OLD BOOK MEV-001 - Environment and Ecology

ignou MEV-001
THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY Introduction to
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and Environmental Health
Trans-disciplinary Studies
ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

The Environment 1
MEV-001
Introduction to
Environmental Health
School of Interdisciplinary and
Block
1
ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
UNIT 1
Introduction to Natural Environment 5
UNIT 2
Ecosystem 19
UNIT 3
Energy Resources and Conservation 37
UNIT 4
Global Environmental Issues 49
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani Dr. Rachna Agarwal Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
Professor, National Institute of School of Vocational Education Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Urban Affairs (NIUA) India Habitat and Training, Indira Gandhi School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Centre New Delhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
New Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. R. Baskar University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Department of Environmental Prof. Daizy R Batish
Science & Engineering, Guru Department of Botany, Panjab Prof. Ruchika Kuba Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Jambheshwar University of University, Chandigarh School of Health Sciences, Indira School of Interdisciplinary and
Science & Technology, Hisar Gandhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Haryana Prof. M. Krishnan New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Vice Chancellor, Madurai Kamraj New Delhi
Prof. H.J. Shiva Prasad University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
Professor of Civil Engineering School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
College of Technology, G.B. Pant Dr. Chirashree Ghosh Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
University of Agriculture & Technology Department of Environmental Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand Studies, University of Delhi, University, New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi New Delhi
Dr. T.K. Joshi Dr. Shachi Shah
Director, Occupational & Mr. Ravi Agarwal Environmental Studies, Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
Environmental Programme, Centre Director, Toxic Link, Jangpura School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and
for Occupational & Environmental Extension, New Delhi Trans-disciplinary Studies Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Health, Maulana Azad Medical Indira Gandhi National Open Gandhi National Open University
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi New Delhi
College, New Delhi School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, New Delhi
Prof. Nilima Srivastava National Open University, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
School of Gender and Development New Delhi Environmental Studies
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Dr. B. Rupini School of Interdisciplinary and
Open University, New Delhi Environmental Studies, School Trans-disciplinary Studies
of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. S.K. Yadav University, New Delhi
School of Agriculture disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi National Open National Open University,
University, New Delhi New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Dr. Shachi Shah Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave Dr. Deeksha Dave
Environmental Studies, School of Environmental Studies, School Environmental Studies, School Environmental Studies, School of
Interdisciplinary and Trans- of Interdisciplinary and Trans- of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi disciplinary Studies, Indira disciplinary Studies, Indira disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
National Open University, Gandhi National Open Gandhi National Open National Open University,
New Delhi University, New Delhi University, New Delhi New Delhi
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Ruchika Kuba
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of School of Health Sciences,
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University, University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

Dr. B. Rupini Prof. Tanu Jindal, Amity Institute of Environemtal Management, Amity University, Noida
Environmental Studies, School Dr. B. Rupini Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
disciplinary Studies, Indira Dr. Chirashree Ghosh, Department of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi
Gandhi National Open Prof. Ruchika Kuba (School of Health Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi)
University, New Delhi Dr. B. Rupini (Associate Professor, Environmental Studies, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi)
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar (Assistant Professor, Environmental Studies, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi)
FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
National Open University, New Delhi New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance: Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. S. Burman Mr. Y. N. Sharma Mr. Sudhir
Deputy Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Asst. Registrar (P), IGNOU, New Delhi Section Officer (P) IGNOU, New Delhi
February, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-78-4
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COURSE 1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Post Graduate Diploma in Environmental and Occupational Health
(PGDEOH) of IGNOU. The Curriculum prepared for this programme is relevant and
significant in the present day scenario. This programme is in consensus with the mission of
Environmental and Occupational Health which is to prevent adverse health effects related to
chemicaland biologicalcontaminantsinthe EnvironmentalandOccupational exposuresthrough
education, research and service.
The first course that you study is “Introduction to Environmental Health”. In this course we
have presented 4 blocks comprising 16 Units.
Block 1 is Environment & Ecology. In this block we tried to explain the main link between
the natural environment and human health, structure and functions of natural ecosystems,
alternate energy resources and conservation. The concluding unit of the block is an overview
of global environmental issues like: Climate change, Greenhouse effects and Global warming
which helps a learner to properly assimilate the present course.
Block 2 deals with Environmental. Chemistry and Pollution, Air, Water and Soil Pollution.
This block explains the concepts of Environmental Chemistry, Pollution parameters and also
discussed elaborately about Air, Water and Soil pollution and their effects on Environment
and Health. To make you to understand pollution and its adverse impacts, the unit elaborated
the atmospheric effects, chemical composition of the atmosphere, chemical reactions between
chemical species. The emphasis has also been given on photochemical reactions, redox
reactions, acid-base reactions of the atmosphere. The main concepts and process of green
house gases and global warming, global warming potential and other related facts have been
discussed. The emphasis has been made on various forms of air pollutants and their health
effects, quantitative analysisof wastewatersbyusingpredictable parameters, discussed different
pollutants from industries like tanning, paper and pulp and their treatment methods. This
block concluded bysoil pollution where it explains the sources and effects of soil pollution on
agriculture, ecosystem, Human beings and concluded by providing prevention methods of
soil pollution.
Block 3 deals with Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste and Electronic Waste Pollution. This
block explains sources, root of exposure and effects on natural environment, humans and
controlling measures. This unit provides you the information about sources of noise pollution,
impacts and effects of noise pollution. While going through this unit you will be able to
understand the link between the sound and the human ear, ways of sound waves and their
auditory mechanism. It also presented an account of prevention measures to reduce noise
pollution with few examples. This unit brings forth various facts about radiation and its
pollution, regulations and safety measures while using radioactive substances. This block
concluded byproviding the information about sources of solid waste pollution and its impacts,
describing various management and preventive measures to reduce solid waste pollution.
Block 4 deals with Environmental Health Monitoring. This block explains Water Quality
Assessment and Monitoring,Air QualityAssessment and Monitoring, Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and Monitoring. Unit 1 deals with environmental quality assessment and
monitoring wherein dealt with causes of deterioration of environmental qualitywith respect to
anthropogenic impacts and explained different monitoring techniques for environmental
parameters. Unit 2 dealt with water quality assessment in monitoring where it explained the
sources of water pollution and its effects on water quality. It helps in identifying the strategies
and variables of water quality monitoring and assessment and makes you to understand
various quality testing methods and how to report the assessment data. Unit 3 deals with the
atmospheric particulate matter. It explains about health impacts of fine and coarse particulate
matter, various air quality assessment and monitoring parameters.
Taken together, these Blocks will provide you with sufficient knowledge about Physical,
Chemical and Biological processes of environment and how they will get altered by
anthropogenic activities.
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
The detrimental effects on human health or on the environment caused by new
types and patterns of hazards, exposures and risks due to liberalization of world
trade rapid technological progress and new lifestyles impede health and
environmental degradation lowers human productivity. Natural and managed
ecosystems provide human enterprises with essential goods and services. These
ecosystems provide a flow of services that support human life and economic
wellbeing.
Unit 1 Introduction to Natural Environment: In this unit we occupy over selves
by defining the natural environment and linkages between people and natural
environment by describing various segments of environment by explaining the
human influence on environment and also the environmental sustainability
Unit 2 is on Ecosystem which is one of the most important segments for human
survival. This unit brings us to the concept of an ecosystem which joins together
the biotic community and the Abiotic conditions that it lives in. We have enriched
by describing various ecosystems, explaining the energy flow tropic levels, food
chains and food webs. By the end of this unit we comprehend various bio
geo chemical cycles.
Unit 3 deals with Energy Resources and Conservation. In this unit we presented
renewable and non- renewable energy resources, conventional and non-
conventional energy resources, identify the current energy problems and finally
explained the methods for energy conservation.
Unit 4 Global Environmental Issues. With the concept of transboundary nature
of pollution we have covered by describing the factors which causes environmental
degradation, effects of climate change, green house effects and global warming.
At the end of the unit we have touched upon the phenomena of acid rain and
the effects of ozone depletion.
These 4 units explained the basic concepts of environment and ecology. As
you reflect on the environmental systems and global environmental issues you
will be surprised to know that we humans are effective stewards which are
not a fundamental part of the way we think about caring for the natural world
and for our fellow humans.
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Exploring Linkages Between People and Natural Environment
1.4 Understanding Our Environment
1.5 Segments of Environment
1.6 Atmosphere
1.6.1 Chemical Composition
1.6.2 Layers of the Atmosphere
1.6.3 Function of Atmosphere
1.7 Hydrosphere
1.8 Lithosphere
1.8.1 The Crust
1.8.2 The Mantle
1.9 Biosphere
1.10 Ramifications of Anthropocene on Natural Environment
1.10.1 The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change
1.10.2 Carrying Capacity
1.10.3 Loss of Ecosystem Services
1.10.4 Environment and Health
1.11 Environmental Sustainability

1.12 Let Us Sum Up
1.13 Key words
1.14 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that the magnitude, dimensions, and complexity of anthropogenic impacts
on the natural environment are unprecedented. The developments in science and
technology aid us in deciphering how environmental changes affect human well-
being. Anthropogenic impacts on environment include both the direct and indirect
effects. Nevertheless, technological prowers exhibited by the humans cannot be
overestimated.
At the beginning of modern era, the number of people in the world was probably
about hundred million. In 1960, human population was about 3 billion. Our
population has more than doubled in the last 40 years. The impact of the growing
human population on the environment is quite unprecedented. For instance, fossil
fuel burning pumps the GHGs into the atmosphere and thereby affecting the
Environment and Ecology human health. If the current human population growth persists, the human population
could reach 9.4 billion by 2050. The unparalleled challenge is to cater the needs
of growing population given the limitations of finite resources and inability of our
technological prowess to minimize the ecological footprints. How then can the
earth sustain this entire people and what is the maximum number of people that
could live on the earth not just for a short time but over a long time?
We are aware of the fact that the natural environment has a significant impact on
the quality of our life, health and sustainability of planet. Increasing population,
urbanization and industrialization across the world places an enormous pressure
on ecosystem, which affects the quality of air, water and food that we consume
to maintain our life styles. New chemicals and industrial processes are being
rapidly developed and sometimes produce unforeseen risks to human health and
to the ecosystems.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
l define the natural environment and linkages between people and natural
environment;
l describe the segments of the environment namely atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere;
l explain the human influence on environment; and
l explain the environmental sustainability
1.3 EXPLORING LINKAGES BETWEEN

PEOPLE AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
People and nature are intimately integrated. We depend on nature for tangible
resources and enviable services of nature without which our existence itself
is impossible. To highlight a few services of our natural environment,
effortlessly, we would be reminded of climate relating function of atmosphere,
absorption of powerful UV radiations by stratospheric ozone and many
ecosystem services rendered by our aquatic ecosystem. Human population
explosion and associated urbanization and industrialization had impacted
negatively the virtues of natural environment. Today, the discipline of
environmental sscience is enlightening us about the interaction between people
and nature and enable us to capitalize the beneficial interactions. As
environment become more and more recognized as important, we become
more earth centred. We accept that we have evolved on and with the earth
and are not separate from it and we understand the need to celebrate our
union with nature as we work towards sustainability. The dichotomy of the
20th century is giving way to a new idea that a sustainable environment and
sustainable economy maybe compatible; people and nature intertwined and
a success for one involve a success for the other. In this regard, environmental
scientists are interested in determining the effect of pesticides on crops, in
learning how acid rain affect vegetation, determining the impact of
introducing an exotic game fish species into a pond etc. During the early 1960’s
6 environmental science became an active field of scientific investigation driven by
both events and needs. The event that spurred environmental awareness includes Introduction to Natural
Environment
the publication of Rachel Carson’s silent spring (1962) along with other major
environmental issues. The term environment and ecology are often used
interchangeably but technically ecology refers only to the study of organism and
their interaction with each other and environment. We damage the environment
through the use, misuse and abuse of technology without fully understanding their
long term effects on environment. The technological advances have provided us
with nuclear power, the light energy, plastic, the internal combustion engine, air
conditioning and refrigeration, genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, computer
and scores of other advanced thing to live more comfortable. Many of these
technologies, if not used properly affect the environment in ways we did not
expect and in ways we may not be able to live with. Earth’s natural resources
and processes that sustain other species as well as humans are known as Natural
capital. This includes air, water, soil, forest, grassland, wildlife, etc. Societies are
the primary engines of resource use, converting material and energy into wealth,
delivering goods and services and creating pollution. This provision of necessity
and luxury is often conducted in ways that systematically degrade the earth natural
capital, the ecosystem that support our life.
1.4 UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT

