 Total Dissolved Solids
 Toxic Metals
 Residual Chlorine
 Detergents
 Organic pollutants
 Stain remover
 Sequestering agents
 Printing gums
 Fixing agents
 Bleaching agents
 Dyes

The textiles sector is hazardous for the workers. They are exposed to noise,
machinery, chemical substances which can lead to occupational hazards. Women
workers are at greater risk at the industries as they are more easily vulnerable to
the toxicants. The different processing stages from the production of materials
to the manufacturing, finishing, colouring and packaging have occupational risks
to the workers.
 Musculoskeletal disorders
 Exposure to chemical agents
 Fire
 Exposure to dusts and fibres
 Exposure to biological agents
 Exposure to physical agents
 Accidents
 Psychosocial issues in the textiles sector
 Eye Strain and Eyesight
Primary treatment: In this the floating and settleable materials are removed. The
suspended solids and organic matter can be reduced. The waste waters are mixed
and homogenized.
 Physico-chemical treatment
18
 Flocculation Textile Industry
 Solid-liquid separation
Secondary treatment: The physico-chemical treatment is followed by biological
treatment process which further reduces the BOD and COD values. Aerobic and
anaerobic treatments can be done using microorganisms. Here the biodegradable
organic matter and suspended solids are further removed.
 Trickling filters
 Activated sludge process
The residual suspended and dissolved solids are removed. Some common tertiary
processes used for the removal of residual organic colour compounds are
adsorption and removal of dissolved solids by membrane filtration. The waste
water is also treated with ozone or other oxidizing agent to destroy many
contaminants. Evaporation and crystallization are other methods to minimize
effluent disposal problems. The different tertiary methods used are given below:
 Adsorption
 Ion Exchange
 Membrane Filtration
 Ozonation
19
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning UNIT 2 MINING INDUSTRY
Industries
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Types of Waste Generated by Mining Industry
1.3 Occupational Hazards of Mining
1.4 Environmental Hazards of Mining
1.5 Disposal and Management of Waste Generated by Mining Industry
1.5.1 Disposal and Treatment of Waste
1.5.2 Management of Waste
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Minerals account for natural wealth of any country. The economic well being
and development of a country to a great extent depends on its mineral resources.
If a country is rich in mineral resources such as metals, industrial minerals,
petroleum and coal, it is bound to have mines. It further implies use of various
mining practices both technologically advanced and indigenous, to liberate these
materials from earth. Minerals are the lifeline of most industries. Although the
distribution of natural resources is not uniform in all the countries yet almost all
countries are endowed with mineral wealth and thus mining or quarrying is
undoubtedly practiced in almost every country. The impact of mining in each
country varies depending on the laws/policies of the individual country vis-à-
vis environment and labour. The GDP of countries enriched in mineral resources
are largely dependent on mining sector. For example diamonds account for a
great chunk of GDP in Botswana, Africa. In many developing countries with
huge mineral resources, mining is a source of foreign exchange in exchange of
raw mineral supplies. These countries also promote foreign investments from
developed and technologically advanced countries to recover and process their
mineral wealth.
Mines are units where minerals are mined in raw form. The raw materials
thereafter are processed in various mining units where metals are extracted in
pure form for various uses. Mines are of two types: Open cast mines and
underground mines. Open cast mines also known as open-pit and open-cut mines.
Open cast mining is a mining practice on surface of earth for extraction of
minerals. The overburden (surface material) is relatively thin. Underground
mines have thick overburden material and the minerals are mined at sub-surface
levels.
20
In terms of extent, mining is broadly divided into two major types – Large-scale Mining Industry
mining and Small-scale mining. Large-scale mining is on large scale, mechanized
and involves huge amount of investment. The large scale mining involves big
companies which make huge investments and employ skilled and unskilled labor.
The small scale mining is also termed as the Artisanal & Small-scale Mining
(ASM). It is a mining activity on small scale where individuals, groups or
communities, mine a small potential area using indigenous techniques. It is also
commonly an informal or illegal mining practice mostly prevalent in developing
nations. Such mining is common in places like Africa, South America and South
and south East Asia. The problem with small scale mining is that there is no
accountability of this kind of mining in the GDP growth of a country. Researches
also prove that ASM causes more social problems to the mining communities.
The exploitation of mine workers is rampant in such small scale practices. These
mines also are low in productivity due to unscientific and old mining practices
and are harmful to the environment. It is a localized kind of mining practice
limited to near surface or alluvial mining. Also the lack of safety measures and
dangerous mining practices make the workers more vulnerable to diseases and
accidents.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
 describe the various sources and types of pollutants in the mining industry;
 understand the occupational hazards associated by working in this industry;
 explain the effects on human health; and
 describe the different management practices involved in handling mining
wastes.
We all understand the significance of metals, non-metals (commonly known as
industrial minerals), petroleum, coal and natural gas in our lives. These materials
directly or indirectly are used by us in every sphere of life and our existence
seems impossible without these in the present scenario. To elaborate this let us
take up a few examples. We commonly use tooth paste in the morning to clean
our teeth. The tooth paste has components such as aluminum hydroxide, calcium
carbonate, silica, zeolites and hydroxyapatite which are mined from earth and
are part of industrial minerals. The second example is our mode of transport to
our work place. We use local transport viz. bus, train or auto rickshaw or our
personal vehicles to commute on daily basis. These vehicles are again made up
of a variety of metals and run on gasoline. The metals and gasoline are again
extracted from earth’s crust by various mining processes. If we keep listing
down the commodities made up of metals and industrial minerals which we use
on a daily basis, we will realize the significance of these minerals in our life.
In this unit we will learn about the economic minerals and the mining industry
which processes the raw minerals/rocks to their usable stage. The entire process
of mining and quarrying involves generation of various kinds of wastes which
impact the mine workers and the environment in different ways. Finally, we will
also learn about the various mining waste management strategies adopted to
ensure minimal negative impact on the people and the environment.
21
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning 1.2 TYPES OF WASTE GENERATED BY MINING
Industries
INDUSTRY
Mining industries generate wastes mainly during various processes such as
mineral extraction (drilling, blasting), beneficiation (crushing and milling) and
refining of ore minerals. Extraction comprises the removal of ore mineral from
an ore deposit by the process of drilling and blasting. This process is responsible
for production of voluminous wastes such as soil, debris, rocks which are dumped
as piles of useless materialeither in dumping grounds within the mining peripheral
area or on unauthorised land. The magnitude of mining dictates the quantity of
waste generated viz. the large scale mining industry will generate enormous
waste in comparison to small scale industry. The opencast mines commonly
produce ten times the waste generated in comparison to the underground mines.
In general, the quantity of waste generated is enormous in comparison to the
final finished metal. Let us take an example of mining of copper deposits. It is
established that in order to produce 1tonne of copper a waste ore of 110 tonnes
and overburden of 200 tonnes is generated. With this example we can imagine
the grim situation in terms of production of wastes during mining. Imagine the
gravity of situation if we take into account all the metals, non-metals and fuels
extraction from earth’s crust when we know that 1 tonne copper can generate
enormous wastes. Roughly 50 billion tonnes of ore/annually are mined around
the globe. This figure roughly translates to 1.5 meter deep excavation the size of
Switzerland every year.
After extraction process concentration of the ore mineral is carried out by the
grinding and milling processes. These processes generate slurry comprising of
tailings. Tailings contain the waste material which is hazardous if it contains
materials such arsenic, cyanide, mercury, lead and pyrite. Usually tailings are
temporarily stored in Tailings Dam. If untreated, these tailings are very hazardous
both for the mine workers and the environment. The waste rocks from the
underground mines have ubiquitous presence of sulphides such as chalcopyrite
and pyrite. These sulphide bearing waste rocks are dumped on earth’s surface.
These sulphides on reaction with water generate acids. Subsequently on their
exposure to air they form sulphates. Further, these sulphates change to sulphuric
acid when they come in contact with water. These acids react with rocks and in
turn release heavy metals such as lead and chromium which are very toxic even
in small quantities and promote acid mine drainage. The huge waste dumps turn
toxic due to release of heavy metals and acid mine discharge.
Short answer questions
unit.
1) Define tailings.
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22 ......................................................................................................................
2) Define acid mine drainage? Mining Industry
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Essay type questions
3) Give an account of the types of waste generated by mining industry.
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4) Why is mining industry important for us? Give examples to elaborate this.
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1.3 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS OF MINING

Mineworkers are continuously at a risk in terms of accidents and health related
issues in a mining sector. Mining remains a hazardous occupation because of
the working conditions and exposure to adverse mining conditions in quarries
and underground mines in many developing countries. A sizable number of
workers in artisanal mining sector are met with very inhuman working conditions
as is common in Africa, South America and south Asia. Approximately, 20 million
people globally are engaged in artisanal gold mining. The artisanal miners in
gold mining often use mercury (which is a toxic material) to liberate gold from
ore through a process known as mercury amalgamation. Most of the workers in
artisanal mining are poor, local people who are illiterate and lack knowledge of
adverse affects of using mercury. Also artisanal mining is run illegally with no
environmental and health regulations and thus the miners are exposed to toxicity
of various chemicals and minerals and in case of artisanal gold mining mercury
in particular. Artisanal gold mining contributes approximately 1/3 of the global
annual release of mercury to the environment. The mercury used by workers in
artisanal gold mining activities is to a large extent responsible for the
contamination of surrounding local environment which includes water and soil.
This locally polluted environment makes the mine workers vulnerable to health
risks.
In many developed and developing countries, the fatalities caused by injuries

during mine accidents and disease inflicted by direct or indirect exposure to
hazardous minerals are discussed briefly in the Table 2.1.
23
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Table 2.1: Occupational hazards of mining.
Industries Type of hazard Causes Effects
Physical Rock caving and fall, under- Traumatic and fatal injuries.
hazards ground fires and explosions by Also can cause death in certain
detonations, huge mining cases.
equipment accidents,
underground water flooding and Noise-induced hearing loss
entrapment in mines, block common.
caving failure due to blasting
etc.
Noise caused by heavy
equipments for drilling and
cutting, mine blasting, huge
exhausts used for ventilation,
equipment for crushing, ore
processing etc
Chemical Crystalline silica Silicosis and silico-
hazards tuberculosis, pulmonary
disease, renal disease, more
prone to lung cancer
Coal dust (coal Coal workers suffer from
mining) chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease,
pneumoconiosis/‘black lung’,
and many respiratory diseases
Mining and milling of asbestos Respiratory diseases
Diesel particulate exposures Carcinogen (risk of lung
(due to diesel operated cancer)
equipment used extensively for
mining operations) Risk of lung cancer
Arsenic (contaminant of metal
ores also commercially extracted
during copper smelting)
Malaria, Dengue fever,
Biological Remote mining locations Leptospirosis and
hazards common ankylostomiasis are common
Water contamination by
Cooling towers (common in mine Legionella and other
sites) microorganisms common.
Shoulder disorders common
Ergonomic Manual handling of overhead Cause ankle and knee injuries.
hazards work (during laying of pipes and
Fatigue, Sleep deficiency
electrical cables.)
Stress induced drug and alcohol
Broken ground common
abuse
Shiftwork
Temp or ar y to wn sh ip s an d
Psychosocial Poverty and low wages dwellings. Segregation of mine
hazards Remote locations commonFatal employees from communities
and families for long periods
and severe traumatic injuries increases chances of anxiety,
depression and mood swings
amon g th em etc.Pro fo un d
24 impact on morale
Mining Industry
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF MINING
The environmental impact of mining i.e. from the stage of setting up a mine to
mine closure can be tremendous and have long-lasting impact depending on the
life of a mine. Both large and small scale mining can cause irreparable harm to
the environment if the waste generated during mining is not dealt conscientiously.
Another important factor is how the mine is closed after exhausting the ore
deposit. Is the mine abandoned after the mineral resource is exhausted or the
mining unit is phased out in a planned manner?
Mining is the main cause of deforestation which means imbalance in the local
ecology. Vegetation cover is completely wiped off during mining operations.
Large scale mining involves use of heavy machineries such as bulldozers and
excavators for mining the metals and minerals through the ground. This devastates
the soil cover (topsoil) and the organisms dwelling in this layer of earth. The
mining sites become barren in terms of vegetation and more prone to weathering
and erosion. Mining activities are also responsible for increase of sedimentation
in nearby water bodies i.e. ponds, lakes, and streams thus affecting the local
ecology of these water bodies.
Blasting and drilling processes in mining also lead to the air pollution through
the suspended fine mineral particles and metal dust in the air which is very
dangerous to the respiratory system when inhaled by the mine workers and their
families settled in the vicinity of the mine site. Prolonged exposure to such
polluted air can cause various chronic respiratory diseases to mine workers and
their families in the mine vicinity. The extraction process also accumulates waste
dumps comprising rock, loose material and soil. If the waste dump has sulphide
minerals like chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena they can due to exposure to air and
water initiate acid mine drainage. These acids pollute the soil, surface water and
if they infiltrate the ground the ground water is as well contaminated. During
rains the situation aggravates and the toxins/acids from the waste dumps are
carried as runs off into streams and rivers.
Further, the refining processes of metals involve use of many chemicals for
example cyanide and mercury during gold refining. In general, the wastes
generated during metal refining processes contain toxic materials which even in
trace quantities are very hazardous to the environment. These materials are
discharged into water bodies such as local ponds, lakes, rivers, streams, oceans.
This contaminated water also seeps into the underground water and is very
harmful for all living organisms that are directly or indirectly using this water.
Reports of fish being killed by intake of mercury infested water are common
near mine sites.
The rare earth element bearing minerals such as monaziite, allanite and perovskite
contain some quantities of radioactive materials. The radioactive materials get
concentrated in the tailings during processing of REEs. The radioactive materials
in the tailings can also leak into the surface and ground water. These radionuclides
enter the water cycle and subsequently the food chain which can be extremely
hazardous to all living beings. An example from China where REE mining has
caused havoc on the people, animals and vegetation is discussed briefly here.
The REE mining has adversely affected the environment and health of the people
living in the vicinity of the mining site in the town of Baotou. The place is
25
Industrial Pollution: Textile, famously known as the “rare-earth capital of the world”. The air has high levels
Industries
of solvent vapours of sulphuric acid, coal dust etc which the local people and
mine workers inhale all the time. The soil, surface and groundwater are infested
with noxious substances. The cattle, pigs, chickens and goats of the local people
are sick or killed by the excessive contents of toxins in food, water and air. Most
of the people of the villages in and around Baotou town (mine site) have left
owing to the irreparable loss to the environment caused by REE mining.
Small-scale mining can be very harmful for the environment since the waste
disposal is not governed in a scientific manner. The crude method of mining
affects the local environment i.e. both air and water in the vicinity of the small
mining sites. For example mercury is extensively used in artisanal mining for
gold. The improper disposal of mercury becomes a major concern. It can cause
contamination of the atmosphere, soil and water at a local scale.
The following Table 2.2 documents the contaminants and how they affect the
environment during mining processes.
Table 2.2: Pollutants from various stages in a mining industry vis-a-vis

environment.
Mechanism Sources and causes Effect on environment
Blasting and drilling Toxins, mineral dust, fumes Air, Surface and ground
from fuels used for blasting water, soil and vegetation
and drilling damage
Waste rock stockpile Radionuclide’s, heavy metals, Surface and Ground water,
acids, acid mine drainage air, soil pollution
Dusts f ro m waste HCl, HF, SO2 Air and water pollution

rock and tailings
Beneficiation Tailin gs(slu rr y) , To xins, Ground and surface water,

(crushing and radionuclide’s (thorium and air and soil contamination
milling) u ranium), h eavy metals
(arsenic, cadmium, tantalum,
lead), acids and halides
Pipe leakage Acids, radionuclide’s, heavy Ground and surface water,
metals air and soil contamination
Mine closure No site rehabilitation Abandoned and barren

land, contaminated land

unit.
1) Give one example of artisanal mining.
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26
2) How is Mercury harmful to the environment? Mining Industry
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3) Discuss occupational hazards of mining?
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4) How is environment impacted by waste rock/overburden?

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1.5 DISPOSAL AND MANAGEMENT OF WASTE

GENERATED BY MINING INDUSTRY
The mining industry is indispensable in the current times. No doubt, mining
industry plays an important role in our day to day life but its negative impact on
mine workers and environment cannot be ignored. The benefits of mining industry
and its products are numerous but at the same time the mines generate enormous
quantities of waste as well. In order to maximize the benefits of mining industry
it becomes imperative to find out ways to dispose off, treat and manage the
mining waste to have minimum ill effect on the mine workers and environment.
Mining waste, as has been discussed in details in the preceding section 1.2,
varies from non-hazardous to hazardous materials. It is termed as waste as it has
no economic value for example rock waste (overburden), tailings etc. In case of
both the types of wastes the management and disposal of wastes is extremely
important so as to minimize their adverse effects on workers and environment.
The increasing demand of metals and minerals and improvement in mining
techniques has given hope to utilise the materials which are termed as waste.
These waste materials might become a valuable resource tomorrow. For example
the tailings which are discarded during crushing and milling of ores commonly
contain the trace quantities of metal content and in times to come with advent of
sophisticated mining technology the tailings might be used for metal extraction
possibly.
27
Industrial Pollution: Textile, 1.5.1 Disposal and Treatment of Waste
Industries Below we discuss initiatives taken up for the disposal and treatment of wastes
generated during various steps of mining.
Waste rock and soil

Mining requires the removal of soil and rock cover to gain access to the metallic
and industrial minerals. Large amount of overburden (rock plus soil) is generated
by both open cast mining and underground mining. This overburden is a threat
to the environment if not disposed properly. The overburden is stacked in the
mine area and stabilised by planting trees like Eucalyptus, Acaccia mangium,
Peltaphorum etc. If left without plantation the overburden dumps can look ugly
and also promote erosion. The erosion can also lead to suspension of fine dust
and metal particles in the atmosphere which could be a health hazard. These
overburden dumps can be dangerous to mine workers if not managed well since
they can slide and take form of landslides during heavy rain falls. These
overburden dumps later can be used to backfill the abandoned mine site. If the
problem of space arises for stacking the overburden material it can be sold out
for construction and road making etc.
Tailings
The present day mining laws are stricter and the mining industries ensure disposal
of tailings into tailing ponds. Tailings (slurry) contains hazardous materials i.e.
arsenic, cyanide, fluorite, mercury, pyrite and quartz. To constrain them tailing
dams are erected so that no toxic materials are allowed to seep or flow to the
soil, surface or ground water. Proper lining of the tailing ponds is necessary to
ensure no contamination of surface and ground water through toxic materials from
tailings. In spite of these the heavy downpour might carry some toxic materials
from the tailing dams and contaminate water and soil. Also due to wear and tear of
the tailing pond/lining there is a possibility of contamination of water and soil.
Regular checks are to be made to ensure repairs of all wear and tear (Table 2.3).
Table 2.3 Tailings disposal methods.

1. Pond storage The tailings mostly in form of slurry is stored in the Tailings
Dam/Tailings Management Facility (TMF)
2. Dry sacking This involves dewatering of tailings using vacuums and
filters. This helps in reducing the influence of tailings on
the environment.
3. Disposal into It involves discarding of the tailings in the exhausted

underground underground mines.
workings
Two types:
4. Disposal into the
i) Submarine Tailings Disposal; and
oceans
ii) Deep Sea Tailings Disposal It involves transportation
and discharge of tailings using a pipeline into the
depths. In this method it is important to ensure that
the tailings don’t travel long distances/ or float on
the surface.
5. Phytostabilisation It involves phytoremediation i.e. use of plants for seizing
tailings. The plantation on tailings can control erosion and
immobilize metals. The metals can precipitate and stabilize
28 around the roots of plants.
1.5.2 Management of Waste Mining Industry
Waste Rock/Overburden
Rock overburden forms a huge mass of waste rock. This waste rock material
can be used for variety of purposes such as road making, construction, landfills
etc. After the closure of the mines the excavations during mining or quarrying
can be filled with waste rock to reclaim the mining site. The waste rock material
can be used as landfill to stabilize the mined site.
Reclamation
The landfilled site can be reused as a recreational park, residential society, school
etc. The best example of reclaimed mining site is from Victoria, British Columbia
where an exhausted limestone quarry has been converted into a sunken garden
known as Butchart Gardens. These world famous gardens are developed on
exhausted limestone deposits. Tonnes of top soil was laid on the floor of the
exhausted quarry to start with this garden in the year 1909. The quarry blossomed
into the spectacular Sunken Garden which initially took almost 12 years for the
completion of garden in 1921. Subsequently many new phases were added to
this garden.
Tailings
Although tailings are disposed off in different ways as briefly discussed in table
1.5.1, yet they are not full proof methods. At times the breach of tailing dams
can lead to disasters as has been experienced on 31 December 2000 in Damanjodi,
Orissa, India. The 800 acre-ash pond developed by NALCO got damaged causing
an ash flood which affected over .5 million people in nearby 166 villages. To
control this kind of disaster, some mines adopt ‘thickening’ the tailings and thus
can restrict their flow. Tailings when mixed with cement can also be used as a
construction material.
Reprocessing of waste rock and tailings

Waste rock and tailings are not completely devoid of economic minerals and
may contain a trace concentration of the economic mineral. For example tailings
from a gold mine may be reprocessed if the price of the gold keeps soaring in
future, and it becomes economically viable to exploit the tailings for gold.
Slags
The slags are by and large non hazardous unwanted material left after smelting
process in mining. It is managed by putting it to use for making concrete and
road construction material. Metal smelting also produces sulphur dioxide which
can be managed by capturing it and using it for manufacture of sulphuric acid.
The mining waste such as clays and sludges are used for making bricks and
tiles.
Recycling
The recycling of metals (raw as well as scrap/discarded metal after use) is the
best way to reduce the mining waste. This will to a certain extent reduce the
extraction of virgin materials, thus less mining waste production.
29
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Check Your Progress 3
Industries Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
unit.
Short Answer questions
1) What is a tailings pond?
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2) Which plants can stabilise overburden?

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3) How can an exhausted mine be reclaimed. Give an example to explain this.
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4) How are the mining wastes managed?