The origin of the word “Environment” is from the French word “Environ” which
refers to “surrounding” or “to encircle”. Environment can be defined as 1) the
circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or group of organism 2)
the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or a community.
Environment can also be defined as sum total of all external conditions and
influences that affect the living organisms. Since human inhabits the natural world
as well as the built or technological, social and cultural world, all constitutes
important part of our surroundings. The environment comprises both biotic and
abiotic factors. The ‘natural environment’ is made of living and non-living things
(e.g., air, soil and water). Nevertheless, humans are integral part of the natural
environment.
The concept of “environment” has evolved since it started to become a global
issue in the early 1970s. At first, it was a kind of global recognition that the
Earth’s ecosystems are in fact fragile, and that human beings have been contributing
much to its degeneration. When countries started to join efforts to strike a balance
between improving the quality of human life and protecting the environment for the
sake of future generations, a new awareness materialized. The social and economic
welfare of human beings is closely linked to their environment. Any change in the
socio-economic fields will have an impact on the earth’s environment and vice
versa, whether positively or negatively, immediately or eventually. And in many
cases, negative results are irreversible. The Earth Summit held in Rio in 1992
concluded that the economic, social and environmental concerns are inescapably
interlinked to development. Hence it pledged to eradicate environmental problems,
reduce poverty and foster sustainable development through integrated efforts and
global cooperation.
Natural environment can be subdivided into two parts viz. the physical environment,
and the biological environment. The physical environment comprises of lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere. The biological environment is called biosphere
(bios=life). Modern biosphere where men’s activity dominates are sometime called
7
Environment and Ecology as Anthrosphere or Neosphere. It includes besides natural environment complex
of social, cultural and technological world that influences individual, community
and ecosystem.
The biotic component of the environment interacts with the abiotic component of
the environment leading unique ecosystems namely marine ecosystem, pond
ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc. As regards the living organisms of the ecosystem,
they include mainly the producers, consumers, and decomposers. These organisms
play a vital role in biogeochemical cycling of nutrients.
Check Your Progress 1
Notes: (a) Write your answers in bout 50 words.
(b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) What do you understand by environment?
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2) Explain the linkages between natural environment and people.
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1.5 SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

There are four different segments of environment such as atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
1.6 ATMOSPHERE
Earth’s atmosphere is unique. It is often described as thin veil, blanket of
gases that surround the planet.
1.6.1 Chemical Composition

Atmospheric air is mixture of many gases that also holds many suspended
liquid droplets and solid particles. Only two gases comprise about 99% of
volume of air near the earth. The approximate composition of dry air, by
volume at sea levels, Nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21% (necessary for life as we
know it), argon 0.93%, and carbon dioxide 0.04%, together with very small
amounts of numerous other constituents (see table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Composition of Air/ Earths Atmosphere
8
GAS CHEMICAL/SYMBOL VOLUME% Introduction to Natural
Environment
NITROGEN N2 78.08
OXYGEN O2 20.94
CARBON DIOXIDE CO2 0.04
ARGON AR 0.093
NEON NE 0.0018
HELIUM HE 0.0005
KRYPTON KR TRACE
XENON XE TRACE
OZONE O3 0.00006
HYDROGEN H2 0.00005
Source: De 2010
Because of the constant mixing by the winds and other weather factors, the
percentage of gases in the atmosphere are normally constant. However, water
vapour content is highly variable and depends on atmospheric conditions.
1.6.2 Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is composed of a series of four concentric layers:
Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere. These layers vary
in altitude and temperature with latitude and seasons.
1.6.2.1 Troposphere
The troposphere extends to a height of approximately 12 km. The temperature
of the troposphere decreases with increasing altitude by about 6 Co (110F) for
every kilometre. Weather including turbulent wind, storms and most clouds
occurs in the troposphere. Tropopause is the top of the troposphere, which
is a transition layer between Troposphere and Stratosphere.
1.6.2.2 Stratosphere
In the next layer of atmosphere, the stratosphere, there is a steady wind but
no turbulence. The stratosphere extends from 12 km to 50 km above earth
surface. Temperature is more or less uniform in this layer (-45 Co to 75 Co).
Stratopause is the top of the stratosphere, which is a transition layer between
Stratosphere and Mesosphere. It contains a layer of ozone critical to life
because it absorbs suns damaging ultra violet radiation. Ozone absorbs radiant
energy from the sun and hence warmer temperatures are encountered in the
stratosphere.
1.6.2.3 Mesosphere
Mesosphere is the layer of atmosphere directly above the stratosphere where
temperature decreases with height, extends from 50km to 80km above the
earth surface. Temperature drops steadily in the mesosphere to the lowest in
the atmosphere as low as-138 Co. Mesopause is the top of the mesosphere,
which is a transition layer between Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
1.6.2.4 Thermosphere 9
Environment and Ecology The Thermosphere extends from 80km to 480km above earth surface and is very
hot. Gases in the thin air of the atmosphere absorbs X-rays and short wave
ultraviolet radiation. This absorption drives the few molecules present to great
speed, raising the temperatures in the process to 1000oC or more. The
Thermosphere is important in long distance communications because it reflects
outgoing radio waves back to earth without the aid of satellites.
1.6.3 Functions of Atmosphere

The atmosphere performs several ecologically important functions.
1. It protects Earth’s surface from most of the ultra violet radiation, X rays and
cosmic rays from space. Without the protective blanket of atmosphere, most
life would cease to exist.
2. The atmosphere protects the earth from the high energy radiation, it allows
visible light and some infra-red radiation to penetrates, and these warm the
surface and lower atmosphere. This interaction between the atmosphere and
the solar energy is responsible for the phenomenon of weather and climate.
3. It provides life sustaining oxygen, the macro-nutrient Nitrogen and Carbon
dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
1.7 HYDROSPHERE
Hydrosphere encompasses water bodies namely oceans, streams, lakes, ponds,
rivers, etc. This comprises all water resources both surface and ground water.
Approximately, 326 million cubic miles of water cover much of the planet,
but only 3% of this total water is fresh water. Three quarter of fresh water
is found in polar icecaps and glaciers and unavailable for human use, and
nearly all the remaining one quarter (ground water) is found under the earth
crust in water bearing rock and or sand or gravel formations. Only a small
proportion (about 0.05%) of all fresh water on earth is found in lakes, rivers,
stream or the atmosphere. Obviously, this seems a small amount relative to
Earth’s total water supply. But it is more than enough, even this small
amount if we keep free from pollution and distribute evenly, could provide
for drinking, food preparation and agriculture needs of all people. We simply
need to learn how to better manage and conserve fresh water available to us.
Ground water and surface water are essentially one resource, both physically
connected by the hydrological cycle. Ground water is created by the run-off
surface water and that’s why they are united as one.
1.8 LITHOSPHERE
The Earth is made up of a series of concentric rock zones namely crust,
mantle and core. Teh upper part of the mantle to depths of about 100 km is
solid and together with the crust forms a relatively rigid unit known as
lithosphere.
1.8.1 The Crust

Above the mantle is crust, which forms the outer skin of the earth. The thickness
of crust ranges from 6km under the ocean to 70km under mountainous region.
10 Although the crust forms a very small part of the Earth as a whole, we gather
practically all the resources to sustain our life. Introduction to Natural
Environment
Soil is the layer of bonded particles of sand, silt and clay that covers the land
surface of the earth. Most soil develops multilayer. The top soils are the
layer in which plant grows. This layer is actually an ecosystem composed of
both biotic and abiotic components; inorganic chemicals, air, water, decaying
organic material that provides vital nutrient for plant photosynthesis and
living organisms. Below the topmost layers is the subsoil, which is much
less productive, partly because it contains much less organic matter. Below
his is parent material, the bedrock or the other geological material from
which the soil is ultimately formed. The general rule of thumb is that it takes
about 30 years to form one inch of topsoil to be formed from the parent
material, the length of time depending on the nature of the underlying matter.
By mass the four most abundant elements in the earth are iron, oxygen,
silicon and magnesium, which together accounts for approximately 93% of
earth’s crust. Nickel, sulphur, calcium and aluminium together make up
another 6.5%. The remaining 0.5% or so of the earth’s mass is made up of
84 naturally occurring elements.
1.8.2 The Mantle

The Earths mantle, which lies between the core and the crust, is approximately
2900 km thick. The relatively thin upper part of the mantle is solid and rigid
but the layer below it called as asthenosphere; although essentially solid, is
able to flow extremely slowly.
1.9 BIOSPHERE
Biosphere can be construed as a life layer as it boasts of all the living
organisms ranging from micro-organisms to macro-organisms. The biosphere
extends from the bottom of the ocean approximately 11,000 meters below
the surface, to the tops of the highest mountains about 9,000 meters above
sea level. Although life exists throughout the biosphere, its rare at the
extremes, where conditions for survival are less than optimum. Most living
things are concentrated in a narrow band extending from less than 200
meters below the surface of the ocean to about 6,000 meters above the sea
level. The biological richness of biosphere is a function of factors like rainfall,
temperature, etc.
The biosphere consists of all living organisms, energy and physical
environments and there are continuous interactions between living and non-
living organisms and physical environments and among the living organisms
themselves. The biosphere is considered as an open system as there is
continuous flow of energy and output of matter. As long as the balance is
maintained between the input of energy and matter and output of matter, the
biosphere systems remains in equilibrium condition but when this critical
balance is disturbed several ecological and environmental problems emerge.
In natural state biospheric system is self sustaining and ecologically efficient,
depending upon the intimate relationship between various components of biosphere
and large scale cyclic mechanisms as this cycles influence the biotic, abiotic and
the energy components of biosphere.
Check Your Progress 2 11
Environment and Ecology Notes: (a) Write your answers in bout 50 words.
(b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1) What are the different segments of environment?
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2) What is the significance of atmosphere?
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1.10 RAMIFICATIONS OF ANTHROPOCENE ON

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
An unbounded growth is infeasible due to limited resources, and carrying
capacity is a measure of this limitation. In 1798, Thomas Malthus proposed
an exponential growth curve in his Essay on the Principle of Population,
stating that a population with constant fecundity greater than its mortality
will grow exponentially till it causes inevitable conflicts with the limited
supply of resources. Diminishing resources and the expanding population
will inevitably lead to scramble competition. Malthus’s idea has further
inspired Charles Darwin to adopt resource competition as one prerequisite
of evolution via natural selection. Catton (1986) defined an environment’s
carrying capacity as its maximum persistently supportable load.
1.10.1 The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental

Change
Present global environmental change can, to a large extent, be attributed to
anthropogenic activities. Human interferences with the Earth’s system are so
significant that the recent era has been suitably named the “Anthropocene”.
Human activity continues to intensify sharply and increase pressures on the
Earth’s resources and, for instance, on the planets capability to assimilate
wastes. Rapid population growth and overpopulation has far reaching effect
- ecological, economical and societal. The increasing population is putting
greater burden on the earth natural resource base and environment.
12 The population growth may have positive or negative effects on the natural
environment and wellbeing of human beings. Let us take for example the case of Introduction to Natural
Environment
urbanization. A population shift toward urban areas means that a larger share of
people will have access to health care, education, and other services; living standards
are likely to improve. Greater population densities will enable more communities
to capitalize on economies of scale. And concentrating population within an urban
area can preserve adjacent natural habitat, assuming that urban sprawl is contained.
At the same time, dense urban populations may produce more waste than the
environment can absorb, leading to significant air and water pollution and a greater
incidence of infectious and parasitic diseases. Cities often develop near fragile
coastal areas or rivers or adjacent to fertile agricultural land. Rapid urban growth
often takes over farmland, destroys wildlife habitats, and threatens sensitive
ecosystems and inshore fisheries. Urban populations generally use more
water for domestic and industrial purposes than rural populations.
1.10.2 Carrying Capacity

In ecology, carrying capacity is normally defined as the maximum population
of a given species that can be supported indefinitely in a defined habitat
without permanently impairing the human carrying capacity. Our planet is
practically a closed system in terms of physical resources, and all human
activity depends on these limited resources. Due to the increasing world
population and the rapid diminishing of pristine ecosystems from our
exploration for consumption, the concept of carrying capacity is essential
and should be considered paramount in our future planning. The Club of
Rome has warned us the possible consequences of world population growth
and industrialization for food production and resource exhaustion.
The Earth’s ecosystems and its human population are inherently connected.
Earth sustains human activities by providing services like raw materials and
energy. However, human activities tend to affect the natural resources and
ecosystems. Environmental pollution adversely affect human health and
wellbeing. An ecosystem consists of plants, animals (including humans) and
micro-organisms that live in biological communities and which interact with
each other and with the physical environment, enabling energy flow and
biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. These interactions, for instance among
species in a food web and their relation to biogeochemical cycling, are
complex, non-linear, and contain lags and discontinuities, thresholds and
limits. Consequently, ecosystems are considered complex, self-organizing
systems, across both temporal and spatial scales. Ecological systems and
their services play a fundamental role in supporting life on Earth at all
hierarchical scales. For instance, they are essential in global material cycles
like the carbon and water cycles.
1.10.3 Loss of Ecosystem Services