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30
Mining Industry
1.6 LET US SUM UP
Mining industry has become indispensable in the present scenario because of
our total dependence on metals, fuel minerals and industrial minerals in our
daily lives. The mining can be either on large or small scale depending on the
size of an ore deposit. Accordingly, the mining practices can be completely
mechanized involving skilled labour or could be based on indigenous mining
practices involving localpeople (men, women and children). Women and children
commonly work as mine labourers in countries like Africa, South America and
Asia. The impact of mining on its workers and environment can also be predicted
by the kind of mining practices followed by individual nation. Each country
follows mining laws/polices framed by their respective governments to set up
mines and quarries. Illegal mining is also common in many countries of Africa,
Asia and South America. Metal and mineral production through such illegal
mining is not accounted for. Thus the true GDP statistics through mining cannot
be assessed for nations where illegal mining is practiced. Mining involves
production of enormous quantities of wastes which can be non-hazardous as
well hazardous. In the current times of environment awareness, mining industry
is looking for ways to minimize the production of wastes by adopting new and
efficient mining techniques. Positive steps are being taken up to dispose and
treat the wastes in best possible manner so that it has least negative impact on
environment and its components. Also new ideas of utilising the non hazardous
mining waste are being explored. There is rising awareness among nations of
the adverse effects of mining on environment. This has led most of the countries
to frame laws and policies on mining which strictly deal with management and
disposal of wastes generated during mining activities. There are stricter laws on
rehabilitation/reclamation of the mining sites as well. Also emphases are laid at
substituting the metals and minerals with non-mineral materials. Better mining
techniques are being deployed to decrease the adverse impact of mining on
health of people working in mining sectors and the environment we live in.
1.7 KEY WORDS

Acid Mine drainage: If the ore contains sulfides such as pyrite, it reacts with
air and water which can oxidise the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid, a
phenomenon known as acid mine drainage.
Ancylostomiasis: is a hookworm disease caused by infection with Ancylostoma

hookworms. Ancylostomiasis is also known as miner’s anaemia, tunnel disease,
brickmaker’s anaemia.
Artisanal mining: is the term for small-scale mining operations often conducted
manually and consist of basic extraction and processing methods for obtaining
minerals and metals.
Overburden: Rock, soil is the material that lies above an area that lends itself
to economical exploitation. Overburden is distinct from tailings (material that
remains after economically valuable components have been extracted from the
generally finely milled ore).
Tailings are the finely ground rock left over after mineral processing and they
are mostly stored as a watery mix in tailing dams. 31
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Tailings dam is the physical structure that holds in, or impounds, the tailings
Industries
pond, which serves the dual role of containing the ground-rock tailings from the
ore-milling and separation process and recycling the water to be reused in
processing
Slags are the non-metallic components left over from metal smelting.

READINGS
Anon, 2006, Dirty Metal, Mining Communities and Environment, Earthworks,
Oxfam America,Washington, pp 4.
https://miningandblasting.wordpress.com/
http://www.cmaecocycle.net/blog/how-is-mining-waste-recycled/
https://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk1/1992/9225/922504.PDF-mining waste
https://www.scribd.com/document/265202795/Large-Mining-Vs-Small-scale-
Mining
http://www.miningfacts.org/communities/what-is-artisanal-and-small-scale-
mining/

Answers to Check your Progress 1
Your answer should include the following points:
1) Tailings are the finely ground rock left over after mineral processing and
they are mostly stored as a watery mix in tailing dams.
2) If the ore contains sulfides such as pyrite, it reacts with air and water which
can oxidise the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as
acid mine drainage.
3) Read section 1.2 and answer this question. Also take help from Table 1.2.1.
4) Try to observe what products you use everyday in your routine life and you
will be able to answer this question with ease. Also try to write examples
from your own experience.
Answers to Check your Progress 2
1) Gold mining.
2) Toxic material
3) Take help from section 1.3 also from Table 1.3.1
4) Take help from section 1.4 and Table 1.4.1
32
Answers to Check Your Progress 3 Mining Industry

1) A pond created to dispose of tailings from the crushing and milling of ores
using chemicals.
2) Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus, Cassia seamea, Acaccia mangium and
Peltaphorum.
3) Kindly read section 1.5.2. Try to look for more examples besides Butchart
gardens. Also read in detail the interesting story of Butchart gardens.
4) Kindly read section 1.5. to answer this question.
33
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning UNIT 3 PESTICIDE INDUSTRY
Industries
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Sources and Types of Pollutants
3.2.1 Background
3.2.2 Sources and Types of Pollutants
3.3 Wastes from Pesticide Industries
3.4 Occupational and Environmental Hazards
3.4.1 Effect on Streams
3.4.2 Effects on Sewers
3.4.3 Effects on STPs
3.4.4 Effect of Pesticide on Ecology
3.5 Effects on Human Health
3.6 Management of Waste and Hazards
3.6.1 Treatment Methods of Pesticide Waste
3.6.2 Disposal of Pesticide Waste
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are utilized to kill the pests and bugs which assault on products and
harm them. Various types of pesticides have been utilized for trim assurance for
a considerable length of time. Pesticides benefit the harvests; in any case, they
likewise force a genuine negative effect on nature. Over the top utilization of
pesticides may prompt the devastation of biodiversity. Many winged creatures,
sea-going life forms and creatures are under the risk of hurtful pesticides for
their survival. Pesticides are a worry for manageability of condition and
worldwide strength. This part expects to talk about pesticides, their sorts,
convenience and the natural concerns identified with them. Contaminations
accordingly to abuse of pesticides and the long haul effect of pesticides on the
earth are additionally examined in the section. Moving towards the end, the
section talks about the strategies to kill the utilization of pesticides lastly it looks
forward towards the future effects of the pesticide utilize the fate of the world in
the wake of annihilating pesticides.
A pesticide is a lethal synthetic substance or a blend of substances or natural
operators that are purposefully discharged into the earth so as to deflect, hinder,
control and additionally slaughter and crush populations of bugs, weeds, rodents,
organisms or other unsafe bugs. Pesticides work by pulling in, tempting and
after that decimating or alleviating the bugs. Pests can be broadly defined as
“the plants or animals that jeopardize our food, health and / or comfort”.
The utilization of pesticides has expanded many overlap in the course of recent
34 decades. As per a gauge, around 5.2 billion pounds of pesticides are utilized
overall every year. The utilization of pesticides for bug moderation has turned Pesticide Industry
into a typical practice all around the globe. Their utilization isn’t just limited to
farming fields, however they are likewise utilized in homes as showers, toxic
substances and powders for controlling cockroaches, mosquitoes, rats, bugs,
ticks and other unsafe bugs. Because of this reason, pesticides are every now
and again found in our sustenance products notwithstanding their essence
noticeable all around. Pesticides can be normal mixes or they can be artificially
created. They may have a place with any of the few pesticide classes. Real
classes incorporate organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids
and neonicitinoids to which the vast majority of the current and generally utilized
pesticides have a place. Pesticide plans contain dynamic fixings alongside latent
substances, contaminants and incidentally pollutions. Once discharged into the
earth, pesticides separate into substances known as metabolites that are more
harmful to dynamic fixings in a few circumstances.
Pesticides guarantee the successful relief of hurtful bugs, yet tragically, the
dangers related with their utilization have outperformed their beneficial impacts.
Nonselective pesticides slaughter non-target plants and creatures alongside the
focused on ones. Additionally, with the progression of time, a few bugs likewise
create hereditary protection from pesticides. This section concentrates on the
utilization of pesticides since the antiquated circumstances, benefits of pesticide
use and above all, the hurtful effect of pesticides on human wellbeing and nature.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
 define how the pesticide is harmful to the environment;
 explain the types and sources of pollutants from the pesticide industry;
 exemplify the impacts of substance and organic contamination of air, water
and soil on human well being and prosperity and the sort of riskthey posture
in future;
 discuss the health hazards and environmental hazards; and
 understand the treatment and disposal of the waste from the pesticide
industry.
3.2 SOURCES AND TYPES OF POLLUTANTS

3.2.1 Background
In this section we will discuss the sources of the pollutants and its types.
In accordance with the number of occurrence of event and observing of the
pesticides, displaying of pesticide filtering, enrollments of washing destinations
for pesticide showering gear and groundwater stream designs, suspicion of the
distinctive wellsprings of contamination was assessed
 Diffuse source
Existence of pesticides or humiliated commodities diffused on expansive zones
may be expected diffuse sources. Substantially humiliated commodities from
rimsulfuron takes places in all areas the last period 2015/2016.
35
Industrial Pollution: Textile,  Point source
Industries Moderately high convergences of pesticides may be because of point sources
caused by seed treatment, filling activities or cleaning of sprayers and boxes for
potatoes. These pesticides were: BAM, glyphosate, ETU, metribuzin ,metalaxyl
and imidacloprid.
3.2.2 Sources and types of pollutants

Pesticides are frequently alluded to as indicated by the kind of controlled pest. It
can likewise be considered as either biodegradable pesticides, which will be
separated by organisms and other living creatures into safe mixes, or constant
pesticides, which may take months or years before they are separated: it was the
perseverance of DDT, for instance, which prompted its collection in the natural
way of life and its killing of winged animals of prey at the highest point of the
evolved way of life. Another approach to consider pesticides is to consider those
that are compound pesticides are gotten from a typical source or creation
technique.
 Neonicotinoid pesticides: Neonicotinoids fall under neuro-dynamic
insecticide class artificially like nicotine. Imidacloprid, of the neonicotanoid
family, is the most broadly utilized insecticide. Inneonicotinoids went under
expanding examination over their natural effect and were connected in a
scope of concentrates to antagonistic environmental impacts, including bee
state crumple clutter (CCD) and loss of feathered creatures because of a
diminishment in bug populaces.
 Organophosphate pesticides: It influence the sensory system by upsetting
acetylcholinesterase action, the protein that controls acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter. Most organophosphates are bug sprays. They were
produced amid the mid-nineteenth century, yet their consequences for creepy
crawlies, which are like their impacts on people, were found in 1932. Few
of them are extremely toxic. In any case, they more often than not will be
not diligent in nature.
 Carbamate pesticides: It influences the sensory system by going about as
a reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. This hindrance causes an
expansion of synaptic acetylcholine and over-incitem ent of the
parasympathetic sensory system delivering SLUDGE disorder influences
like that of organophosphate pesticides.
 Organochlorine insecticides: It is generally utilized as a part of the past,
yet numerous have been expelled from the market because of their wellbeing
and ecological impacts and their steadiness (e.g., DDT, chlordane, and
toxaphene.
 Sulfonylurea herbicides: The accompanying sulfonylureas have been
marketed for weed control: amidosulfuron, azimsulfuron, bensulfuron-
methyl, chlorimuron-ethyl, ethoxysulfuron, flazasulfuron, flupyrsulfuron-
methyl-sodium, halosulfuron-methyl, imazosulfuron, nicosulfuron,
oxasulfuron, primisulfuron-methyl, pyrazosulfuron-ethyl, rimsulfuron,
sulfometuron-m ethyl Sulfosulfuron, terbacil, bispyribac-so diu m,
cyclosulfamuron, and pyrithiobac-sodium.Nicosulfuron, triflusulfuron
methyl, and chlorsulfuron are wide range herbicides that execute plants
36 weeds or vermin by restraining the compound acetolactate synthase. In the
1960s, in excess of 1 kg/ha (0.89 lb/section of land) edit insurance compound Pesticide Industry
was normally connected, while sulfonylureates permit as meager as 1% as
much material to accomplish a similar impact.
unit.
1) Which are the two different sources of pesticide pollution
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2) Explain the different types of pollutant from pesticide industry.