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2001 defines “ecosystem services
as the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” and classes services into
four categories; Provisioning services provide goods such as food, freshwater,
timber, and fibre for direct human use. Regulating services maintain a world
in which it is biophysically possible for people to live and provide benefits
such as pollination of crops, water damage mitigation, and climate
stabilization. Cultural services make the world a place in which people want to
live; they include recreation as well as aesthetic, intellectual, and spiritual inspiration.
13
Supporting services are the underlying ecosystem processes that produce the
Environment and Ecology direct services described above, including the preservation of options; they include
such services as nutrient cycles and oxygen production. Ecosystem services whether
the provisioning or cultural kind matter and contribute to the well-being of humans.
Food, fertile soils, clean water and recreation are just a few of the many services
provided by nature to humans. The provision of these services, the reliability of
supply, their quantity and quality, influence human security, basic material for a
good life, health, good social relation and ultimately our freedom and choices, in
short our well-being. Although people are often buffered from the natural
environment by culture and technology, ultimately our livelihoods, health and even
survival are completely dependant on ecosystem services and our access to them.
Social systems and natural systems are inseparable and there is an increased use
of terms such as socio-ecological systems. However, human action is changing
many aspects of the earth’s environments, its climate, land cover, oceans and the
biochemistry of the fundamental cycles that sustain life and the diversity of life
itself.
Approaching carrying capacity means the deterioration of ecosystem services, the
loss of biodiversity and habitat heterogeneity and the break down of ecosystem
resilience This could lead to irreversible change, enlarged uncertainty to the
biosphere, and even a regime shift of the world’s living and climate systems as
human population continues to expand, the planet’s pristine ecosystems are
degrading at a rapid rate due to man-made global environmental changes –
climate change, habitat loss, biological invasion, soil erosion, and pollution, to
name a few. Ongoing agricultural intensification, overfishing, industrialization, and
urbanization further transfer how seminatural ecosystems function and behave,
create many novel ecosystems that face high disturbance and gene flow. The
planet’s greatest asset – biodiversity, 100 million species strong – is quickly losing
its grip. The rapid loss of species is estimated to be between 1000 and 10 000
times higher than the natural extinction rate, reaching 10 000 species extinction
per year many of which disappear before they have even been formally described.
Human society relies heavily on the health of ecosystem functions, the provision
of ecosystem services and the benefit from biological diversity for cleaning air and
water, stabilizing weather, maintaining soil fertility, dissipating waste, controlling
pests, pollinating crops, generating power and discovering new antibodies, and
providing food, timber, cloth, medicine, industrial material (coal, oil, gas, rubber,
plastics, chemicals), together with minerals. We are not making anything new but
utilizing products and services of the planet’s ecosystem and physical system. To
sustain humanity, we need to manage the planet’s biosphere within its bearable
margin to avoid disruptive regime shift and massive extinction; although some
argue that we have already crossed the point of no return.
1.10.4 Environment and Health

Clean and hygienic environmental conditions are essential for health and wellbeing
of humans. Common health impacts arise from air and water pollution and
unhygienic conditions. Global environmental change which includes climate change,
stratospheric ozone depletion, biodiversity loss,etc., have potential to affect human
health. Health issues pertaining to air pollution include respiratory ailments,
cardiovascular diseases; asthma and allergies, and other disorders. Since the
interrelationship existing between environment and human health are complex,
adoption of precautionary principle is widely accepted.
14 1.11 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology, the word describes how Introduction to Natural
Environment
biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. For humans, it is the
potential for long-term maintenance of well being, which in turn depends on the
maintenance of the natural world and natural resources. Sustainability has become
a wide-ranging term that can be applied to almost every facet of life on Earth,
from local to a global scale and over various time periods.
Sustainability is defined as a requirement of our generation to
manage the resource base such that the average quality of life that we ensure
ourselves can potentially be shared by all future generations. Development is
sustainable if it involves a non decreasing average quality of life (Geir B.
Asheim, ”Sustainability,” The World Bank, 1994).Long-lived and healthy
wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. Invisible
chemical cycles redistribute water, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon through the
world’s living and non-living systems, and have sustained life since the
beginning of time. As the earth’s human population has increased, natural
ecosystems have declined and changes in the balance of natural cycles have
had a negative impact on both humans and other living systems. Paul Hawken
has written that “Sustainability is about stabilizing the currently disruptive
relationship between earth’s two most complex systems; human culture and
the living world. Evidence is strong that we are exceeding and eroding the
earth’s carrying capacity, that there are limits to growth on a finite planet.
Effects are interactive, complex, unpredictable and escalating, as we head
for a global average temperature rise of more than 2 degrees
centigrade over pre-industrial levels. Sometimes ‘environmental’, ‘social’ and
‘economic’ are termed to be the three pillars of sustainability. Environmental
sustainability is the context within which social and economic life happen.
unit.
1) List down major human impacts on environment?
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2) What do you understand by environmental sustainability?
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1.12 LET US SUM UP 15

Environment and Ecology In this unit we have described the natural environment and linkages between
nature and human being. We know that the Earth’s environment is changing due
to human activities. Undoubtedly, environmental change is occuring at all scales
from local to regional to global level. The Global environmental change to a large
extent is a product of human activities. These changes are to a large extent due
to human activities, and they threaten the integrity and functioning of the ecosystems.
Worse, future projected changes in the environment are likely to have even more
severe consequences for safeguarding our natural environment and sustainable
development.
1.13 KEY WORDS

Acid Rain : A rain or other forms of precipitation that is unusually
acidic.
Climate Change : A change in weather over time and/or region; usually

relating to changes in temperature, wind patterns
and rainfall; although may be natural or anthropogenic,
common discourse carries the assumption that climate
change is anthropogenic.
Ecological Footprint : A measure of the area of biologically productive land

and water needed to produce the resources and
absorb the wastes of a population using the prevailing
technology and resource management schemes; a
measure of the consumption of renewable natural
resources by a human population, be it that of a
country, a region or the whole world given as the
total area of productive land or sea required to
produce all the crops, meat, seafood, wood and fibre
it consumes, to sustain its energy consumption and to
give space for its infrastructure.
Ecosystem Services : The role played by organisms, without charge, in

creating a healthy environment for human beings,
from production of oxygen to soil formation,
maintenance of water quality and much more.
These services are now generally divided into four
groups, supporting, provisioning, regulating and
cultural services.
Ecosystem : A region in which the organisms and the physical

environment form an interacting unit
Biosphere : The zone of air, land and water at the surface of the
earth that is occupied by living organisms
Carrying Capacity : The maximum population that an ecosystem can

sustain.
1.14 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

16
Introduction to Natural
READINGS Environment
Asheim, G.B. (1994). Sustainability Ethical foundation and economic

properties. The World Bank Policy Research Department Public Economics
Division.
Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (2010). Environmental Science: Earth as a

Living Planet. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Cunningham, W.P., Cooper, T.H., Gorhani, E and Hepworth, M.T. (2001).

Environmental Encyclopaedia, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai.
De, A.K. (2010). Environmental Chemistry. New Age International Publishers.
Miller, G.T. (2012). Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and

Solutions. Brooks Cole.
Spellman, F.R. and Stoudt, M.L. (2013). Environmental Sciences - Principles

and practices. Scare Crow Press, Maryland.
Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J. (2002).Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable

Future. Prentice Hall.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. “Environ” which means “surrounding” or “to encircle”. Environment can be

defined as 1) the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or
group of organism 2) the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual
or a community. Environment can also be defined as sum total of all
external conditions and influences that affect the living organisms.
2. Natural environment which is subdivided into two parts: (1) The physical
environment, which includes non-living things and (2) the biological
environment, which includes all life forms. Biological environment or people
interact with the physical cconstituent of environment and modify the natural
environment.
1. There are four different segments of environment such as atmosphere,

hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
2. It protects Earth’s surface from most of the ultra violet radiation, X rays and
cosmic rays from space. Without the protective blanket of atmosphere, most
life would cease to exist. The atmosphere protects the earth from the high
energy radiation, it allows visible light and some infra-red radiation to
penetrates, and these warm the surface and lower atmosphere. This interaction
between the atmosphere and the solar energy is responsible for the
phenomenon of weather and climate. It provides life sustaining oxygen, the
macro-nutrient Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis.
17
Environment and Ecology Check Your Progress 3
1. Sustainability is the capacity to endure. Sustainability is about stabilizing the
currently disruptive relationship between earth’s two most complex systems;
human culture and the living world. Evidence is strong that we are exceeding
and eroding the earth’s carrying capacity, that there are limits to growth on
a finite planet. Environmental’, ‘social’ and ‘economic’ are termed to be
the three pillars of sustainability. Environmental sustainability is the context
within which social and economic life happen.
2. Population produce more waste than the environment can absorb, leading to
significant air and water pollution and a greater incidence of infectious and
parasitic diseases. Rapid urban growth destroys wildlife habitats, and threatens
sensitive ecosystems and inshore fisheries. Noise is an emerging environment
and health issue. Climate change, depletion of stratospheric ozone, loss of
biodiversity, and land degradation can also affect human health. The major
environment-related health concerns are related to outdoor and indoor air
pollution, poor water quality, poor sanitation and hazardous chemicals. The
related health impacts include respiratory and cardiovascular diseases; cancer,
asthma and allergies, as well as reproductive and neurodevelopment disorders.
Fine particulate matter and ground-level ozone are the main threats to human
health from air pollution.
18
UNIT 2 ECOSYSTEM
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Ecosystem: Definition and Concepts
2.2.1 Definition and Concept of Ecosystem
2.2.2 Components of an Ecosystem
2.3 Structure and Function of An Ecosystem

2.3.1 Structure
2.3.2 Function
2.3.3 Food Chain and Food Web
2.3.4 Ecological Pyramids
2.4 Energy Flow

2.5 Ecological Balance
2.6 Ecological Succession
2.7 Biogeochemical Cycles
2.7.1 Hydrologic Cycle
2.7.2 Carbon Cycle
2.7.3 Oxygen Cycle
2.7.4 Nitrogen Cycle
2.7.5 Phosphorous Cycle
2.7.6 Sulfur Cycle
2.8 Let Us Sum Up

2.9 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The environment consists of the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and the
hydrosphere. The surface of the Earth is called the biosphere and is composed
of smaller units or segments called the ecosystems. An Ecosystem consists
of all the life forms and the non-living environment found in a particular
place. They can be large or small. The Earth hosts a variety of life forms and
the surface of the Earth, as a whole is an ecosystem. The term “ecosystem”
was first used in 1935 in a publication by the British ecologist Arthur Tansley
who devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of
materials between organisms and their environment. In later years, Tansley
defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ‘ecotope’. Energy
and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis and are incorporated
into living tissues, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and
dead plant matter, and are released through respiration. Most of the mineral
nutrients are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by
external and internal factors. The study of natural ecosystems will help us to
understand the interrelations between living beings and the environment. 19
Environment and Ecology
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
l define the concept and components of ecosystem;
l describe various ecosystems;
l explain the energy flow, trophic levels, food chains, food webs; and
l compehend the different biogeochemical cycles.
2.2 ECOSYSTEM: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biotic component) in
association with the nonliving components (abiotic) of their environment
(i.e. air, soil, water, climate etc.), interacting as a system. These biotic and
abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy
flows. Each organism depends in some way on other living and nonliving
things in its environment. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest
etc. are common examples of ecosystems. An ecosystem can be classified
based on nature, duration and size.
(1) Nature: It can be natural or artificial.
Natural Ecosystems: These form naturally without human interference
i.e. pond, river, forest, etc.
Artificial Ecosystem: These are developed by man i.e. artificial ponds,
aquarium etc.
(2) Duration: It can be temporary or permanent.
Temporary ecosystem: This type is short lived and can be man-made or
natural i.e. rain fed pond.
Permanent ecosystem: This type is permanent and is a self supported
natural ecosystem for very long periods i.e. forest, river etc.
(3) Size: Ecosystems can be small or large.
Small: This type is small and is known as micro ecosystem. It can be
temporary or permanent i.e. Pond.
Large: It is large in size, known as macro ecosystem, is always permanent
and mostly natural i.e. Ocean, river, forest and desert.
2.2.1 Definition and Concept of Ecosystem

The term ecosystem was initially proposed by A.G. Tansley in 1935. He
stated that ‘The ecosystem was the system resulting from the integration of
all living and non-living factors of the environment’. Ecology is basically
derived from two Greek words, ‘oikos’ meaning dwelling place and ‘logos’
meaning study. So in other words ecology means the study of organisms in
their natural home. Ernst Haeckel, a German biologist in 1868 termed this
subject as ‘Ecology’. He defined ecology as the ‘surrounding outer world’,
which is now called the environment. Further, E.P. Odum (1969) defined the
20
term ecology as the study of interrelationships between organisms and Ecosystem
environment. Ecosystems are defined as ecological units that include all the
biotic and abiotic factors in an area. E. P. Odum defined ecosystem as the
‘basic functional unit of organisms and their environment, interacting with
each other and within their own components’. Nearly all ecosystems are
dependent upon the flow of solar energy and nutrients. Carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur make up all life on the planet.
Ecosystems are complex and contain thousands of interacting species wherein
the diversity is a measure of the number of different species.
2.2.2 Components of an Ecosystem

Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their nonliving
environment. The study deals with collecting information about organisms
and their environment. In an ecosystem, ‘habitat’ is the place a plant or
animal lives, and ‘niche’ is the specific place it occupies in an ecosystem.
Thus ecology is the study of ecosystems. The various life forms are organized
in an ecosystem by the mode of securing their food i.e. autotrophs or
heterotrophs. The number and type of organisms living in an ecosystem is
directly dependent on the amount of energy available in the system. The
amount of energy an ecosystem receives and the amount that is transferred
from one organism to another has an important effect on the structure of an
ecosystem’s. All organisms need energy to carry out essential functions. The
primary source of energy for an ecosystem is the sun. The energy in an
ecosystem flows from the sun to autotrophs (the producers of the ecosystem)
then to the heterotrophs (the organisms that eat the autotrophs), and then to
organisms that feed on other organisms.
2.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN

ECOSYSTEM
The structure and function are significant characteristics of any ecosystem.
The (1) structure includes the biotic and abiotic components and the (2)
function includes the functions performed in the ecosystem i.e. food chains,
webs, trophic levels, the flow of energy in the ecosystem, productivity,
biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem regulation.
2.3.1 Structure
(a) Abiotic Components: They characterize the physical and chemical
characteristics of the environment. They determine the type of organisms
that can successfully live in a particular area. Examples of abiotic
components are temperature, average humidity, topography, natural
disturbances, amount of sunlight, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, pH,
and the availability of nutrients. The temperature can vary as places
near the equator are warmer than the places near the poles. Humidity
influences the amount of water and moisture in the air and soil and
affects the rainfall.
(b) Biotic Components: This includes all the living organisms in the
ecosystem. They are the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and other
living organisms inhabiting the area. The biotic components are
categorized as producers, consumers, and decomposers. The biotic 21
Environment and Ecology components aid in the transfer and cycle of energy and are grouped in
terms of the means they use to get energy. Producers i.e. plants produce
their own energy through photosynthesis with the help of sunlight. The
consumers constitute the next level of the food chain and are of three
main types: herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores feed on
plants, carnivores feed on other carnivores or herbivores, and omnivores
consume both plant and animal tissues.
(i) Autotrophs: They have the ability to carry out photosynthesis. Some
examples are plants, bacteria, and algae. Autotrophs capture the
solar energy and produce organic compounds; therefore they are
also called producers. Producers, such as plants with the green
pigment chlorophyll, make food through a process called
photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and
water to make sugar. The rate of photosynthesis is influenced by
light intensity, temperature, and the availability of water. This food
is used by the plant for its own energy or may be eaten by consumers.
The types of autotrophs are: Chemoautotrophs: bacteria that obtain
energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds such as ammonia,
nitrites, and sulfides. Chemoautotrophs are found in extreme
environments like caves, springs etc. Photoautotrophs: possess
chlorophyll and synthesize food through photosynthesis. Algae are
the main photoautotrophs in freshwater and marine environments.
Green plants are the main land photosynthesizers.
(ii) Heterotrophs: The consumers or heterotrophs that eat the producers
or other organisms are termed heterotrophs. They eat the food that
autotrophs have produced. The primary consumer is the herbivore.
The secondary consumer eats the herbivores and the tertiary
consumer feeds on secondary carnivores. They can further be
classified into different groups: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
and decomposers.
2.3.1 Function
Ecosystems are dependent on the sun’s energy to perform their function and
it is this energy that flows in the system. The function can be explained in
detail as given below:
Producers, consumers and decomposers: Different organisms in an ecosystem
require energy for their survival and are dependent on each other thereby
deriving energy from the producers, consumers or decomposers.
(i) Trophic Structure Levels: These are the feeding positions in a food
chain such as primary producers, herbivores, primary carnivore, etc. A
trophic level is a group of organisms whose feeding source is the same
number of steps from the sun. The green photosynthetic plants form the
first trophic level and are called the producers. The herbivores form the
second trophic level, the carnivores form the third and fourth trophic
levels. Most animals (carnivores) feed at more than one trophic level.
The quantity of living matter at a given point of time at each level is
known as the standing biomass.
1. Autotrophic components (Producers): The term autotrophic means self
nourishing. Since these organisms are self nourishing, they are also
22 called producers. Examples include: Algae, green plants, photosynthetic
bacteria. Green plants prepare their food through the process of Ecosystem
photosynthesisin the presence of sunlight with the help of chlorophyll
and carbon dioxide in the air, water.
CO2 + 2H2O  CH2O + O2 + H2O
(Carbon dioxide) + (Water)  (Carbohydrates) + (Oxygen) + (Water)
Some microorganisms have the ability to produce organic matter through the
oxidation of chemicals in the absence of sunlight by the process of
chemotrophy and the organisms are known as chemoautotrophs.
Example: The chemoautotrophic bacteria make use of the heat generated
by the decay of radioactive to produce organic matter in deep oceans
where there is no sunlight.
2. Heterotrophic components (Consumers): Heterotrophic organisms or
heterotrophs depend on others for their food. They can be of the following
types:
a. Herbivores: They are also known as primary consumers and feed
directly on living plants or remains of plants. Examples are rabbit,
deer, insects etc.
b. Carnivores: They are also known assecondary consumers as these
carnivores feed on the herbivores. Examples are snakes, birds,
lizards, fox etc.
c. Tertiary Consumers: They are also known as tertiary carnivores
and feed on the primary and secondary consumers. Examples are
lion, tiger etc.
d. Omnivores: These consumers feed on both herbivores and
carnivores (plants and animals). Examples are human beings, birds
(hawk) etc.
3. Decomposers or Micro Consumers: These organisms feed on organic
compounds of living or dead plants and animals for their food and
energy. They absorb some of the products from decomposed material
and release organic compounds to make them available to the producers.
The decomposers are also called as “Saprotrophs”. Examples are bacteria,
fungi, and flagellates.
2.3.2 Food Chain and Food Web
Food Chain
The transfer of food energy from the producers (plants) through a series of
organisms (Herbivores, Carnivores) successively with the repeated activities
of eating and being eaten is known as food chain. A food chain indicates
who eats whom in an ecosystem. The feeding of one organism upon another
in a sequence of food transfers is known as a food chain. Another definition
is the chain of transfer of energy from one organism to another. Examples
of food chains are:
1. Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk

2. Grass  Mouse  Snake  Hawk
3. Rose plant  Aphids  Beetle  Chameleon  Hawk 23

Environment and Ecology Each organism occupies a separate trophic level. In the above example seen in
point 3, the rose plant is the primary producer (trophic level I). The aphids are
the primary consumers (trophic level II) as they feed on the juice from the rose
plant. The beetle is the primary carnivore (trophic level III) because it eats the
aphids. The chameleon, a secondary carnivore (trophic level IV), eats the beetle.
The hawk is the tertiary carnivore (trophic level V) because it eats the secondary
carnivore, the chameleon. The hawk eventually dies and microorganisms break
down the remains. All food chains start with photosynthesis and end with decay
except in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems. So the process of eating and being
eaten forms a food chain. In nature, there are two general types of food chains.
They are the grazing food chains and the detrital food chain.
1. Grazing food chains: It begins with leaves, stems and seeds or the green
plants (producers), which are eaten by the herbivores, carnivores and the
omnivores. A typical land food chain is given in Figure 2.2. In this particular
food chain, grass and tree are the producers. Grass is eaten by rabbit and
other herbivores. They represent the primary consumers. Rabbit is eaten by
cats or snakes (secondary consumers), which in-turn is eaten by wolves or
hawk (tertiary consumers). The cat/ snakes and wolves/ hawks will be
consumed by tigers and other big carnivorous (quaternary consumers). These
dead organisms become the food for bacteria and fungi to produce simple
inorganic materials for reuse by the producers. Some examples are given
below:
1. Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Small fish  Tuna
2. Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Fish  Man
3. Grass  Rabbit  Fox  Tiger
1. Detrital food chain: The detritus food chain starts with the dead organic
matter either from fallen leaves or dead animal bodies (Figure 2.3). This
food chain is not dependent on solar energy. Detrital food chains are
connected to a grazing food chain when consumers of a grazing food
chain feed on the decomposers of the detrital food chain. An example of
detritus food chain is marsh land where mangrove leaves fall into the
warm, shallow water. The detritus eating organisms i.e. Bacteria, fungi
and protozoans feed upon the dead matter of the dead leaves and convert
them into simple inorganic substances. These are subsequently eaten by
insect larvae, grass shrimp, copepods, crabs, nematodes, bivalve mollusks,
amphipods, etc. Finally detritus consumers are eaten by the fishes.
1. Leaves or dead plants  Soil mites  Insects  Birds

2. Dead organic matter  Bacteria  Insects
3. Dead leaves  Algae  Fish  Man
Food Web
Energy flows through an ecosystem in a complex network of feeding
relationships called a food web (Figure 2.4). A food web is defined as the
relationship in which a predator eats different types of food at each trophic
24 level and is in turn eaten by many different organisms. A food web may contain
several food chains. It is the outcome of several complex-feeding inter-relationships Ecosystem
that exist in nature. For example in a grassland ecosystem, in the absence of a
mouse, the grasses can also be eaten by rabbit, which can be eaten by a hawk.
Again grasses can also be eaten by a grasshopper, which is preyed upon by a lizard
and then eaten by the hawk. Similarly, rat or mouse is eaten by snake but snake can
be eaten by predatory birds. So in nature food chains are interlocked forming food
webs. In contrast to food chain, food web has several distinct characteristics. They
include: (i) Food web is complex; (ii) Food web is formed due to the interlinking of
food chains; and (iii) A food web brings alternate source of food. Food webs are
important in maintaining the ecological balance and stability of ecosystems. For
example, in grasslands, a decrease in the number of rabbits would lead to an increase
in the mouse population etc. This would upset the ecological balance. A proper
balance is important for the survival of all living beings in the ecosystem. They are
also important for biogeochemical cycles and energy flow through ecosystems.
2.3.3 Ecological Pyramids

In a food chain, producers and consumers at different trophic levels are
connected by way of number, biomass and energy. These above said properties
decreases from producers to consumers. An ecological pyramid shows the
trophic structure of an ecosystem as a graph representing the biomass, organism
number, and energy content of each trophic level in a food web. These
parameters give the pyramid a broad base and a tapering apex. The base of the
pyramid represents the producer, and from there the consumer trophic level is
stacked, with the apex representing the highest consumer trophic level. There
are three types of ecological pyramids. They include:
(a) Pyramid of numbers
(b) Pyramid of biomass
(c) Pyramid of energy
(a) Pyramid of Numbers: It is based on the number of organisms in each
trophic level. It may be upright or inverted. In a grassland ecosystem, the
producers are the grasses, which form a large base and are the maximum
in number. They are followed by rabbits, mice (herbivores), then the snakes,
lizards (secondary consumers), followed by the hawks (tertiary consumers)
that gradually decrease in number forming a conical upright pyramid
(Figure 2.5). But in the case of a parasitic food chain, the pyramid could
be inverted. The trees form the producers, which are less in number. They
support many fruit eating herbivores, birds that in turn support a large
number of parasites and hyperparasites. In this case, the pyramid is inverted
as the number of organisms at each level increases to the top.
(b) Pyramid of Biomass: This is based on the weight (biomass) of organisms
at each trophic level at a given point of time. Usually a large biomass of
plants supports a medium weight of herbivores and a small weight of the
carnivores. Forest and grassland ecosystems show an upright pyramid.
Inverted pyramid of biomass is seen in pond ecosystems and seashores.
(c) Pyramid of Energy: This is based on the total amount of energy present
in each trophic level. It is always pyramidal which means that assimilation
and growth are not 100 % efficient. There is always a loss of energy at each
level. Thus, the energy is highest at the producer level.About 10% of energy at 25
Environment and Ecology a particular trophic level is incorporated into the next trophic level. Thus, 1,000
kg of plant material converts to 100 kg of herbivore tissue, which converts to
10 kg of first carnivores, which can support 1 kg of second level carnivores.
This rapid loss of energyis the reason food chains have from three to four links,
rarely five. This rapid loss of energy is also the reason there are few large
carnivores (Figure 2.6).
the unit.
1. Describe the structure and function of an ecosystem.
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2. Explain food chain and food web with suitable examples.
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2.4 ENERGY FLOW

The movement of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem from
the external environment and back to the external environment again is known
as energy flow. The sun is the main source of energy and this energy flows in
an ecosystem through the food chains and food webs. Life depends on the
material cycling through the ecosystems. The sun and the solar energy is the
driving force and all of the solar energy that enters an ecosystem is eventually
lost as heat. Energy is lost or used as it flows through the trophic levels of an
ecosystem. Producers absorb energy from the sun, but only about 50% of the
energy captured from the sun becomes part of the plant’s body. The rest 50%
is used for living or lost as heat. At each trophic level, the energy stored in an
organism is about 1/10. Since energy decreases at each trophic level, few
ecosystems contain more than 4 or 5 trophic levels. The energy flow is a
consequence of two fundamental laws of thermodynamics.
(a) First Law of Thermodynamics: It states that “Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form of energy to
another”. For example, the green plants (producers) containing the pigment
chlorophyll capture solar energy. This is transformed into biochemical
energy in the plants. So this way energy is transformed or changed from
26 one form to another.
(b) Second Law of Thermodynamics: It states that “When energy is Ecosystem
transformed from one form to another, there is always some loss of energy
from the system, usually as low-grade heat”. Energy is converted from a
more useful to a less useful or disorganized form. So energy is degraded
and this disorganization of energy is called entropy. Energy is maximum
at the I trophic level or in the producers. There is loss of energy at each
trophic level, through the processes of respiration, locomotion and other
energy consuming activities.
Primary productivity is rate at which autotrophs capture/ accumulate solar energy
and store energy within organic compounds over a period of time. The total energy
produced during photosynthesis is called the gross primary productivity. Plants use
the energy produced in their metabolic processes and to support their own cellular
respiration. This is accompanied bya loss in energy (about 45%). This energy left is
about 55% of the gross primary productivity and is stored as organic matter in the
producers, which is available to the heterotrophs. This is called the net primary
productivity. Soil and climate affect gross primary productivity. The energy storage
at the consumer levels is known as secondary productivity. Therefore, ecosystems
are unable to function unless they receive a constant input of energy. Only a small
portion of food taken in by heterotrophs becomes available to the next consumer.
Detritivores make use of energy present in dead organisms before it is lost to the
system.
Ecological efficiency: The ratio between the energy assimilated and the energy
used within trophic levels of a food chain is known as ecological efficiency.
They are different for different communities. It can be determined by the
efficiency of energy transfer from one trophic level to the other trophic level
and the entire process depends on carbon metabolism. The three important
steps in energy flow correspond to:
l Exploitation efficiency – ingestion of food/ prey/ production
l Assimilation efficiency – assimilation/ ingestion
l Net production efficiency – production/ assimilation
Ecological Efficiency = Exploitation efficiency x Assimilation efficiency x
Net production efficiency
Net ecosystem production (NEP) = GPP - RE
where, GPP (gross primary production) = Total photosynthetic C fixation
and ecosystem respiration (RE)
(RE) = RA + RH
RA = Autotrophic respiration
RH = Heterotrophic respiration
2.5 ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

All ecosystems undergo changes over time and the system automatically resists
the changes to come back into equilibrium by a mechanism known as homeostasis.
Feedback is very important in ecosystems. There are two feed backs, the positive
feedback which results in decline and collapse of the ecosystem and the negative 27
Environment and Ecology feedback which results in homeostasis or equilibrium. When we start to disturb
this balance for our needs we introduce an element of imbalance into its working.
Deforestation have destroyed the trees, which has resulted in the disappearance
of the deers, tigers, beetles, birds, lichens, mosses, mushrooms and a host of
other forms of life. Consequently the uptake of soil water and its release into the
atmosphere through transpiration is affected. The rainfall is affected and subtle
changes in the climate set have in. A system is an entity in its own right and a
disturbance at one point is sure to have repercussions all over the system. When
man clears a forest, he interferes with the ecological balance and is seeking to
establish a new ecosystem. In the process, the inhabitants of the old system
disappear. When older ecosystems are upset over a large area, the migratory, the
adaptive and such other limitations cause the total disappearance of a few species.
This is undesirable not only because of the richness of the flora and fauna suffer
but more so because in the new dispensation, there might be disastrous
consequences. We are a part of a natural ecosystem and our survival depends on
the preservation of this ecosystem.
2.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

It is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. For
example, a volcanic eruption can cause a part of an island to disappear. Habitats are
constantly changing, no community is static in an ecosystem and organisms are
continuously replaced with time. Ecological succession can also occur when the
conditions of the environment change suddenly and drastically. For example, forest
fires, windstorms, and human activities, all tamper the conditions of the initial
environment. These changed environmental conditions maydestroy species thereby
alteringthe dynamicsoftheecological community.Withinanycommunitysomespecies
may become less abundant over some time interval, or may even vanish from the
ecosystem. Ecological succession is a gradual and continuous process that extends
over a period of time until a stable community is established known as climax
community, which represents a stable end product of the succession sequence.
When the succession starts from a barren condition it is termed primarysuccession
and the successive stages leading to a climax community is termed as secondary
succession.
(a) Primary Succession: It is the series of community changes that occur on an

entirely new habitat that has never been colonized before. They include: newly
exposed or deposited surfaces, such as landslips, volcanic lava and debris,
elevated sand banks and dunes, quarried rock faces. The communities that are
characteristic of a region is called as ‘sere’and the communities called as ‘seral
communities’. The seres can be classified according to the climatic, geologic
and physiographic forces behind their origin and are termed as: bioseres, cliseres,
geoseres and eoseres respectively. Examples include: Hydrosere – when
succession starts from open water, Xerosere – when it starts from baren rock
or soil.Anumber of stages (seres) will take place in which an initial or ‘pioneer’
community will gradually develop through a number of different seres, into a
‘climax’ community’ which is the final stage.
(b) Secondary Succession: It is the series of community changes, which take

place on a previouslycolonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat and is usually
much quicker than primary succession. The examples include: areas that have
been cleared of existing vegetation and destructive events such as fires.
28
Check Your Progress 2 Ecosystem

unit.
1. Explain energyflow in an ecosystem.
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2. Explain ecological succession.
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2.7 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Dear learner, so far we have learnt about energy flow in the ecosystem which
is one of the two fundamental processes where the ecosystem works. The second
fundamental process is the cycling of nutrients and other elements of matter as
input and output of producers, consumers, detritus feeders and decomposers.
The output of each group will be used up by the other group. We can define a
nutrient cycle as the one in which movement and exchange of organic and
inorganic matter used for the production of living matter. This process is
regulated by food web pathways that decompose matter into mineral nutrients.
These mineral nutrients are recycled and used up for the production of biomass.
For example, Oxygen is an output of the plant photosynthesis which is important
for respiration in higher animals and food for the consumers. Whereas CO2
released by the consumer is a nutrient for green plants.
This type of recycling process benefits the environment in two ways.
i. It reduces the accumulation of waste that can cause pollution

ii. The ecosystem will not be exhausted of essential elements
Out of the 103 known chemical elements, only 24 are required by organisms
known as macronutrients and micronutrients. The six macronutrients that form
the fundamental building blocks of life include: carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur.
Now we have to discuss how recycling takes place in the biosphere to maintain
a dynamic system. In this unit we shall discuss some important macronutrient
biogeochemical cyclic processes that are occurring in our ecosystem. They are
Hydrologic cycle, Carbon cycle, Oxygen cycle, Nitrogen cycle and Phosphorous
cycle.
29
Environment and Ecology 2.7.1 Hydrologic Cycle
This is also known as Water cycle. It is the movement of water from oceans to
atmosphere by evaporation, from atmosphere to oceans to land by precipitation,
from land to oceans by runoff from streams and rivers and subsurface groundwater
flow. The cycle is driven by solar energy. Of the total water on the earth 97% is in
oceans, 2% in glaciers and icecaps, and the rest in fresh water on land and in the
atmosphere. The water cycle consists of different physical processes like evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and gravitational flow. These processes operate in three
principal loops. They are:-
1. Evapotranspiration: The water evaporates and returns to the earth by

precipitation (rain). This forms the main source of natural ecosystem.
2. Surface Run Off: The rain water run across the earth surface and forms
the main source of surface water system.
3. Ground Water: The surface water penetrates, then drip down to reach
the ground water and again reaches the surface water through aquifers
and finally forms springs or wells.
Now we can understand and the phenomenon of the water cycle as exchange
of water between the land, the atmosphere and the ocean. The exchange
processes of water in different forms through various phases are known as
fluxes. Thus the cycle fluxes between storage compartments.
2.7.2 Carbon Cycle

All living organisms contain carbon atoms because of its unique chemical
ability to form bonds with other four atoms. It is the building block of life and
anchors all organic substances. The carbon compounds exist in solid, liquid
and gaseous forms. The movement of carbon atoms in different forms through
living and dead organisms (biosphere), the oceans, the atmosphere and the
earth’s crust is known as carbon cycle. All these act as storage reservoirs of
carbon. These reservoirs are of two types. One is carbon sink and the other is
carbon source. Carbon sink is one in which more carbon is absorbed than
released hence more carbon is accumulated and stored. Where as carbon source
is one in which more carbon is emitted than stored. The source of carbon
atoms in the atmosphere includes burning of fossil fuels, organic matter,
weathering of lime stone rocks, volcanic eruptions and other human activities.
The movement of carbon between these closely linked reservoirs is known as
carbon cycle. We can understand the carbon cycle starting from the reservoir
of atmosphere where as carbon exists in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
methane (CH4). During photosynthesis, the oxygen from CO2 molecules
released in to the air and the carbon atoms become the organic molecules which
are used to make up the plant body. These carbon atoms then move in to the
food web of higher order and become part of all living organisms present in
the ecosystem. Finally, the carbon atoms re-enter the atmosphere through
respiration of plants, animals, and soil decomposers. The carbon cycle in marine
ecosystem is different and starts with the photosynthesis of phytoplankton and
macro algae absorb CO2 from inorganic carbonates of sea water. Then it enters
into marine food web and finally in to the marine organisms. The carbon cycle
will be completed by returning the carbon atoms to the marine system in the
30 form of carbonates by the process of respiration of biota and decomposers.
The cycling of carbon dioxide between terrestrial organisms and the atmosphere is Ecosystem
a large flux, with around 15% of the total carbon in the atmosphere being taken up
by photosynthesis and released by respiration annually. Thus, life has an effect on
the chemistry of the atmosphere.
2.7.3 Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is one of the second largest gases that are present in the atmosphere
after nitrogen. One of the main sources of oxygen is the photosynthesis of
plants where plants take up carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Where as
human beings and animals take up oxygen and give out carbon dioxide through
respiration. This carbon dioxide is used up by plants in photosynthesis. During
rain the water comes in contact with rocks and different other hard surface,
oxygen present in the air mixes with the water and enters in to different water
bodies and makes aquatic life alive. In this way this cycle continues in the
atmosphere.
2.7.4 Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is very essential to life because it is necessary for proteins including
DNA. Free nitrogen makes up around 80% of the Earth’s atmosphere. But
organisms cannot use nitrogen directly, so it has to be converted to usable
forms. The cycle is driven by life and involves the following:
1. Nitrogen fixation: It is the process of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
in to other forms of nitrogen like ammonia, so that it can be used for
different purposes by all living organisms since atmospheric nitrogen is
inert in nature. There are four types of nitrogen fixation.
a. Atmospheric Fixation: The nitrogen fixation takes place when the
heat is generated due to lightening, nitrogen in the atmosphere reacts
with oxygen and moisture to form nitrogen oxides and return to the
earth as rain. Hence, the rain water contains nitrogen in the form of
nitrates reach the ground and is used by the plants.
b. Biological Fixation: This is carried out by certain types of
prokaryotes. The cyanobacteria fix significant amounts of nitrogen
in the oceans, lakes and soils. Rhizobium, symbiotic bacteria that
inhabit the root rodules of legumes and other symbiotic cyanobacteria,
like Nostoc, Anabaena that are found in free state, or in thalli of
Anthoceros, Azolla, coralloid roots of Cycas species also fix
atmospheric nitrogen. Certain free living nitrogen fixing bacteria,
such as Azotobacter, Clostridium also fix free nitrogen of atmosphere
in the soil. Frankia, an actinomycete found in the roots of higher
plants also have the ability to fix nitrogen. Nitrogen fixing organisms
combine the gaseous nitrogen of atmosphere with hydrogen obtained
from respiratory pathway to form ammonia, which then reacts with
organic acids to form amino acids.
c. Industrial Fixation: In Haber-Bosch process nitrogen combines with
hydrogen to form ammonia which is used to make fertilizers.
d. Combustion: During combustion of fossil fuels, nitrogen from coal
is oxidized to form nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere and is converted
to nitric acid and reaches the earth as acid precipitation. 31
Environment and Ecology 2. Nitrogen Assimilation: In this process, nitrates, nitrites and ammonia in the
soil are absorbed by the plants and converted into nitrogenous organic
compounds. Nitrates are converted into ammonia which combines to organic
acids to form amino acids. The amino acids are used in the synthesis of proteins,
enzymes, chlorophylls, nucleic acids, etc. Animals derive their nitrogen
requirement from the plant proteins. This way it enters the consumers through
the food chain. In this process energy is transferred to them in the form of
protein and returns to the soil when they die.
3. Ammonification: When the living organisms die or excrete waste nitrogen is
returned to the soil in the form of ammonium compounds by saprobiotic
microorganisms like Bacillus vulgaris and Bacillus mycoides which
convert protein to ammonium compounds.
4. Nitrification: In nitrification process, ammonia is converted into nitrates
by a group of chemoautotrophic bacteria in the presence of oxygen. This
process involves two steps. Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus and Nitrospira in
oceans and soils convert ammonia into nitrites. The equation is as follows:
2NH4 + 2O2  NO2- + 2H2O + energy
Bacteria such as Nitrobacter convert nitrites to nitrates. The equation is as
follows:
Nitrobacter
2NO2- + O2  2NO3- + energy
5. Denitrification: Denitrification is the process where the excess of nitrogen
that is not used by the plants and ammonia is converted to nitrogen by
some denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas denitrificans. In these
ways nitrogen will return to the atmosphere. The equation is as follows:
2NO3 2NO2  2NO  N2
2.7.5 Phosphorous Cycle
Phosphorous cycle is the representative of all the biologically important mineral
nutrients. It is an important constituent of protoplasm. These organic compounds
are broken down by bacteria to phosphates which are available to autotrophs.
Phosphorus is present in different forms like soil, rock and sediments on the
earth as phosphate ion PO43-. This phosphate reaches the earth by the process
of weathering of rocks. Unlike other compounds phosphorus cannot exist in
the gaseous state because phosphorus is a liquid at normal temperatures and
pressures. Plants absorb PO43- and enter into the higher order food chain. It is
a part of DNA-molecules, which store energy (ATP and ADP). From autotrophs
it reaches animals through the grazing food chain. Excess phosphorous is
excreted and again reaches the autotrophs. Sea-birds have played an important
role in this cycle and an example is the guano deposits that occur on the coast
of Peru in South America. Phosphorous enters the living system from the soil,
where it exists in minerals combined with potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron and as phosphates. It moves out of the soil in a water soluble form and is
transported through rivers, streams and to oceans. Thus, phosphorous recycles
through water, soil and sediments. The richest phosphorous mine in the world
32 is in Bone Valley situated 40 km east of Tampa, Florida (USA).
2.7.6 Sulfur Cycle Ecosystem
Most of the Earth’s sulfur is preserved in rocks and minerals as sulfate salts buried
deep within ocean sediments. Sulphate (SO4-) is the main form available to autotrophs
and is incorporated into proteins. They are essential components of some amino
acids. The sulfur cycle consists of two processes: (a) atmospheric and (b) terrestrial.
In the terrestrial process, the cycle begins with the weathering of rocks that releases
stored sulfur. The sulfur then is converted into sulfate (SO4) through oxidation. This
sulfate is taken up bygreen plants and microorganisms and is converted into organic
forms. The heterotrophs then consume these organic forms through their food and in
this way sulfur cycles through the food chain. When organisms die and decompose,
some of the sulfur is again released as sulfate and some enter the tissues of
microorganisms. Volcanic eruptions, breakdown of organic matter in swamps and
tidal flats, combustion of fossil fuels, and the evaporation of water also releases
sulphur into the atmosphere which comes back to the earth with rainfall. Sulfur
enters the ocean through fallout from the Earth’s atmosphere and terrestrial processes.
In the ocean, some marine communities use sulphur in their metabolism. A part of
this sulfur is emitted back into the atmosphere through sea spray. The remaining
sulfur is lost to ocean depths forming ferrous sulfide that is responsible for the black
color of most marine sediments.
the unit.
1. Explain the hydrologic cycle.
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2. Explain the carbon cycle
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2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about different phases of environment and
ecosystem and their functions. The environment consists of the atmosphere,
lithosphere, biosphere and the hydrosphere and ecosystem. Ecosystem consists
of all the life forms and non-living things in a particular place. The study of
natural ecosystems will help us to understand the interrelations between living
beings and the environment and how the impact of human beings is influencing
the natural world. The biogeochemical cycles explains natural cycling process of 33
Environment and Ecology nutrients to maintain the balance in the natural environment and functioning of the
entire earth.
2.9 KEY WORDS

Ecosystem : Basic functional unit of organismsand their environment,
interacting with each other and within their own
components.
Food Chain : The transfer of food energyfrom the producers (plants)
through a series of organisms (Herbivores, Carnivores)
successively with the repeated activities of eating and
being eaten is known as food chain.
Food web : A food web is defined as the relationship in which a
predator eats different types of food at each trophic
level and is in turn eaten by many different
organisms.
Ecological pyramid : An ecological pyramid shows the trophic structure
of an ecosystem as a graph representing the biomass,
organism number, and energy content of each trophic
level in a food web.
Ecological succession : It is the gradual process by which ecosystems change
and develop over time.
Eutrophication : Excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other
water bodies, frequently due to run-off from the
land, which causes abundant growth of algae or
other plant life.
Evapotranspiration : The combination of evaporation and transpiration
that restores water to the atmosphere.

READINGS
Botkin, D.B and Keller, E.A. 2000. Environmental Science: Earth as a living
planet. 3rd Edition.
Colin vaux, P. A. (1993). Ecology. II Edition. Wiley, John and Sons, Inc.
Cunningham, William P. and Barbara Woodworth Saigo, Environmental
Science: A Global Concern. McGraw Hill: 1999.
Jackson, Andrew R.W and Julie M. Jackson, Environmental Science: The
Natural Environment and Human Impact. Longman: 1996.
Krebs, C. J. (2001). Ecology. VI Edition. Benjamin Cummings.
Odum, E.P. (2008). Fundamentals of Ecology. Indian Edition. Brooks/Cole.
Ricklefs, R.E. (2000). Ecology. V Edition. Chiron Press.
Richard T.Wright. (2009) Environmental Science, X Edition, Pearson
34 Education.
Ecosystem
Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
(i) The structure and function are significant characteristics of anyecosystem.
The (1) structure includes the biotic and abiotic components and the (2)
function include the functions performed in the ecosystem i.e. food chains,
webs, trophic levels, the flow of energy in the ecosystem, productivity,
biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem regulation.
(ii) Abiotic components: Temperature, average humidity, topography, natural
disturbances, amount of sunlight, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, pH, and
the availabilityof nutrients.
(iii) Biotic components:Autotrophs and Heterptrophs
(iv) Function: Producers: Algae, green plants, photosynthetic bacteria.
Consumers: Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores. Decomposers:
Saprotrophs
(i) Food Chain: The transfer of food energy from the producers (plants)
through a series of organisms (Herbivores, Carnivores) successively
with the repeated activities of eating and being eaten is known as
food chain. A food chain indicates who eats whom in an ecosystem.
The feeding of one organism upon another in a sequence of food
transfers is known as a food chain. Another definition is the chain of
transfer of energy from one organism to another. Each organism
occupies a separate trophic level.
(ii) Types of food chains: Grazing food chains and the detrital food chain.
(iii) Food Web: Energy flows through an ecosystem in a complex network
of feeding relationships called a food web. A food web is defined as
the relationship in which a predator eats different types of food at
each trophic level and is in turn eaten by many different organisms.
A food web may contain several food chains. It is the outcome of
several complex-feeding inter-relationships that exist in nature.
(iv) Examples of food web
l The movement of energy through a series of organisms in an
ecosystem from the external environment and back to the external
environment again is known as energy flow.
l The sun is the main source of energy and this energy flows in an
ecosystem through the food chains and food webs.
l Life depends on the material cycling through the ecosystems.
l Two fundamental laws of thermodynamics 35
Environment and Ecology l Primaryproductivity
l Secondary productivity
l It is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over
time.
l Examples
l Changed environmental conditions may destroy species thereby altering
the dynamics of the ecological community.
l Primarysuccession
l Secondary succession
l This is also known as Water cycle. It consists of evaporation of water to
the atmosphere, loss of water in the form of water vapour through green
plants by the process of transpiration and get back to the earth by the
process of precipitation or rain.
l The water cycle consists of different physical processes like evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and gravitational
l Evapotranspiration, Surface run off, Ground water
l All living organisms contain carbon atoms because of its unique chemical
ability to form bonds with other four atoms.
l The carbon compounds exist in solid, liquid and gaseous forms.
l Storage reservoirs of carbon
l Source of carbon atoms in the atmosphere
l The movement of carbon between these closely linked reservoirs is
known as carbon cycle.
l The carbon cycle will be completed by returning the carbon atoms
to the marine system in the form of carbonates by the process
36
UNIT 3 ENERGY RESOURCES AND
CONSERVATION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Energy Resources: Definition and Types
3.3 Renewable Energy Resources
3.3.1 Wind Energy
3.3.2 Solar Energy
3.3.3 Geothermal Energy
3.3.4 Biomass Based Energy
3.3.5 Hydropower
3.3.6 Tidal and Wave Energy
3.3.7 Potentially Renewable Resources
3.4 Non –Renewable Energy Resources

3.5 Fossil Fuels- Origin and Classification
3.5.1 Coal
3.5.2 Natural Gas
3.5.3 Petroleum
3.6 Conventional and Non Conventional Energy Sources

3.7 Alternative Sources of Energy
3.7.1 Alternative Energy Vs. Renewable Energy
3.7.2 Nuclear Energy
3.7.3 Uranium
3.7.4 Hydrogen
3.7.5 Limitations of Alternative Sources of Energy
3.8 Current Energy Problems and Their Solutions

3.9 Conservation of Energy
3.10 Let Us Sum Up
3.11 Key Words
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Energy is the driving force for all kind of life on the earth. Each and every
aspect of our life is affected by energy. Without energy no task is possible. We
need energy to eat, walk, write, speak, etc. Similarly activities such as
transportation, communication, agriculture, industrialisation, etc. need
continuous supply of energy. You think of any activity and will find that
everywhere energy is involved. It is for this reason that energy use is an indicator
of development of any nation.
37
Environment and Ecology In this unit, you will learn about various sources of energy and their merits and
demerits. You will also gain knowledge about the energy crisis and will learn
about the measures of energy conservation.
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to
l define renewable and non-renewable energy resources;
l differentiate between conventional and non conventional energy
resources;
l identify the current energy problems; and
l explain the methods for energy conservation.
3.2 ENERGY RESOURCES: DEFINITION AND

TYPES
Energy comes from sources on this Earth. The terms ‘forms’ of energy and
‘types’ of energy are used interchangeably. Let us understand the difference
between the two. Types of energy resources pertain to the origin of that energy
resource. For eg solar energy (Sun), Tidal energy (Tides), Biomass based energy
(Biomass). On the other hand, potential (chemical, electrical, etc.) and kinetic
(heat, sound, etc.) are different forms of energy.
There are many different sources of energy, some well-known such as coal or
petroleum, others less explored, such as wind or the heat inside the Earth.
Some of the energy resources are location specific and fixed. For example,
presence of coal, oil, wood or gas. It is easy to estimate the occurrence and
extract coal and oil but it is not the case with renewable resources such as solar
or wind as they are not so obvious and are based on natural weather patterns
and features of an area.
As you will go through the unit, you will come to know some more examples
and types of energy resources.
Broadly speaking, energy resources are classified into three main categories:
l Renewable energy resources which can be renewed again and again.
l Potentially Renewable energy resources which if managed properly can
be easily renewed.
l Non-renewable energy resources cannot be renewed once they are all
used up.
3.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable energy resources are those sources of energy which can be
replenished and do not get depleted because of over consumption. Wind, solar,
geothermal, tidal, and biomass energy are some of the renewable sources of
energy. These energy resources are available for free and have been utilized
since ages by human communities. For example most of the energy on Earth
38 comes from the Sun. This energy has been traditionally used for various
purposes like drying grains, drying grains and for performing other household Energy Resources and
Conservation
tasks. Traditionally, in one form or the other, the sun has provided energy for
practically all living creatures. Similarly wind energy and energy from tides
has also been in use since ancient times. Today when the world is confronted
with pressing issue of energy crisis owing to over exploitation of non renewable
energy sources, we are again looking for cleaner and efficient options of energy
utilization. Solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy are some of the promising
renewable energy resources.
Solar power uses the energy in sunlight directly. Moving water (in the form of
waves, tides, and flowing rivers) and the wind also contain energy that can be
used to spin turbines to generate electricity. Geothermal energy taps heat from
inside the Earth.
Renewable energy will last as long as the Sun shines, winds blow, wave’s
crash and rivers flow. It is for this reason it is believed that renewable energy
will never run out, is safe to use and produces little pollution because of less
green house gas emission. However, renewable energy plants can be expensive
to build and may not produce enough energy to meet local requirements.
The pros and cons of utilizing different renewable sources of energy are
discussed below:
3.3.1 Wind Energy

Wind energy can be utilized in power turbines that generate electricity. Mostly,
wind turbines are situated on agricultural or forest land and hence there is no
need to clear land to place wind mills. However, wind mills pose a danger to
the birds and cause noise and visual pollution. Countries like China, U.K.,
U.S.A and Spain obtain most of their energy requirements by utilizing wind
energy.
3.3.2 Solar Energy

Sun is the ultimate source of Energy and we can use solar energy to heat water
or homes and it can be converted into electricity, and for hot water heating,
solar cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses. With the use of
photovoltaic (PV) cells, the solar energy can be converted into electricity. These
cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Like wind energy, however, solar
energy is limited in availability and depends on weather conditions.
3.3.3 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy taps the Earth’s internal heat and can be put to use for
various uses like electricity production, and heating of buildings. Geothermal
energy power can be trapped by installing a geothermal heat pump and these
plants also do not release greenhouse gases unlike a traditional power plant.
3.3.4 Biomass Based Energy