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3.3 WASTES FROM PESTICIDE INDUSTRY

Types of Pesticides-
 Herbicides
They are the quickest developing fragment of agro-chemicals. Their primary
rivalry is modest workwhich is utilized to physically p take away the weeds.
Deals are occasional, inferable from the way that weeds prosper in moist,
hot atmosphere and die in cold spills.
 Insecticides
Insecticides are used for killing the insects. After the introduction of BT
cotton the uses of insecticides have come down to half.
 Fungicides
They are utilized to restrict disease assaults on crops. The developing
agriculture showcase in India inferable from the administration bolster has
given a lift to fungicide utilization. The piece of the overall industry of
fungicides has expanded from 16% of every 2004 to 20% out of 2009.
37
Industrial Pollution: Textile,  Bio pesticides
Industries They are obtained from regular medium such as animals, plants, bacteria
and certain minerals. As of now a little fragment, biopesticides advertise is
relied upon to develop later on attributable to government support and
expanding mindfulness about utilization of non-dangerous, condition well-
disposed pesticides.
 Others
Nematocides, Rodenticides, Bactericides
Table 3.1: Waste stream of pesticide industry (Source: Industry waste-ATWM)
Type of Contaminated Waste Description

waste bottles and containers During the process of production and storage of
improper sealing or de-shape which leads to
leakages
Expired products bottles and The contents are emptied in drums and the
containers contaminated waste is stored in containers.
Expired pesticide When particles are stored in contaminated waste
reformulation is possible. Reformulation takes
place by adjusting the composition of different
ingredients.
CBC(Corrugated Board During storage the leakage from the bottles are
Carton) contaminated.
Waste cotton rags and sawdust Used for the dry cleaning of the chemical leakages
21, spillages from floors and equipment.
Spent (charcoal or activated From the exhaust air filter in liquid pesticide
carbon) formulation and/or filling facilities
Liquid waste treatment sludge From wastewater treatment plants Emptied drums
Emptied drums Most of the input chemicals, for liquid pesticides
are received in metallic claims. contain some
traces and the remains of chemicals

unit.
1) Explain the sources and types of pollutants in pesticide industries.
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38
2) Describe the different types of wastes generated from pesticide industries. Pesticide Industry
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3.4 OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

HAZARDS
The pesticide industry sector employs millions of workers. A large number of
women are also employed in this sector. Both occupational hazards and
environmental hazards from these industries will be discussed in detail in the
following paragraphs.
3.4.1 Effect on Streams

 Nearness of evicted solids produces smell and lesser DO levels in the stream
that is dangerous to aquatics. It additionally builds water turbidity and
improves flooding by lessening the stream bed volume.
 Excessive BOD esteems builds natural issues and makes repulsive

smell,tasteand general septic conditions because of oxidation of natural
issues. It diminishes dissolved oxygen levels and influences aquatic life.
 Every salt, having lower concentration is lethal to specific types of organisms

living in water. Fish cannot survive in chlorides (400ppm).
3.4.2 Effects on Sewers

 Evicted solids might produce obstruction of sewers by getting collected at
a reverse.
 Waste comprises of sulfates that is changed over into H2S gas which results
in odor issue.
 Crown erosion is framed due the nearness of sulphates.
3.4.3 Effects on STPs

 Body applied by life forms forces a load on the treatment plant. An increment
in BOD stack needs an organic unit limit with respect to its treatment which
builds day by day working costs.
 Suspended solids from modern waste at some point might settle more quickly
than the sewage solids, that is important to be expelled at shorter interims,
else, they will develop exorbitantly at tank base and results in septic
conditions. Slower settling of mechanical solids needs longer confinement
time and bigger bowls which increment the unit cost.
39
Industrial Pollution: Textile, 3.4.4 Effect of Pesticide on Ecology
Industries  Water
Pesticides contaminate each wellspring of water.
Primary courses where pesticides achieve are the following:
1) Might float outside when it is splashed.
2) Might permeate, or filter, through the dirt.
3) Might be conveyed to the water as spillover.
4) Might be spilt unintentionally.
5) They may likewise be conveyed to water by disintegrating soil.
 Soil
Most chemicals utilized as a part of pesticide are determined soil contaminants
whose effect may persist for a considerable length of time which influence soil
preservation. Utilization of pesticides diminishes the biodiversity in the dirt.
 Air
Pesticides can add to air contamination. Pesticide float happens due to suspended
pesticides noticeable all around because particles are conveyed by the wind to
different regions, conceivably polluting them. Unpredictable pesticides connected
to yields will volatilize and passed up winds to close-by territories representing
a risk to natural life. Showered pesticides or particles from pesticides connected
as dust may set out on the wind to different regions or pesticide may stick to
particles that blown in the wind, for example, dust particles
 Effect on human
Pesticides producesdeferred and intense wellbeing impacts in the individuals
who are uncovered. Pesticide exposure can lead to an assortment of antagonistic
wellbeing impacts that can be extended from irritation of skin and eyes to more
serious impacts, for example, influencing the nervous system, mimicking
hormones causing reproductive issues, and furthermore causing tumor. Solid
proof exists for other negative results from pesticide presentation including birth
surrenders,neurological,neuro-development issue and fetal death.
 Effects on Biota
 Plants
Nitrogen obsession is needed for the development of higher plants that is
obstructed by pesticides present in soil. The bug sprays DDT, methyl parathion
and particularly pentachlorophenol has appeared to this impact. It brings about
diminished nitrogen obsession and along these lines lessens trim yields.
 Animals
Pesticides cause to a great degree harm to biota and numerous nations reacted to
debilitate pesticide utilization through their Biodiversity Action Plans. Pesticide
harms the animals that stay on nourishment in the wake of showering, for instance
when wild creatures enter splashed fields or adjacent regions not long after
spraying. Across the board use of pesticide can take out nourishment sources
40 those specific kinds of creatures to migrate,change their eating routine. Harming
from pesticides can go up the natural pecking order. It influences the regenerative Pesticide Industry
arrangement of creatures.
 Birds
Pesticide builds noticeable consequences for birds, which are in top levels of
the food chain. Pesticides will likewise slaughter grained plant-feeding birds
and the end of numerous rare species ofgeese and ducks. Population of bug-
eating birds, for example, partridges, pheasants and grouse have diminished
because of the loss of their insect food in rural fields using bug sprays.
unit.
1) Explain the effect of pesticide on ecology.
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2) Describe the effect of occupational hazards involved in pesticide industry.

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3.5 EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Due to the board utilization of chemicals, the nourishment devoured by man
today is debased with chemicals. With rain it is washed down into the waterways
causing contamination of water. These noxious chemicals are put away in the
greasy tissues of human body and it is assessed that 5-27 ppm of DDT compound
is found in tissues of people living in the nations where DDT is broadly utilized.
The collection of chemicals in human body is observed to be unsafe for wellbeing
causing ailments like hypertension, tumor, disease, leukemia, sterility and so
forth. A few chemicals even harm the liver Endrin, enter percutaneously (through
the skin) and create dangerous impacts.
The exceptionally lethal organophosphorus mixes should separate rapidly in
nature. Recently the coincidental arrival of an insecticide into waterway Rhine
killed a large number of fish before it could be controlled.
The pesticides enter our body indirectly through vegetables, eggs etc. 41
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Table 3.2: Substances and their tolerance levels
Industries Sl.No Substances % Samples Detected % with residue
containing insecticidesand above US
Insecticide its Range(ppm) Tolerance
residue level
1. Vegetables 70 DDT 0.2 25

Endrin 2.0
Lindane 2.0
Aldrin 4-2.0
Heptachlor 2.0
Chlorodane 2.0
2. Milk 9. DDT 0.25-0.5 80

DDT 0-0.2
3. Egg 60 Lindane 0.0-0.4 60
4. Cereals 38 DDT 0.25-1.0 38

BHC traces
Lindane 0-0.4
Endrin 1.0
A total of more than 812 examples gathered from different sources, for example,
farmers’ homes, FCl godowns and markets of Delhi, Hyderabad, Mysore, Patna
and Ludhiana were investigated. Thirty five percent tests were found to contain
deposits of DDT, BHC, malathion or captan.
Table 3.3: Contamination of food samples by pesticides
Commodity No. of tested No. of contaminated Detected

samples samples pesticides
Cereals 80 58 DDT, BHC
DDT
Rice 4 4
DDT, BHC,
Wheat grains 659 190 malathion
Wheat Flour 2 2 DDT
DDT, BHC
Pulses 32 16
BHC, DDT,
Vegetables 728 514 aldrin,chlordane,
Grapes 43 36 endrin and
heptachlor
Eggs 22 14 Parathion, methyl
Butter 4 4 parathion and
malathion
Milk 14 11
DDT, BHC
Fat of buffaloes, 64 61 DDT
cows and goats DDT, endrin
Beef and mutton 15 3 DDT
DDT, endrin
Guava 3 1
DDT
Oil seeds and oils 30 28 DDT
42
DDT has likewise been found in the bodies of individuals in various nations. Pesticide Industry
Individuals are known have passed on in the wake of eating sustenance debased
with pesticides.
In Turkey 320 deaths happened by eating seed grams containing

hexachlorobenzene, 18 passings in Columbia by eating flour debased with
parathion. Around 690, 185, 139, 1503 and 889 instances of harming were
recorded in wellbeing and agricultural departments of Maharashtra, Bihar,
Karnataka, Madras and West Bengal. The pesticides were parathion, endrin and
diazinon.
Table 3.4: DDT in body fat of human beings in different countries
Country Total DDT Percent DDT in

(ppm) Total DDT
Australia 1.8 56
Czechoslovakia 9.6 43
Canada 4.9 67
Denmark 3.3 82
England 3.3 67
France 5.2 67
Hungary 12.4 48
Israel 19.2 56
India 12.8-31 37
West Germany 2.3 57

unit.
1) Describe how waste from pesticide industry is affecting the human health.
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This section includes the treatment, handling and disposal of pesticide waste.
3.6.1 Treatment Methods of Pesticide Waste

 Activated carbon adsorption treatment
 Hydrolysis
 Chemical oxidation
43
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Activated carbon adsorption treatment
Industries Enacted carbon adsorption is an entrenched procedure for adsorption of organics
in wastewater, water, and air streams. Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) stuffed
in a channel bed or of Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) added to clarifiers or
air circulation bowls is utilized for wastewater treatment. In this, GAC is
considerably more broadly utilized than PAC. The figure shown below
demonstrates procedure stream chart of GAC framework containing series of
two columns, that is regular in the pesticide industry. Initiated carbon considers
broadly utilized herbicides and pesticides which have demonstrated that it is
fruitful in diminishing the grouping of these poisonous compounds to low levels
in wastewater. A few cases incorporates BHC, DDT, 2,4-D, toxaphene, dieldrin,
aldrin, chlordane, malathion, and parathion. Adsorption is influenced by
numerous variables, incorporating the sub-atomic adsorbate size, adsorbate
dissolvability, and pore structure of carbon. Synopsis of the attributes of enacted
treatment of carbon applied to the pesticide business takes after:
 Expanding sub-atomic weights is helpful for better adsorption.
 The level of adsorption increments with the decrease in solubility of
adsorbate.
 Aromatic compounds have a tendency to be more promptly adsorbed than
aliphatics.
 Adsorption is pH-dependent; dissolved organics are generally adsorbed more
readily at a pH that imparts the least polarity to molecules.
Enacted carbon adsorption is principally a waste concentration technique. The
depleted carbon must be recovered or discarded a dangerous waste. Thermal
regeneration is the most well-known strategy for GAC reactivation, although
different strategies, for example, washing the depleted GAC with acid, alkaline,
solvent, or stream are once in a while honed for particular applications. Other
adsorbing materials close to GAC have additionally been researched for treating
pesticide containing wastewater, for example, pine bark, a wood charcoal.
Resin Adsorption
Adsorption by manufactured polymeric resins is a successful means for expelling
and recovering particular chemical compounds from wastewater. The task is
like that of GAC adsorption. Polymeric adsorption can expel phenols, amines,
caprolactam, benzene, chlorobenzene and chlorinated carbons. The adsorption
limit relies upon the concentration and type of particular organics in wastewater
and also pH, temperature, polarity, viscosity, surface pressure and background
concentration of different organics and salts. Regeneration can be led with acidic
or formaldehyde or in solvents, for example, methanol, isopropanol, and acetone.
Cluster refining of regenerant arrangement can be utilized to isolated and return
items to the procedure. In related studies of treatment of effluent from the producer
of chlorinated pesticide with Amberlite XAD-4 and GAC.Results showed that
spillage of unadsorbed pesticides from the XAD-4segment was essentially lower
than that from the GAC section. A monetary examination showed that pesticide
squander treatment by means of XAD-4 tar and compound recovery would be
more practical than GAC adsorption utilizing external warm recovery.
44
Chemical Oxidation Pesticide Industry
Chemical oxidation adjusts the structure of contamination in wastewater to

comparative, yet less unsafe mixes through the expansion of oxidizing agents.
Amid chemical oxidation, at least one electron exchange from the oxidant to the
focused on poison, causing its destruction.
One basic technique for chemical oxidation also known as alkaline chlorination,
utilizes chlorine under basic conditions to devastate contaminations, for example,
cyanide and some pesticide active ingredients. Nonetheless, facilities wastewater
treatment utilizing alkaline chlorination ought to know that the chemical oxidation
reaction might create poisonous chlorinated natural mixes containing chloroform,
bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane as byproducts. Adjustments to
the plan and working parameters reduce this issue or an extra step is needed in
the treatment to evacuate these side-effects.
Chemical oxidation can likewise be executed with oxidants or with the utilization
of UV rays. In spite of the fact that these different techniques for chemical
oxidation can effectively treat pesticide waste.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction where the organic components respond with
water and breaks down into littler mixes. Essentially, hydrolysis is a ruinous
innovation in which two or more molecules are formed from original molecules.
Now and again, the response proceeds and different items are formed. Since
some pesticide active ingredient reacts through this component, hydrolysis can
be a compelling treatment innovation for pesticide wastewater.
The time required for hydrolysis is half- life. It is the time taken to respond half
of the first compound. The half-time of a response relies upon the half-existence
of pH and temperature and the reactant particle. Hydrolysis response can be
catalyzed at low pH, high pH, or both, contingent upon the reactant atom. As a
rule, expanding temperature builds the rate of hydrolysis.
3.6.2 Disposal of Pesticide Waste