The use of biomass for producing energy is biomass based energy. It includes
several forms of biomass like food waste, agricultural waste, fuel wood, garbage,
etc. This energy can be used to produce electricity, transportation fuels, or
chemicals. The plant parts and other organic materials are processed to generate
the electricity. Utilizing biomass for energy provides us with a renewable energy
source and provides appropriate solution to waste management. 39
Environment and Ecology 3.3.5 Hydropower
When water flows through a dam and runs a turbine, a huge amount of electricity
is generated. However, not only environmental effects of big dams but issues
such as displacement and rehabilitation of the people are often discussed. It is
also observed that damming a river alters the aquatic and riparian ecosystems,
changes the temperature and other physicochemical features of the water bodies.
3.3.6 Tidal and Wave Energy
Wave and tidal energy has been utilized to generate electricity since long. Recent
advances in science and technology have improved their use in more beneficial
ways. In addition to tidal energy, there’s the energy of the ocean’s waves,
which are determined by tides as well as the winds. The sun also warms the
surface of the ocean more than the ocean depths, creating a temperature
difference that can be used as an energy source. All these forms of ocean energy
can be used to produce electricity. Although not widely used, tidal energy is
more reliable and predictable than solar or wind energy.
3.3.7 Potentially Renewable Resources
A potentially renewable resource can be replenished fairly rapidly (hours to
several decades) through natural processes. Examples of such resources include
forest trees, grassland grasses, wild animals, fresh lake and stream water,
groundwater, fresh air, and fertile soil. A potentially renewable resource can
be made sustainable by managing the use of the resource so it does not run out.
It is interesting to investigate that what limits the use of renewable energy
resources inspite of the fact that they are cleaner and sustainable sources of
energy Let us discuss non renewable energy resources now.
3.4 NON–RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Non renewable energy resources are those which have been formed through
several years of geological activity. Examples include coal, petroleum, and
natural gas. These energy resources will ultimately decline, will be unaffordable.
We currently depend on non-renewable energy resources to meet our energy
demands and in doing so we extract and use them for generating electricity or
use as fuels. The added disadvantage associated with the utilization of non
renewable energy resources is that they release harmful gases and cause air
pollution. It is for these reasons that they are also known as dirty sources of
energy. As a country develops there is a shift from dirty to clean sources of
energy.
the unit.
1. Geothermal, wind, and solar are some of the energy resources which are
found in abundant supply on Earth. What are the advantages of using
these energy sources?
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40 ..............................................................................................................
2) What are potentially renewable sources of energy? Explain with examples. Energy Resources and
Conservation
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3.5 FOSSIL FUELS- ORIGIN AND

CLASSIFICATION
Fuel is something that can be burned to produce energy in the form of heat or
power. Fuels include coal, oil, natural gas, and wood. Humans have been
burning wood for warmth, and to light homes and cook food, since civilization
began. However, in some parts of the world, so many trees have been cut
down for fuel that firewood is now scarce.
Fossil fuels are made of the fossilized remains of living things that died millions
of years ago compressed at high temperature and pressure over millions of
years. When electricity was first generated, it was done by burning fossil
fuels. Coal, oil, and gas are the most important fossil fuels. Today, they provide
most of the world’s energy.
When fossil fuels are burned in a power plant, steam is generated by boiling
water. That steam drives a turbine to spin inside a large magnetic field, and
this produces electricity. The main problem with doing this is that it creates a
lot of pollution, including greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, which are
causing the earth’s climate to warm.
3.5.1 Coal
Coal is the organic fossil material which is solid and black in colour with
varying properties and composition. It is essentially rich in amorphous carbon
and contains several liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. It is the most widespread
fuel mostly used for producing electricity. On the basis of characteristics, heating
value, carbon and volatile matter, coal is found in various forms viz. Anthracite
(Hard coal), Bituminous (Soft coal), Lignite (Brown Coal) and Peat.
3.5.2 Natural Gas

Natural gas is mostly composed of methane. Landfills and marshes also produce
methane by the methanogenic processes. Like petroleum, natural gas is
processed to remove the other components and then it can be used as a fuel.
3.5.3 Petroleum
Petroleum is a toxic, flammable liquid which is found beneath the earth’s
surface. It is commonly known as crude oil. It finds application in various
places like pharmaceuticals, plastics, asphalt, kerosene, and synthetic rubber
but mostly petroleum is used as fuel. Like natural gas, petroleum is also
processed before utilizing it. Crude oil contains several types of hydrocarbons
and to process the oil to serve specific function, the crude oil must be heated to
a specific temperature range.
41
3.6 CONVENTIONAL AND NON
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
The energy resources which have been in use since a very long time are known
as conventional sources of energy. We have been using coal, oil, etc since the
beginning of the civilization. Even solar energy was used since long for drying
of grains and for other purposes but its commercial use has increased in the
last few decades. Hence, the contemporary non-conventional sources of energy
like wind, tidal, solar etc. were the conventional sources until James Watt
invented the steam engine in the eighteenth century. Non conventional sources
of energy include solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, etc. With the
increase in generation of urban and domestic waste, the potential of waste to
produce electricity has been in research today. The scientists are of the opinion
that waste products could be used to produce energy and this can solve the
problem of waste management as well as will serve to reduce energy crisis.
3.7 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Alternate energy refers to forms of energy that are constantly replenished by
the Earth. The energies are natural occurring and are tapped for conversion
into other forms of energy. Alternative energy sources are those that are used
in place of other non renewable energy sources. Nuclear energy, hydrogen, etc
are all alternative sources of energy. Alternative energy resources are not going
to run out, do not pollute as much as fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas), or do
not generate waste products which are harmful to environment. Alternative
energy is also known as clean energy, green energy and renewable energy.
3.7.1 Alternative Energy vs. Renewable Energy

Renewable energy and alternative energy are often interchangeable, but they
are different from each other. Renewable energy comes from energy source
which can never deplete. Electric energy that is generated from the sun (solar),
the wind, the ocean (waves, currents or tides), the earth (geothermal), waste
(biomass), landfill gas, or water (hydro power) is considered to be renewable
energy. Renewable energy falls under the alternative energy umbrella because
renewable fuel sources like wind and solar do not degrade the environment.
3.7.2 Nuclear Energy

The energy contained in the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear energy. Every
object in the universe is made up of atoms and there is huge amount of energy
between the bonds that join these atoms. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
are the two processed by which this energy can be released. Sun produces
energy through nuclear fusion. In nuclear fission, atoms divide and form smaller
atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants make use of nuclear fission to
produce electricity.
In the 1930s, scientists discovered that huge amounts of energy could be
produced by splitting atoms (tiny particles) of rare mineral called uranium.
The technology was first used to make nuclear bombs. Later, it was used to
generate electricity. Nuclear materials are radioactive and release harmful
radiations that can harm living things.
42
Uranium and other nuclear materials are radioactive and give off radiation that Energy Resources and
Conservation
can harm living things. This means that great care must be taken when they are
processed and transported. Nuclear fuel is also difficult to dispose off safely
once used.
3.7.3 Uranium
Uranium is a heavy, metal (U-235) which is used in fission chain reaction,
thereby releasing huge amount of heat. After extraction, uranium must be
processed. Most reactors utilize uranium that has been finely ground. While
nuclear power offers us a clean source of energy, the cases of reactor failure
and other issues pose a constraint in its large scale use.
3.7.4 Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the most abundant element on the Earth. However, it doesn’t
occur naturally as a gas. It’s always combined with other oxygen in the form of
water. Hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or can be converted into electricity.
3.7.5 Limitations of Alternative Sources of Energy

Inspite of quite good signs of hope, there are some bottle necks in the use of
alternative sources. Most of the technologies involve high installation cost
and require maintenance. Some of the materials that find application in
designing and manufacturing of devices are not available. For eg. silicon, an
essential component in solar photovoltaic is short in supply. Moreover, there
is lack of human capital which affects the whole energy industry worldwide
still, the benefits are driving governments, business and individual all over the
world to adopt this technology.
the unit.
1) With the ongoing depletion of fossil fuels, which energy sources do you
think would make the best substitutes for them?
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2) What are the pros and cons of utilizing nuclear energy?
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3.8 CURRENT ENERGY PROBLEMS AND
THEIR SOLUTIONS
The country’s economic growth is linked to the fortunes of the energy sector.
India’s per capita energy y consumption currently is almost one third the global
average, and trails far behind the mean figure for the developed world. Our
energy consumption is largely based on coal, along with a preponderant
dependence on other fossil fuels. Although per capita energy consumption has
more than doubled over the past 15 years, almost 240 million people do not
have access to affordable energy supply today.
Energy consumption in India has grown at a compound annual growth rate of
about 6 % during the last decade. BP Energy outlook 2035 expects India to
achieve the fastest energy consumption growth among all major economies,
despite rapid increases in non-fossil fuel production. The total energy
consumption is expected to grow by 128 % by 2035. Demand for gas is expected
to expand by 155 %, followed by coal (121 %) and oil (118 %) while demand
for renewable , nuclear and hydro are estimated to rise by 656 %, 334 % and
99 % respectively. Even under most modest economic growth scenario, it is
expected that India’s growth ambitions will lead to a 100 % increase in energy
consumption, thereby requiring double the existing energy sources.
On the supply side, India is significantly dependent on coal as a primary fuel,
which accounts for 58 % of the energy consumption in the country. It is estimated
that we have one of the largest resource bases of coal, with the policies and
gains of the last few years positioning us strongly for the future. It is expected
that India will be the largest consumer of coal, equivalent to over 435 million
tonnes of oil by 2035. According to current estimates with respect to oil and
gas, India is home to only 0.3 % of the world’s sedimentary basins. Further, we
account for a mere 0.3 % of the global oil and 0.8 % of the global gas reserve.
We are however, blessed with abundant natural resources in the form of sun
and wind. The total wind potential in the country is estimated to be over 30
times the current installed capacity of 8 GW. Already, the government has an
aggressive target of 60 GW of wind capacity and 100 GW of solar capacity by
2022.
In his book, The Audacity of Hope, Barack Obama states “A nation that can’t
control its energy resources can’t control its future”. Securing our energy future
is thus critical for India to become a superpower in the future.
India is the world’s fourth largest energy consumer. Its energy needs continue
to increase, but national energy shortages and an inadequate energy
infrastructure could perpetuate national energy poverty.
India’s energy sector is increasingly unable to deliver a secure supply of energy
amid growing demand and fuel imports due to following reasons:
l Relies on imports for meeting growing demand for oil and gas
l Electricity shortages
l Energy poverty and inequality spreads
Rapidly increasing energy demand and growing concern about economic and
44 environmental consequences call for effective and efficient energy governance
in India. Three main objectives must be pursued to ensure equitable energy Energy Resources and
Conservation
supply in India:
i) Access to energy- When one quarter of the population lacks electricity, it
becomes essential to ensure adequate and reliable supply of energy and
fulfil the growing demand.
ii) Overcoming energy poverty- Energy security in India is driven by too
much dependence on imported fuels. This makes India vulnerable to greater
geopolitical risks and international price volatility. Ensure overcoming
energy poverty remains a top most priority
iii) Use of clean energy- There are important environmental impacts of fossil
fuel extraction as well as consumption which need special attention.
Therefore to maintain steady source of energy it is essential to adopt green
energy sources which do not pollute the environment and don’t get depleted
by overuse.
3.9 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

We depend on energy for almost everything in our lives. We wish to make our
lives comfortable, productive and enjoyable. Hence even if the outside
temperature rises a little, we immediately switch on the air conditioner to keep
our house cool. This is again using up of energy. Unfortunately, what we do
not realize is that we have starting taking things for granted and we have started
wasting energy unnecessarily. Most of us forget that energy is available in
abundance but it is limited and hence to maintain the quality of life, it is
important that we use our energy resources wisely.
If we do not conserve energy, the energy will exhaust and we will have nothing
to use. Also, energy conservation is also important when it comes to climate
change. Currently, erratic climates and climatic changes are the greatest threats
that we are facing today. Hence it is important to conserve energy.
Energy Conservation is unquestionably of great importance to all of us, since
we rely on energy for everything we do every single day. Energy supplies are
limited and, to maintain a good quality of life, we must find ways to use energy
wisely. Reducing the amount of energy that we use is a good way to save
money, and there are also other benefits to decreasing energy consumption.
For example, a large portion of the energy we use is derived from oil. Some
experts claim that we will run out of oil in just a few decades. As natural
resources used to produce energy become scarce, the cost of energy will most
likely increase. In this way we are not just running out of some valuable natural
resource but are also destroying the environment in the process of using them.
For example, toxins and pollution are released into the atmosphere during the
production and consumption of energy.
Energy conservation is not about making limited resources last as long as they
can, that would mean that you are doing nothing more than prolong a crisis
until you finally run out of energy resources all together. Conservation is the
process of reducing demand on a limited supply and enabling that supply to
begin to rebuild itself. Many times the best way of doing this is to replace the
energy used with an alternate.
Measures to conserve energy depend on the kind of choices we make to help
us save our environment and also help our future generations. There are many
45
things that will use less energy and by using such things you will conserve
Environment and Ecology energy in a sensible way. Instead of normal tube lights, you can choose energy
efficient bulbs. Energy efficient bulbs require less energy to perform the same
function that normal tube lights do.
Turning off all electronic devices when not in use is also a good way of
conserving energy. Replacing or repairing leaky faucets help in saving lot of
water.
Use air conditioner only when required. Instead, you can keep the doors and
vents closed to keep your room. Also, you can save lot of energy by
switching off the lights and using natural lighting during day time.
Embracing an energy efficient lifestyle today will help you get a better life
tomorrow. So let us slow down the demand for energy and give a better
future for our coming generation.
Embrace energy conservation by making small changes that will lead to a
significant difference in our overall energy consumption. Your efforts
combined with those of others who have chosen to make a few small
changes too, will benefit your life and the lives of future generations as well
as our environment.
Useful Tips for Conserving Energy