It includes:
1) Incineration
2) Deep well disposal
3) Ocean disposal
Incineration
Incineration is a built-up procedure for all intents and purposes total demolition
of organic compounds. It oxidizes solid, liquid and gaseous flammable waste to
ash, carbon dioxide and water. In the pesticide industry, thermal incineration
are utilized to destroy wastes containingcompounds, for example, hydrocarbons,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, sulfonated solvents, and pesticides. Over 99%
pesticide evacuation, and over 95% BOD, COD and TOC expulsion can be
accomplished if adequate temperature, time and turbulences are utilized. Sulfur
and nitrogen-containing compounds will deliver their relating oxides and ought
not to be incinerated without considering their impacts on air quality. Halogenated
hydrocarbons parts may influence the air quality as well as may erode the
45
Industrial Pollution: Textile, incinerator. Likewise, the organometallic compound consisting of cadmium,
Industries
mercury etc. are not suggested for incineration due to the potential for air and
solid waste contamination.
Utilizing the best possible kind of incinerator and working conditions to destroy
the pesticide wastes, the incineration framework should be outfitted with best
possible discharge controls to guarantee that lethal gases and particulates don’t
discharge into the earth. The ash must be arranged legitimately. Numerous wet
accumulation frameworks can be utilized for evacuating vap orou s
contaminations. The different sorts of scrubbers accessible incorporate venturi,
plate, packed tower, fiber bed, spray tower, centrifugal, moving bed, wet cyclone,
self-induced spray, and jet. Dry gathering gear is accessible for the expulsion of
particulate poisons and incorporates settling chambers, baffle chambers,
skimming chambers, dry cyclones, impingement collectors,electrostatic
precipitators, and fabric filters. The incinerator powder, scrubber water, and
particulate gathering would then be able to be landfilled, synthetically treated,
or generally prepared for transfer.
 Screening
For the removal fine matters from pesticide waste fine mesh screens are
provided.
 Equalization tank
Equalization tank contains wastewater holding vessel or a pond that is
sufficient to dampen flow or pollutant concentration variation which supplies
nearly constant discharge rate and wastewater quality. Time taken for
detention is 24hrs. Two equalization tanks were provided.
 Settling tank
Before the extended aeration process, NaOH is added to the settling tank
for correction of pH.
 Fenton oxidation
For oxidation H2O2 is given about 2500mg/l and the catalyst FeSO4 dose
is about 833mg/l. The ration of H2O2:Fe is 1:3 and the percentage of removal
is about 80%. The acid dosing is given for lower the pH value before Fenton
oxidation, since it works with only lower pH value. After Fenton process,
by the addition of NaOH the pH is increased.
 Extended aeration
Extended aeration process employs high MLSS, low organic loading, low
F/M, long detention time. It is a complete mix flow regime. The assumed
waste removal efficiency is 65%.
 Secondary settling tank (SST)

The biomass is produced in the aeration tank is flocculent and brisk settling.
It is isolated from the aeration sewage in secondary tank and reused
continuously to the air circulation tank as the fundamental eventual future
of the procedure.
46
 Effluent sump Pesticide Industry
The treated effluent is collected in sump and is treated further for the
activation of carbon.
 Activated carbon treatment

In this process the organics in wastewater from pesticide industry is
adsorbed. GAC is widely used in pesticide industry. The treatment removes
the low level concentration of pesticides. It is then pumped to the activated
carbon chamber.
Case Study on Pesticide Pollution in India

One of the terrifying impacts of pesticide pollution of groundwater became
exposed when pesticide deposits were found in bottled water. Amongst
July and December 2002, the Pollution Monitoring Laboratory of the New
Delhi based Center for Science and Environment (CSE) investigated bottled
water of 17 brands, both packed drinking water and packed normal mineral
water, regularly sold in zones that fall inside the national capital district of
Delhi. Pesticide buildups of organochlorine and organophosphorus
pesticides, which are most generally utilized as a part of India, were found
in every one of the examples. Among the organochlorines, gamma-
hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) and DDT were predominant, while among
organophosphorus pesticides, Malathion and Chlorpyrifos were the most
well-known. All these were available over as far as possible determined
by the European Economic Community (EEC), which is the standard,
utilized all over Europe.
One may ponder with reference to how these pesticide deposits get into bottled
water that is made by a few major organizations. This can be followed to a few
actualities. There is no control that the filtered water industry must be situated
in ‘clean’ zones. Presently, the manufacturingplants of most brands are arranged
in the dirtiest modern domains or amidst farming fields. Most organizations
utilize bore-wells to direct out water starting from the earliest stage profundities
shifting from 24-152 m underneath the ground. The raw water tests gathered
from the plants likewise uncovered the nearness of pesticide buildups. This
unmistakably demonstrated the wellsprings of pesticide buildups in the dirtied
groundwater are utilized to make the filtered water. This is notwithstanding the
way that all bottled water plants utilize a scope of decontamination strategies.
In this manner, the blame clearly lies in the treatment techniques utilized.
These plants utilize membrane innovation, where the water is separated utilizing
layers with ultra-little pores to evacuate fine suspended solids and all
microorganisms and protozoa and even infections. While nano-filtration can
evacuate bug sprays and herbicides, it is costly and along these lines infrequently
utilized. Most enterprises likewise utilize an actuated charcoaladsorption process,
which is successful in expelling natural pesticides yet not overwhelming metals.
To expel pesticides, the plants utilize turn around osmosis and granular actuated
charcoal strategies. So despite the fact that the makers claim to utilize these
procedures, the nearness of pesticide deposits focuses to the way that either the
makers don’t utilize the treatment procedure adequately or just treat a piece of
the crude water.
47
Industrial Pollution: Textile, The low concentration of pesticide deposits in bottled water doesn’t cause intense
Industries
or prompt impacts. Notwithstanding rehashed introduction, even to a great degree,
miniscule sums can bring about perpetual impacts like cancer, liver and kidney
harm, issue of the sensory system, harm to the immune system and birth defects.
unit.
1) Explain the treatment methods for pesticide waste.
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2) Describe the disposal of waste in pesticide industry.

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3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we discussed about:
 Sources and type of pollutants in the pesticide industry;
 Wastes from the pesticide industries;
 Occupational and environmental hazards due to pesticide industry;
 Effects on human health; and
 Management of waste and hazards (treatment, handling and disposal).
3.8 KEY WORDS

Pollution, EIA, EIS, chemical oxidants, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides

READINGS
Central pollution control board- website • I S Codes on pesticides
Ecological Effects of Pesticides- document by Calicut university, India
48
Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Pesticide Manufacturing, Pesticide Industry
Formulation, and Packaging- WHO report
EPA report on Pesticide industry
Industrial waste water treatment- A.D. Patwardhan
Pesticide use and application: An Indian scenario- research paper
PFPR Operations- EPA report
Treatment of Pesticide Industry Wastes- by Wang & Hung
Use of Fenton’s Reagent for Removal of Pesticides from Industrial Wastewater-
research paper

Your answers should include the following points:
1) Point source-Diffusion source
2)  Neonicotinoid
 Organophosphat
 Carbamate-Organochlorine
 Insecticide
 Sulfonycera
 Herbicide
1)  Herbicides
 Insecticides
 Fungicides
 Biopesticides
 Nematocides
 Rodenticides
 Bactericides
2)  Waste bottles and containers
 Expired products
 CBC
 Waste cotton bags and saw dust
 Liquid waste treatment sludge
 Emptied drums
49
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Industries Your answers should include the following points:
1)  Water
 Air
 Soil
 Effect on human
 Effect on biota
2)  Effect on stream
 Effect on sewers
 Effect on STPs
 Effect on ecology
1)  Noxious chemicals are put away in the greasy tissues of human body
 It is assessed that 5-27 ppm of DDT compound is found in tissues of
people living in the nations where DDT is broadly utilized.
 Collection of chemicals in human body is observed to be unsafe for
wellbeing causing ailments like hypertension, tumor, disease, leukemia,
sterility and so forth.
 Few chemicals even harm the liver Endrin, enter percutaneously
(through the skin) and create dangerous impacts.
 Exceptionally lethal organophosphorus mixes should separate rapidly
in nature.
 Coincidental arrival of an insecticide into waterway Rhine killed a
large number of fish before it could be controlled.
1)  Activated carbon adsorption – Resin adsorption
 Hydrolysis
 Oxidation
2)  Incineration :- screening-settling tank-fenton oxidation-extended
aeration- secondary settling tank-effluent sump-activated carbon
treatment
 Deep-well disposal
 Ocean disposal
50
Pesticide Industry
UNIT 4 TANNING INDUSTRY
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Sources of Pollutants
4.2.1 Processes Involved and Chemical Pollutants
4.2.2 Other Pollutants
4.3 Chromium in the Environment
4.3.1 Chemistry of Chromium Salts
4.3.2 Chromium in the Water, Soil and Atmospheric System
4.4 Occupational Hazards
4.5 Effects on Health and Environment
4.5.1 Effects of the Constituents Used in Leather Processing on Human Health
4.5.2 Effects of Chromium on the Aquatic Ecosystems
4.5.3 Effects of Chromium on the Terrestrial Ecosystems
4.5.4 Effects of Chromium on Human Health
4.6 Management of Waste and Hazards (Treatment, Handling and Disposal)
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The tanning industry or the leather industry is one of the most polluting industries
and it has been designated as a hazardous industry under the Factory Act, 1948.
It is a major source of pollution that causes significant environmentaland human
health impacts (Ros and Ganter, 1998). The raw material used in this industry is
a byproduct of the meat industry. Leather which is a product of these industries
is used for the manufacture of handbags, bags, purses, belts, jackets, cases for
mobile phones, laptop cases, shoes, seats for vehicles and a number of other
products. Leather is expensive and leather products are important earners of
foreign exchange. Bovine hide is the most important raw material for the leather
industry. The wastes from this industry have organic and inorganic constituents,
high oxygen demand and toxic chemical constituents that can impact the
environment (Song et al. 2000). In particular, chromium and chlorinated phenols
are important constituents of this industrial waste (Mwinyihija et al. 2006).
Chromium is a heavy metal and is an inorganic transition metal pollutant which
exists in several oxidation states. For example, the trivalent Cr3+ and hexavalent
Cr6+ species are the most common forms of chromium found in the environment
(Kotaœ and Stasicka, 2000). The tanneries emit toxic odour. Some other chemical
pollutants of concern from the tanning industry include: azodyes, antimony,
arsenic, barium, cadmium compounds, cobalt, copper, formaldehyde resins, lead,
mercury, nickel, pesticides residues, polychlorinated biphyenls (PCB), selenium,
and zinc. Tannery sludge can also affect the quality of soil and groundwater.
51
Industrial Pollution: Textile, More recently, environmental awareness articles in newspapers and the media
Industries
has made the public aware of the toxic chemicals used in leather processing,
hence people are switching on to eco-friendly products like jute or coir.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
 describe the various types of pollutants observed in the tanning industry;
 understand the occupational hazards of the constituents involved in leather
processing;
 analyze the impact of the pollutants on human health and on the environment;
and
 list some management aspects related to the handling of these pollutants.
4.2 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS

The tanning industry involves different stages and processes which release a
mixture of toxic pollutants leading to environmental pollution. The use of different
chemicals during leather processing, produces toxic wastes in solid, liquid and
gaseous forms.
Let us now learn about the various processes involved and the pollutants released
to the environment.
4.2.1 Processes Involved and Chemical Pollutants

a) Curing and Soaking: In the first step known as ‘curing’, the hides used in
the tanneries are salted to prevent decay and decomposition after separation
from the animal carcass. The insecticides, salts such as sodium chloride
and other preservatives are removed. In this stage basically rehydration of
hides and skins are done. Then about 55% of the water in the hide is removed
and are dried for up to 3 to 6 days. These rawhides are sold to the tanning
industries. In curing and soaking processes high volume of water is utilized
resulting in a large amount of effluent discharge along with high pollutant
loads (Cassano et al. 2001). Presently the tanning industry use salted hides
and skins rather than air dried ones due to their high rehydration potential.
This discharges huge volumes of salt to the environment. Further, the hides
are soaked in water mixed with chemical wetting agents and disinfectants
for 8 to 20 hours, depending on the thickness of the hides. These when
discharged pollute the environment.
b) Liming: This process uses an alkaline medium to condition the raw hides
and skins. The alkaline agent used is lime. The process helps to remove the
hair, flesh, from the skins and sodium sulphide (Na2S) is added to facilitate
this process (Flaherty et al. 1959). These chemicals which are used are
sources of environmental pollutants.
c) Deliming, Bating, Pickling: In this process, weak organic acids, digestive
enzymes and inorganic acids are used to remove the lime, digest and remove
the non-structural proteins.
d) Tanning agents: Chrome tanning agents are added to the hides to prevent
52 rotting. These tanning agents are significant environmental pollutants.
e) Re-tanning and Colouring: This process is done to impart special Tanning Industry
characteristics to the leather. Substances such as aniline dyes are added to
hot water for colouring the hide.
f) Chrome tanning: Approximately 90% of all leather products are tanned
using chromium salts (Stein and Schwedt, 1994). Usually basic chromium
sulphate salt is used in the process. It binds with the collagenous protein to
help in the leather conversion processing. Some of the important
environmental pollutants released during leather processing include: sodium
chloride, pesticides, alkalines, sulphides, inorganic residual compounds,
dissolved matter, chromium salts and chlorinated phenols (UNEP, 1994).
In some countries vegetable tannins are preferred by using plant based
materials such as tree barks and pods. The vegetable tannins consist of
hydrolysable tannins (Zywicki et al. 2002).
The entire process involved in the tanning process is explained below with the
help of a self explanatory flow chart (modified; UNEP, 1994).
Figure 4.1: Processes involved in the tanning industry (modified and adapted,
53
UNEP 1994)
Industrial Pollution: Textile, 4.2.2 Other Pollutants
Industries a) Organic Matter: Organic matter associated with tannery waste consists of
biodegradable organic matter i.e. proteins and carbohydrates.
b) Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S): This is a toxic gas with an offensive and pungent
odour resembling rotten eggs. H2S is released in the liming yard and the
anaerobic lagoons of tanneries (Mwinyihija, 2007).
c) Chromium Salts: Chromium basic sulphate is the most commonly used

tanning agent. The chromium tannage contains approximately 30% of the
initial salt concentration and are toxic pollutants as their salts create serious
problems for during disposal (Cassano et al. 2001; Gauglhofer, 1986).
Chromium is a micronutrient and Cr salts such as chromium polynicotine,
chromium chloride and chromium picolinate have been demonstrated to
exhibit a significant number of health benefits in animals and humans
(Anderson, 2000).
d) Odour: The odour and smell generated from tanneries are toxic and
unbearable. Other pollutants include sulphide, ammonia and other volatile
compounds that are associated with leather processing activities.
e) Solid wastes: The solid wastes produced in leather industry include animal
skin trims, animal hairs, flesh wastes, dust and keratin wastes. All the above
wastes cause pollution to the environment. Most of these solids are protein
residues. When effluents with high oxygen demand are discharged directly
into surface waters, oxygen is depleted affecting the life of many aerobic
plants, bacteria, fish and other living organisms. With the result non-oxygen
dependent or anaerobic organisms inhabit the waters leading to toxicity.
f) Sulphide: The sulphide content in tannery effluent results from the use of
sodium sulphide and sodium hydrosulphide, and the breakdown of hair in
the unhairing process. Sulphide gas can cause eye damage and in higher
concentrations lead to death.
g) Neutral salts: There are two common types of neutralsalts found in tannery
effluents. They are: sulphates and chlorides. Sulphates are a component of
tannery effluent, emanating from the use of sulphuric acid or products with
a high (sodium) sulphate content. Many auxiliary chemicals used in tanning
contain sodium sulphate as a by-product of their manufacture. For example,
chrome tanning powders and synthetic retanning agents contain high levels
of sodium sulphate. Chloride is introduced into tannery effluents as sodium
chloride as large quantities of this salt is used in hide and skin preservation
or the pickling process. Being highly soluble and stable, they are unaffected
by effluent treatment thus causing pollution concerns. This salt can enter
the groundwater system especially in areas of high industrial density, which
is now a serious environmental hazard.
h) Oils and grease: Natural oils and grease are released from the skin during
leather processing. These agglomerate and bind to other materials causing
environmental pollution. Contaminated surface waters reduce oxygen
transfer from the atmosphere and create a very high oxygen demand.
54
i) Other metals: Other metals which might be discharged from tanneries Tanning Industry
include aluminium and zirconium. They are toxic in nature are also affected
by the presence of other organic matter, complexing agents and the pH of
the water.
unit.
1) Describe the different processes involved in the tanning industry.
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2) Explain some sources of environmental pollutants in the tanning industry.

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4.3 CHROMIUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Chromium can exist in six valence states, i.e. 0, II, III, IV, V and VI, which
represent the number of bonds an atom is capable of making. Let us now discuss
the chemistry of the chromium salts and the two important and common forms
of chromium.
4.3.1 Chemistry of Chromium Salts

Trivalent (Cr-III) and hexavalent (Cr-VI) are the most common chromium species
found environmentally. The trivalent form is the most stable form and its
compounds are often insoluble in water. The hexavalent form of chromium is
the second most stable form and the most toxic too. Many of its compounds are
soluble. Chromium-VI has the ability to easily enter into the cells of an organism,
where it exerts toxicity by its reduction to Cr-V, IV and III. Most Chromium-VI
in the environment is created by anthropogenic activities.
Chromium-III is found in the mineral chromite. The main use for chromite ore
mined today is the production of ferrochrome which is an alloy of iron and
chromium. Ferrochrome is use in the production of stainless steel. Vast deposits
55
Industrial Pollution: Textile, of chromite are observed in northern Ontario, North America known as the ‘Ring
Industries
of Fire’. They are the largest deposits of chromium found in the world.
Let us now learn about the two forms of chromium.
a) Trivalent Chromium (Cr3+): The presence of this form of chromium and its
concentration depends on different chemical and physical processes such
as hydrolysis, complexation, redox reactions and adsorption. It also exists
as hexa-aquachromium and its hydrolysis products in the absence of
complexing agents other than water or hydroxyl radicals (Rai et al. 1989).
It is a hard acid which exhibits a strong tendency to form hexacoordinate
octahedral complexes with a variety of ligands such as water, ammonia,
urea, ethylenediamine and other organic ligands containing oxygen, nitrogen
or sulphur donor atoms (Nakayama et al. 1981a; Saleh et al. 1989).
Chromium-III oxidation to Chromium-VI occurs under favourable pH and
moisture conditions in the presence of manganese oxides, alkali oxides or
calcium compounds, during waste incineration, chromite ore dry grinding
and smelting.
b) Hexavalent Chromium (Cr6+): Chromium forms several species which

depend on pH. For example between pH 1 and 6, HCrO4" is the predominant
form, until it reaches the Cr6+ concentration 10"2 M. This is the point when
it starts to condense giving the orange-red dichromate ion (Cotton and
Wilkinson, 1980; Greenwood and Earnshaw, 1984; Nieboer and Jusys,
1988). Chromium-VI can have long residence times in surface water,
groundwater and can persist in soil for years, even with favourable reducing
conditions. Chromium-VI reduction to Chromium-III is favoured under
normal atmospheric conditions and in low oxygen soils, water or sediments
coupled in the presence of favourable pH values, organic matter, reductants
or in the presence of microbes.
4.3.2 Chromium in the Water, Soil and Atmospheric System

Soils, atmosphere and water systems can be contaminated with chromium and
its salts. Contamination can occur through industrial activities or through mining.
Dust particles from mining and smelting processes; waste waters from tanneries,
mine tailings, waste rock etc. severely pollute the soil, water and air. This affects
the environmental quality and health. The valence state of chromium in the
environment is affected and influenced by physical, chemical and biological
factors. Chromium can be reduced from VI to III or oxidized from III to VI
depending on the environmental conditions.
a) Water system
Chromium can enter the water systems from weathering of rocks, run off
from the terrestrial systems, wet precipitation and dry fallout from the
atmosphere. In rivers and lakes, the Cr concentration is usually limited to
0.5–100 nM (Handa, 1988; Kaczynski and Kieber, 1993). In seawaters it
varies from 0.1 to 16 nM (Dejong and Brinkman, 1978). The tanning industry
can contribute significantly to the increase in chromium concentration in
waters. The nature of the different types of chromium forms found in
wastewater released from the industries can be very different from those
present in natural waters due to the toxicity and processes used in different
56 industrial sectors. The presence and concentration of chromium forms in
effluents depends on the types of chromium compounds used in tanneries Tanning Industry
during processing.
b) Soil system
Chromium concentration in soils can originate due to deposition from
atmospheric chromium containing particles, chrome bearing sludge material
and chromium containing waste from industries. Once in the soil it can
enter the groundwater system and contaminate drinking water supplies. It
can also affect agricultural farms. In many areas in India, especially in
areas around Kanpur, the water coming out of the hand pumps is yellow in
colour owing to the high concentrations of chromium in the water which
can be toxic in nature. Cr3+ adsorption into soil humic acids makes it
insoluble, immobile and unreactive.
c) Atmospheric system
Though industrial activities contribute to the major source of pollution to
the atmosphere but volcanic eruptions and soil erosions also play important
roles. 60 to 70% can be from anthropogenic origins and 30 to 40% can be
from natural sources. Volcanic eruptions and erosion of soil and rocks are
examples of natural sources (Kotaœ and Stasicka, 2000). In the atmospheric
systems, the content of chromium at any particular time depends on the
intensity of industrial processes, proximity to the sources, the amount of
chromium released and finally the meteorological factors.
Chromium toxicity in Kanpur, India

Kanpur in India has a number of tanneries and also hosts the industries
manufacturing basic chrome sulphate used in tanneries. A study conducted
by the Central Leather Research Institute, India showed that there are more
than 400 tanneries at Kanpur. These tanneries alone discharge more than
1500 metric tons of chromium sulphate as waste. These industrial wastes
are dumped on open lands, water bodies etc. In 1997, Central Pollution
Control Board, India reported Cr (VI) concentration up to 250 times higher
than the WHO permissible limit (0.05 ppm) in some areas at Kanpur. Most
of the residents have experienced gastrointestinal disturbances, skin
disorders, eye disorders and urinary problems. Using hexavalent chromium
contaminated ground waters have a direct link with human health risks. To
prevent deterioration of the environment and human health proper industrial
waste management and laws are required alongside water and soil
remediation.
Source: Sharma et al. 2012
unit.
1) Describe the two important forms of chromium.
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Industrial Pollution: Textile, ......................................................................................................................
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2) How can chromium enter the water and soil systems?

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4.4 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS

The tannery workers are exposed to chromium containing leather dust. The
hexavalent chromium is quickly absorbed by the lungs into the blood and easily
penetrates the cells which then bind to the hemoglobin in the red blood cells
thereby affecting the oxygen carrying capacity. Chromium causes dermatitis,
ulcers, perforation of the nasal septum, respiratory diseases, lung and nasal
cancers. The high death rates among the tannery workers may be due to high
levels of chromium in the blood and urine which is due to high levels of chromium
in the air in the working area. Tanneries can be sometimes extremely hazardous
work places especially in small and cottage industries where there is insufficient
ventilation. The tanneries may have unguarded machines, improper handling of
raw materials, chemical leather dust, wet floors, heavy noise which cause
occupational hazards.
a) Hazards from dust: At the work place dusts of vegetable tanning materials
during the shaving and buffing processes generate large amount of dust.
Lime dust can cause corneal ulceration, opacity of the eyes and irritation to
the respiratory tract. Further, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gas can cause
watering of eyes, sneezing, sore throat, head ache, giddiness and loss of
energy.
b) Hazards from Machinery: The occupational hazards arisingfrom unguarded

machinery in the tannery industry like revolving drums, in-running rollers
and knives, can also result in serious problems like bruises, scrapes,
abrasions or amputations. Sometimes high levels of noise from the
instruments can lead to partial hearing impairment to the workers. Electric
shocks and accidents can also occur from machinery.
c) Hazards from chemicals: Large amount of chemicals are used at various

stages of leather processing. In most industries the mixing of chemicals is
done manually which is hazardous to the workers. The tanneries are
characterized by greasy, wet floors which can cause fatal injuries.
d) Hazards from biological agents: The workers involved in curing, soaking,

58
trimming, sorting and packing raw hides and skins are severely exposed Tanning Industry
biological agents. For example, the bacterial species anthrax can be
hazardous and can enter the human body through the skin (cutaneous) or
through inhalation (pulmonary).Anthrax spores enter worker’s body through
skin abrasions such as cuts, scratches or by inhaling anthrax contaminated
dust. The dry-salted hides are more likely to cause anthrax than the wet
salted ones.
e) Hazards to women workers: The contact with chemicals makes women

workers vulnerable to gynecological problems such as still birth. Other
hazards due to chemicals include: dermatitis, nervous disorders, skin
disorders, chest pain, ulcer, asthma, bronchitis and gastrointestinal
complications.
4.5 EFFECTS ON HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

You must have heard about the effects of the different constituents used in the
leather industry. Let us now learn them in detail.
4.5.1 Effects of the Constituents Used in Leather Processing on

Human Health
a) Effects of H2S: The primary biochemical effects arising from H2S exposure
are inhibition of the cytochrome oxidase and other oxidative enzymes,
resulting in cellular hypoxia or anoxia. Further, in human beings
concentration dependent toxicity occurs in acute exposure. Moderate levels
of H 2S ex posure (approxim ately 50–100 m g L”1) can result in
keratoconjuntivitis, respiratory tract irritation and olfactory fatigue.
Prolonged exposure to 250–500 mg L”1 will result in olfactory paralysis,
severe lung and eye irritation, pulmonary oedema and unconsciousness in
humans (Dorman et al. 2000).
b) Organic Matter: Their impacts are primarily the loss of dissolved oxygen,
which is detrimental to aquatic organisms. In addition the depletion of
dissolved oxygen encourages anaerobic activity, which leads to release of
noxious gases (Pepper et al. 1996; Mwinyihija et al. 2006a).
c) Aluminium and Cadmium: Aluminium, in particular, appears to inhibit the

growth of green algae and crustaceans are sensitive to low concentrations.
Cadmium, sometimes used in yellow pigments, is considered highly toxic.
It is bioaccumulative and has a chronic effect on a wide range of organisms.
If present in drinking water, it can induce brittleness in bones.
d) Chlorides: They inhibit the growth of plants, bacteria and fish in surface
waters and high levels of chloride can lead to breakdowns in cell structure.
If the water is used for irrigation purposes, surface salinity increases through
evaporation and crop yields can be low. Rain water flush out the chlorides
from the soil but they re-enter the groundwater system
e) Sulphides: Even a low level of exposure to the sulphide gas can cause
headaches, nausea, and eye damage. At higher levels, the gas can result in
death and a number of deaths due to accumulation of sulphide in sewage
systems. When discharged to surface waters, even low concentrations create 59
Industrial Pollution: Textile, toxicity. Sulphides can be oxidized into non-toxic compounds by certain
Industries
bacteria in rivers. This results in oxygen demand which, if excessive, can
harm aquatic life.
f) Chromium salts: Hazards due to environmental contamination depend on

its oxidation state i.e. hexavalent stage of chromium (Cr6+) is more toxic
than the Cr3+ which precipitates at higher pH. Trivalent chromium is unable
to enter into cells but Cr6+ enters through membrane anionic transporters.
Intracellular Cr6+ is metabolically reduced to Cr3+. Cr6+ does not react with
macromolecules such as DNA, RNA, proteins and lipids. However both
Cr3+ and the intermediate Cr5+ are capable of coordinated covalent
interactions with macromolecules (Shrivastava et al. 2002).
g) Hexavalent chrome: Dichromates are toxic to fish life since they swiftly
penetrate cell walls. They are mainly absorbed through the gills and the
effect is accumulative. Chromium hydroxide precipitates and persists in
the ecosystem for an extended period of time. Even in low concentrations,
it has a toxic effect upon daphnia, thus disrupting the food chain for fish
life and possibly inhibiting photosynthesis. Detailed toxicity of chromium
is explained in the sub sections below.
4.5.2 Effects of Chromium on the Aquatic Ecosystems

Chromium exerts its affects on the aquatic ecosystems and is known to
bioaccumulate in algae, aquatic plants, invertebrates and fish. The uptake,
accumulation and effects are influenced by species, organism size, sex and
developmental stage, presence of other contaminants, water temperature, pH,
alkalinity and salinity. Hexavalent chromium is toxic at even low concentrations
and induces reduced growth and photosynthesis in aquatic plants and lethal
toxicity. Fish exposed to hexavalent chromium show increased hatching time,
DNA damage and reduced survival. Chromium-III in water is more toxic to fish
than chromium-VI. It reduces reproduction and is deposited on the gills.
Chromium-VI does not get deposited on the gills but enters the cells and induces
toxicity on the internal organs such as the liver and kidney.
4.5.3 Effects of Chromium on the Terrestrial Ecosystems

Chromium is known to induce cancers, reproductive disorders, behavioral
changes, reduced growth and survival among animals. Chromium-VI can
negatively impact soil ecology. Terrestrial plants can accumulate Cr-III and VI
from soil, sediment, water and atmospheric deposition on leaves. Plant exposure
to excess Cr-III or VI can negatively affect plant health and survival. Chromium
toxicity differs in different species and some effects are: reduced growth;
decreased chlorophyll production causing yellow leaves; narrow leaves; small
root systems; damage to root membranes and ability to take up water; alteration
of uptake and translocation of essential elements; decreased inhibition of seed
germination; delayed growth; decreased seed yield; wilting; death.
4.5.4 Effects of Chromium on Human Health

Human exposure pathways to chromium are through inhalation, ingestion and
skin contact. Chromium-III and VI are known to accumulate in animaland human
tissues. Further, toxicity includes: developmental problems, damage to skin,
respiratory, reproductive and digestive systems and carcinogenecity. Chromium-
60
VI is much more toxic than Cr-III because of its greater ability to enter cells and Tanning Industry
its strong oxidation potential. Chromium can also enter the foetus through the
placenta and mother’s milk. Developmental toxicity effects of Cr-VI have been
observed in animals. Increased incidences of birth anomalies have been observed
in regions of poorly or unregulated chromite mining, chrome, leather and tannery
industrial sectors.

(TREATMENT, HANDLING AND DISPOSAL)
The tannery wastewaters need to be treated before it enters the ecosystems. The
organic matter, solids, nutrients, Cr and other pollutants should be removed
using appropriate technology. The tannery effluents can be discharged from the
(1) beam-house (during liming, deliming/bating, water from fleshing); (2) tanyard
(tanning and re-tanning); (3) post-tanning operations (fat-liquoring, dyeing). In
many tanneries, the mixing of liming and tanning effluents gives obnoxious
odour and is hazardous to health and environment. It is necessary to segregate
these streams and to pre-treat them separately. Management and treatment is
done in different stages.
a) Preliminary treatment: This is the preliminary stage where pre-treatment

units of the tanneries remove large particles, sand, grease, remove major
parts of suspended solids, reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD)
and chemical oxygen demand (COD) content and reduce the content of
chrome and sulphides before the effluents are discharged.
i) Primary treatment - physico-chemical treatment: In this stage mainly the

removal of coarse matter, chromium and sulphides, suspended solids, and
reduction of the BOD and COD content is done. They are carried out using
the following techniques: (1) Screening, (2) Pumping/lifting, (3) Fine
screening, (4) Equalization and sulphide oxidation, (5) Chemical treatment
(coagulation, flocculation), (6) Settling and (7) Sludge dewatering. After
screening, the effluent homogenization and sulphide elimination is done
by catalytic oxidation. Then the settleable organic and inorganic solids are
removed by sedimentation, and the scum (materials that float) are removed
by skimming. In coagulation and flocculation processes chemicals are added
in order to improve and accelerate the settling of suspended solids, especially
of fine and colloidal matter. In tanning wastewater treatment, coagulation
and flocculation are used to separate suspended solids from water. In settling,
suspended solids are removed and further the removal of certain other
constituents like: fats, waxes, mineral oils, grease are also separated here.
Primary settling tanks known as clarifiers are used. They can be circular or
rectangular, in which scum is removed the top and the sludge is removed at
the bottom. Finally in sludge dewatering, the sludge in the form of a slurry,
is taken out from the bottom of the tank. It has a dry-solid content of only 2
to 4%. About 25-50% of the incoming biochemical oxygen demand, 50-
70% of total suspended solids, and 65% of the oil and grease are removed
during primary treatment of the tannery effluents. The effluent and sludge
from primary sedimentation are known as primary effluent and sludge.
b) Secondary treatment - biological treatment: The next step is secondary
treatment where biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter is 61
Industrial Pollution: Textile, removed using aerobic biological treatment. Among the different aerobic
Industries
process, the most widely used method is the activated sludge treatment
with extended aeration. The activated sludge process is an aerobic, biological
process, which uses the metabolism of microorganisms to remove substances
causing oxygen demand. As the name indicates this treatment is done in
the presence of oxygen by aerobic microbes which degrade the organic
matter and produce ammonia, water and carbon dioxide. Various microbial
communities of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifers are employed. Aeration
basins and oxidation ditch are the best possible biological treatments for
tannery effluents. There are various aerobic biological processes used in
secondary treatment and the striking differences among the processes is
the way in which oxygen is given to the microbes and also the rate at which
these microbes are able to degrade the organic material.
a) Tertiary treatment – advanced treatment: Tertiary treatment is done for
reducing the residual chemical oxygen demand load. It is also used when
some constituents remain and are not properly removed in the secondary
treatment stage. Sometimes recalcitrant COD which are compounds that
the microbes are unable to decompose remain. In order to remove these,
some more additional, sophisticated and expensive treatments are employed.
Treatments like mineralization of organic compounds by oxidation with
hydrogen peroxide in the presence of ferrous sulphate - Fenton processes
are used for this. Ozonation is also another technique used sometimes to
remove the residual COD.
b) Sludge handling and disposal: Finally after treatment the effluent treatment
plants release treated effluents and sludge which has to be disposed safely.
Mechanical sludge dewatering is done to reduce the volume and weight of
the sludge material to be transported but also to finally obtain the dry material
required for disposal at landfills. The tannery sludge has high content of
inorganic matter and heavy metals, especially chromium and sulfur
compounds. There are a lot of techniques for safe disposal of tannery sludge
and for utilizing them for other purposes. For example they can be disposed
at landfills, in composting, anaerobic digestion, thermal treatments can be
done. The sludge can also be used in brick making.
unit.
1) Describe the ways in which secondary treatment is done for tanning wastes.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
62
2) What are the effects of chromium on the ecosystem? Tanning Industry
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3) How are tannery wastes managed and treated?