Unplug- Up to 75% of the electricity used to power home electronics is
consumed while the products are turned off. Appliances like computers,
TVs, cable boxes, cell phone chargers, coffee makers, etc. all continue to
consume energy just by being plugged in into an outlet.
Set your thermostat at 78 degrees or higher in the summer. Use fans
whenever possible instead of AC, and ventilate at night this way when
practical. Using fans to supplement AC allows you to raise the thermostat
temperature, using less energy. Fans cost less to use than AC.
Keep the thermostat at 70 degrees or lower in the colder months.
Turn down the thermostat at night to 65 degrees, lower when you go to bed
or leave your house for more than four hours. Clean the lint filter in your
dryer after every load to improve air circulation, and periodically check the
dryer vent to ensure it is not blocked.
Turn lights off in unoccupied areas, including porch lights when you go to
bed. Buy light bulbs that are 60 watts or less. Even better, get energy-
saving compact fluorescent lights. They last much longer and you won’t
have to change them as often. Make sure the dish-washer and clothes-
washer have full loads before running them.
Use the “air dry” setting on the dishwasher. Wash clothes in cold water
when possible and rinse them in cold water.
Set your refrigerator temperature at 37 to 40 degrees and your freezer at 0-
5 degrees.
Close the door quickly after you select an item.
Check air conditioner filters each month. Dirty filters block air flow,
increasing your energy bills.
46
Check Your Progress 3 Energy Resources and
Conservation
the unit.
1) Why it is important to conserve energy? Give some steps which must
be taken to save energy in home.
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3.10 LET US SUM UP

Energy use is an indication of the development of any country. Modern day
lifestyle consumes large amount of energy. The energy resources present on
the planet are dwindling or creating environmental problems. The world is
struggling to find ways to fight energy crisis. Hence it is of utmost importance
to conserve the energy resources so that the future generations can utilize them.
There is a need to explore more and more non-conventional energy sources
which are less damaging and more promising.
3.11 KEY WORDS

Energy : The capacity or power to do work.
Conservation of energy : The total energy of an isolated system remains
constant irrespective of whatever internal
changes may take place with energy
disappearing in one form reappearing in
another.
Nuclear Fission : A nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus
splits spontaneously or on impact with another
particle, with the release of energy.
3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
https://www.worldenergy.org/wp-content/.../09/Complete_WER_ 2013_
Survey.pdf
www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001142.pdf
Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility, Lanham,
Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. ISBN 0-7425-4909-7
Taylor Renewable and Alternative Energy Resources: A Reference Handbook
2008, Zachary Alden Smith, Katrina D.
47
1) Your answers must include the following points:
l Clean , less polluting energy source
l Renewable source
l Efficient utilization
l Can be replenished rapidly
l Examples include forest trees, grasslands, etc.
l Alternative and non conventional energy sources
l Less polluting and more efficient
l Very efficient and clean source of energy
l Harmful radiations can cause problem if not handled properly.
l Energy is vital for development.
l Resources are dwindling.
l Non- polluting and clean energy sources are needed.
48
UNIT 4 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Environmental Degradation
4.2.1 Causes of Environmental Degradation
4.2.2 Effects of Environmental Degradation
4.3 Climate Change

4.3.1 Causes of Climate Change
4.4 Green House Effect and Global Warming

4.5 Acid Rain
4.5.1 Effects of Acid Rain
4.6 Ozone Layer and its Depletion

4.7 Other Issues
4.8 Case Studies
4.9 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Environment is all that surrounds us. It consists of biotic as well as abiotic
components. You have studied about these components in the previous units.
Man has been utilizing the services and products of environment for his own
good self. In the process, the nature and its components have been altered and
their character has been changed. In view of this, the healthy survival of human
beings and other organisms has become very difficult on this planet.
Environmental problems do not believe in boundaries and an issue at one place
also travels to the nearby place and manifests in some form or another. There
are local as well as global issues which are demanding immediate attention. In
this unit, you will learn about the issues which are equally affecting the world
in some form or the other. The extent of impact may vary but counties across
the world are pondering over the solutions to these issues.
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
l describe the factors causing environmental degradation;
l explain the effects of climate change;
49
Environment and Ecology l explain the meaning of green house effect;
l define acid rain and mention the forms of acid rain; and
l explain the effects of ozone depletion.
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Environmental degradation is the deterioration in the quality of the environment.
It is apparent in more than a few forms such as depletion of natural resources,
destruction of ecosystems, habitat damage, the extinction of wildlife and
environmental pollution. Despite the fact that the state of the environment has
always been changing since life evolved on this planet, the magnitude of change
and severity of impact is today like never before. The degree and the level of
environmental degradation depend upon the rate, the resilience of living
organisms and the intervening factors. The present condition reveals that the
damage has been to such an extent that it is believed that some environments
may never recover. We have lost our pristine environment and we will never
be able to recover it.
There are a number of causes of environmental degradation. You must have
read at various places that humans are mainly responsible for this damage.
Therefore, humans must recognize the degree to which they depend on earth’s
resources and what are limits of the usage of these resources. It is necessary to
devise means for the sustainable utilization of precious natural resources. In
this sense, environmental responsibility and stewardship constitute an integral
part of effective resource management practices. In order to avoid more harm,
researchers and scientists must consider the long-standing impact of
development on the environment and must come out with suitable measures
to minimise future environmental degradation.
4.2.1 Causes of Environmental Degradation
Let us now understand the causes behind environmental degradation. Various
natural as well as anthropogenic factors are responsible for altering the character
of the surroundings. Let us learn more about them.
l Natural Causes
Along with anthropogenic activities, natural causes also create instability
in environment. Events such as earthquakes, floods, wildfires and
landslides cause damage to life and property along with disrupting the
landscape of that region. Alteration of the habitat makes survival of the
plants animal communities difficult. It is because of the fact that the climate
of Earth has also been changing over time.
l Man –made causes
As compared to the natural causes, man-made causes are known to cause
environmental degradation at a much wider scale. Some of the important
man made causes of environmental degradation are deforestation,
environmental pollution, improper land use planning and development,
overexploitation of natural resources, improper agricultural practices, poor
quality of water resources, wetlands and aquatic life and enormous waste
generation. During 1960 to 1999, the world population increased manifold
because at this time we had improved medical facilities, vaccinations,
better nourishment and the deadly diseases were controlled. The death
50
rate drastically declined during this period. During the same period, the Global Environmental Issues
environmental problems also grew and the world’s attention shifted to
the concerns of the environment. The landmark environmental events took
place in the same period. Since then the environmental problems have
become more intense and more complicated. Human beings have disturbed
the ecology and natural processes in the name of development. Unless
some stringent measures are taken, it will be very difficult to restore the
nature of forests and oceans and other ecosystems.
4.2.2 Effects of Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation hinders with the renewal capacity of the renewable
natural resources and thus checks their availability. It also contributes to the
decrease in quality of the land, water, genetic resources, medicinal plants and
food crops. Below are some of the chief effects of environmental degradation.
You will learn more about the effects of environmental degradation in detail in
subsequent units of this course.
l Atmospheric Changes
Environmental degradation disturbs the natural biogeochemical cycles
and other processes of nature. Reckless deforestation and mining activities
destroy the natural land cover and alter the chemical composition of the
atmosphere. It causes the manifestation of the already existing problems
of global warming and release of green house gases. Along with this, the
intensity and frequency of natural disasters also increases. The overall
result is the shift in the precipitation patterns and likewise changes in the
atmosphere.
l Environmental Pollution
Environmental degradation is responsible for the addition of harmful and
unwanted chemicals into the environment. Rapid industrialisation and
unplanned development activities have done more harm than good.
Agriculture is slowly poisoning our fields and the fruits and the vegetables
are contaminated with pesticides. Air is also getting polluted and our water
bodies are full of filth of waste and harmful chemicals. There are heaps of
solid and municipal wastes in secluded places which is responsible for
land pollution. In a nut shell, environmental pollution has crossed all limits
and it is one of the most visible forms of environmental degradation.
l Decline in Biodiversity
Degradation of the environment has lead to the destruction of forests and
natural ecosystems. The number of threatened species continues to increase
worldwide and many have also become extinct. It is because of the
acidification of the water bodies, deforestation, and the deliberate
destruction of natural habitat of living organisms.
l Impact on Human Health
Human beings do not remain impervious from what is happening in the
surroundings. Human health depends on environmental factors to a large
extent apart from genetic and behavioural factors. Urbanization and
modernisation have changed the lifestyle of people in rural as well as
urban areas. We are breathing impure air, drinking contaminated water
and eating stuff that is laden with pesticides. To make matter worse,
electronic gadgets and radiations have become part and parcel of our lives. 51
Environment and Ecology In this way, human beings are paying the cost of development in the form
of deteriorating health and quality life. Degradation in water quality causes
water borne diseases to the children and the poor across the globe.
Similarly toxic gases and harmful chemicals are released from factories
and automobiles leading to poor air quality. Due to this, respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases are affecting a large population in developed as
well as developing countries. Growing number of cancer patients,
increasing risks of obesity and lifestyle related diseases and poor immunity
among children are all the consequence of environmental degradation in
one form or the other.
l Poverty
In the developing countries, poverty is linked to lack of natural resources
and basic needs that are needed to survive. Poverty is the result of number
of factors like unemployment, lack of adequate food and improper means
of living. Most vulnerable situations arise because of water shortages,
climate change, and poor crop yields in developing countries. All this is
linked to environmental degradation in some form or the other.
Apart from the effects mentioned above, it can be asserted that
environmental degradation also indirectly leads to a number of socio
economic consequences.
the unit.
1. Explain the causes of environmental degradation.
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2. How human health is affected by environmental degradation?
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4.3 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate is usually defined as the “average weather” at any place. It includes
patterns of temperature, precipitation, humidity and wind. These patterns play
a fundamental role in shaping natural ecosystems, and the human economies
and populations that depend on them.
The Earth’s climate has changed throughout history. Most of these climate
changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the
amount of solar energy our planet receives. However, the current warming
52 trend is of particular significance because most of it is very likely human-
induced and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300 years. Global Environmental Issues
With the changing climate like never before, the past is no longer the reliable
predictor of the future. The change in climate is progressing faster than any
seen in the last 2,000 years and this forms a reason to study climate and the
changing climate. Rising global temperatures are expected to raise sea levels,
and change precipitation and other local climate conditions. Changing regional
climate could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies. It can also affect
human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems.
4.3.1 Causes of Climate Change
It is very difficult to say what actually causes climate to change at an accelerated
rate. Broadly speaking, the causes of climate change fall in two categories:
Natural and Man-made causes.
l Natural causes
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. Some
of the more prominent ones are continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents,
the earth’s tilt, and comets and meteorites.
l Continental drift
Continental drift also had an impact on the climate because it changed the
physical features of the landmass, their position and the position of water
bodies. The separation of the landmasses changed the flow of ocean
currents and winds, which affected the climate. This drift of the continents
continues even today. The Himalayan range is rising by about 1 mm every
year because the Indian land mass is moving towards the Asian land mass.
l Volcanoes:
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes of sulphur dioxide
(SO2), water vapour, dust, and ash into the atmosphere. Although the
volcanic activity may last only a few days, yet the large volumes of gases
and ash can influence climatic patterns for years.
l The earth’s tilt
The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an
angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. If there was
no tilt we would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the
earth can affect the severity of the seasons - more tilt means warmer
summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder
winters.
l Ocean currents
Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow down. Much
of the heat that escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapour, the
most abundant greenhouse gas on Earth. Yet, water vapour also contributes
to the formation of clouds, which shade the surface and have a net cooling
effect.
l Man Made Causes
Excess burning of fossil fuel, change in land use patterns are some of the
leading causes of climate change.. Since Industrial Revolution, human
activities have significantly altered the climate at given place. It is because
of the influence of human activities on climate change we use the term
‘anthropogenic’ or ‘human induced’ climate change. 53
4.4 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL
WARMING
The greenhouse effect is the phenomenon in which the atmosphere of a planet
traps radiation emitted by sun. Green house effect is caused by gases such as
carbon dioxide, water vapour, and methane that allow incoming sunlight to
pass through but does not allow heat to radiate back from the Earth’s surface.
In the absence of green house effect, the global average temperature would
have been -18°C (0°F) instead of 15°C (59°F) which is today. Since the
industrial revolution got into full swing in the 19th century we have been burning
ever increasing amounts of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gasoline, natural gas) in electric
generating plants, manufacturing plants, trains, automobiles, airplanes, etc.
The overall result is the warming of the earth’s surface which is termed as
Global Warming.
Global warming is causing intense consequences on the climate of the earth
and life and livelihood of people. Rising temperature leads to melting of glaciers
and rising sea level through addition of melt water to the oceans. It also causes
thermal expansion of water in oceans which in turn is also responsible for sea
level rise. Sea level rise leads to increasing coastal erosion, flooding, and
property damage during coastal storms. It is predicted that warmer sea surface
temperatures will result in more and stronger tropical storms like hurricanes
and typhoons increasing the loss of life and damage to infrastructure. While
higher temperatures will produce more rainfall across the globe, the regional
rainfall patterns will likely change. Some areas will get more, some areas will
get less. The timing of wet and dry periods may change. Centuries old farming
practices will have to change. Some areas may go from being marginal to
becoming a breadbasket region, while other regions may go from major
agricultural production to marginal. Natural ecosystems will be hard pressed
to keep up with the changing climate because the rate of change will be faster
than typical long-term natural climate change. Many species, especially plant
species, will not be able to migrate to cooler areas fast enough to keep up with
the warming of their habitats. Arctic species will have no place to go