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about the tanning industry and the processes involved
in this industry. We have learnt about the different constituents used in leather
processing and how each of these constituents is toxic and harmful to the
environment and human health. Chromium especially is very toxic and is a
hazardous heavy metal. When chromium is ingested or enters the body it can
cause irreparable health effects. Hence, all tanneries should have safety measures
for pre-treating the wastes and installeffluent treatment plants. The wastes should
be properly treated using physical, chemical and biological methods and
techniques before disposal. In this way the toxic components will be removed
to a great extent.
4.8 KEY WORDS

Tannery: It is the place where the skins are processed to make hide into leather
using various processes.
BOD: Biological oxygen demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by

aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given
water sample at a certain temperature over a specific time period.
COD: Chemical oxygen demand is an indicative measure of the amount of

oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is expressed
in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is
milligrams per litre.
Sludge: It is a semi-solid slurry produced from wastewater treatment processes

or other industrial processes. 63
Industrial Pollution: Textile, Biomagnification: Accumulation of in concentration of toxic elements (i.e.)
Industries
lead, from one food chain level to the next.
Carcinogenic: That which is capable of causing cancer.

READINGS
Anderson RA (2000). Chromium in the prevention and control of diabetes.
Diabetes Metabol., 26: 22–27.
Cassano A, Molinari A, Romano M, Drioli E (2001). Treatment of aqueous

effluents of the leather industry by membrane processes, a review. J Membr Sci
181: 111–126.
Cotton FA, Wilkinson G (1980). Chromium, pp. 719–736. In:Advanced inorganic

chemistry, comprehensive text, 4th edition John Wiley, New York.
Dejong GJ, Brinkman UA Jr (1978). Determination of chromium(III) and

chromium(VI) inSeawater by atomic absorption spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta
98: 243–250.
Dorman CD, Brenneman KA, Melanie FS, Miller KL, James AR, Marshall MW,
Foster PMD (2000). Fertility and developmental neurotoxicity effects of inhaled
hydrogen sulphide in Sprague-Dawley rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol 22: 71–84.
Flaherty O, Roddy W, Lollar TRM (1959). The chemistry and technology of

leather, Vol. 1 E. Robert Krieger Publishing Company, NewYork.
Gauglhofer J (1986). Environmental aspects of tanning with chromium. J Soc

Leather Technol Chem 70 (1): 11.
Greenwood NM, EarnshawA (1984). Chemistry of the elements. Pergamo press,

Oxford, pp. 265–271.
Handa BK (1988). Occurrence and distribution of chromium in natural waters

of India, pp. 189–215. In: Nriagu JO, Nieboer E (eds.) Chromium in Natural
and Human Environment. Wiley Interscience, New York.
Introduction to treatment of tannery effluents, UNIDO, Vienna, 2011.
Kaczynski SE, Kieber RJ (1993). Aqueous trivalent chromium photoproduction

in natural waters. Environ Sci Tech 27: 1572–1576.
Kotaœ J, Stasicka Z (2000). Chromium occurrence in the environment and

methods of its speciation. Environ Poll. 107: 263–283.
Mwinyihija M, Strachan NJC, Dawson J, Meharg A, Killham K (2006). An

ecotoxicological approach to assessing the impact of tanning industry effluent
on river health. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 50: 316–324.
Mwinyihija M (2007) Assessment of anaerobic lagoons efficiency in reducing

toxicity levels of tannery effluent in Kenya. Res J Environ Toxicol 1(4): 167–
175.
64
Mwinyihija, M. (2010). Main Pollutants and Environmental Impacts of the Tanning Industry
Tanning Industry. In: Mwinyihija, M. (Ed) Ecotoxicological Diagnosis in the
Tanning Industry, 17-35p, 16, 140 p Springer.
Nakayama E, Tsurubo S, Tokoroco H, Fujinaga T (1981). Chemical speciation

of chrome in seawater part III. The determination of chrome species. Anal Chim
Acta 131: 247–254.
Nieboer E, Jusys AA (1988). Biological chemistry of chrome, pp. 21–81. In:

Nriagu JO, Nieboer E (eds.) Chromium in natural and human environments.
Wiley interscience, New York.
Newman MC and Unger MA. 2002. Fundamentals of Ecotoxicology. Lewis

Publishers, Florida. 458p.
Pepper IL, Gerba CP, Brussean ML (1996). Pollution Science, Academic press
Inc., pp 194.
Rai D, Eary LE, Zachara JM (1989). Environmental chemistry of chromium.

Sci Total Environ 86: 15–23.
Ros M, GanterA (1998). Possibilities of reduction of recipient loading of tannery

waste Slovenia. Water Sci Tech 37: 145–152.
Saleh FY, Parkerton TF, Lewis RV, Huang JH, Dickson KL (1989). Kinetics of
chromium transformation in the environment. Sci Total Environ 86: 25–41.
Sharma P, Bihari V, Agarwal S K, Verma V, Kesavachandran C N, Pangtey B S,

Mathur N, Singh K P, Srivastava M, Goel S K. 2012. Groundwater Contaminated
with Hexavalent Chromium [Cr (VI)]:A Health Survey and Clinical Examination
of Community Inhabitants (Kanpur, India). Plos One, Vol.10, 1-7.
Shrivastava R, Upreti RK, Seth PK, Chaturvedi UC (2002). The effects of

chromium on the immune system. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 34: 1–7.
Song Z, Williams CJ, Edyvean RJ (2000) Sedimentation of tannery wastewater.

Water Res 34: 2171–2176.
Stein K, Schwedt G (1994). Chromium speciation in the wastewater from a

tannery. Fresen J Anal Chem 350: 38–41.
UNEP 1994 Introduction to treatment of tannery effluents. 2011. United Nations

Industrial Development Organization, Vienna International Centre, P.O. Box
300, 1400 Vienna, Austria.
Zywicki B, Reemtsma T, Jekel M (2002). Analysis of commercial vegetable

tanning agents by reversed-phase liquid chromatography–electrospray
ionisation–tandem mass spectrometry and its application to the wastewater. J
Chrom 970: 191–200.
65
Mining, Pesticide and Tanning 4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Industries
 Curing and Soaking
 Liming
 Deliming, Bating, Pickling
 Tanning
 Re-tanning and Colouring
 Chrome tanning
 Processes involved and chemical pollutants
 Other pollutants - Organic Matter, Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S),
Chromium Salts, Odour, Solid wastes, Sulphide, Neutral salts, Oils
and grease, Other metals.
 Trivalent Chromium (Cr3+)
 Hexavalent Chromium (Cr6+)
 Water system:Chromium can enter the water systems from weathering
of rocks, run off from the terrestrial systems, wet precipitation and dry
fallout from the atmosphere. The tanning industry can contribute
significantly to the increase in chromium concentration in waters and
toxic industrial wastes.
 Soil system: It can originate due to deposition from atmospheric

chromium containing particles, chrome bearing sludge material and
chromium containing waste from industries. Once in the soil it can
enter the groundwater system and contaminate drinking water supplies.

 In secondary treatment biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic
matter is removed using aerobic biological treatment.
 Activated sludge treatment with extended aeration
 The activated sludge process is an aerobic, biological process, which
uses the metabolism of microorganisms to remove substances causing
oxygen demand.
 Aeration basins and oxidation ditch are the best possible biological
treatments for tannery effluents.
66
2) Your answer should include the following points: Tanning Industry
 Effects of chromium on the Aquatic Ecosystems

 Effects of chromium on the Terrestrial Ecosystems
 The tannery wastewaters need to be treated before it enters the
ecosystems. The organic matter, solids, nutrients, Cr and other
pollutants should be removed using appropriate technology.
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment
 Tertiary treatment
67

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ignou MEVE-004

Industrial Pollution: Textile, Mining,

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

COURSE COORDINATORS CONTENT EDITORS

This elective course is entitled “Industrial Sector”. This course consists of 4

Block 2 deals with Industrial Pollution: Automobile, Paint, Pharmaceutical,

1.2 SOURCES AND TYPE OF POLLUTANTS IN

1.2.2 Sources and Type of Pollutants

1.3 WASTE FROM TEXTILE INDUSTRIES

c) Residual Chlorine: Chlorine compounds are used frequently in textile

e) Organic pollutants: These pollutants include dyes, acids, sizing materials,

g) Sequestering agents: They include chemicals like Trisodium polyphosphate

h) Printing gums: preservatives like pentachlorophenol can cause dermititis,

i) Fixing agents: They include: formaldehyde and benzidine chemicals.

1.4 OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

1.4.1 Occupational Hazards

Exposure to chemical agents: Workers are exposed to a variety of chemicals

f) Accidents: There can be accidents in the workplace from dangerous

These are some occupational hazards seen in the textile sector.

1.4.2 Environmental Hazards

1.5 EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

1.6 MANAGEMENT OF WASTE AND HAZARDS

1.6.1 Treatment Methods

2) Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Treatment

a) Physico-chemical treatment: This is usually the first stage of treatment.

b) Flocculation: After the previous stage the second step is flocculation.

c) Solid-liquid separation: This is done using gravity sedimentation,

The chemical treatment helps in reduction of colour and suspended

B. Secondary treatment: The physico-chemical treatment is followed by

Figure 1.1: Secondary treatment: Activated sludge process

1) Adsorption: Activated carbon is used to remove colour and other soluble

3) Membrane Filtration: After primary, secondary and tertiary treatment

4) Ozonation: Ozone is a powerful oxidizer. Large, complex organic

1.8 KEY WORDS

Reverse osmosis: It is based on the ability of certain specific polymeric

Adsorption: It is a surface-based process while absorption involves the whole

Ion exchange: It is a process in which ions are exchanged between a solution

1.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

Knutsson A. Health disorders of shift workers. Occupational Medicine

Samiya A, Kelvin T, Alexandra C, Matthew C. Health and Safety in the Textile

Slater, K. 2003. Environmental Impact of Textiles, Production, Processes and

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Your answer should include the following points:

1.3 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS OF MINING

In many developed and developing countries, the fatalities caused by injuries

Table 2.2: Pollutants from various stages in a mining industry vis-a-vis

Dusts f ro m waste HCl, HF, SO2 Air and water pollution

Beneficiation Tailin gs(slu rr y) , To xins, Ground and surface water,

Mine closure No site rehabilitation Abandoned and barren

Check Your Progress 2

4) How is environment impacted by waste rock/overburden?

1.5 DISPOSAL AND MANAGEMENT OF WASTE

Waste rock and soil

Table 2.3 Tailings disposal methods.

3. Disposal into It involves discarding of the tailings in the exhausted

Reprocessing of waste rock and tailings

2) Which plants can stabilise overburden?

4) How are the mining wastes managed?

1.7 KEY WORDS

Ancylostomiasis: is a hookworm disease caused by infection with Ancylostoma

1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Your answer should include the following points: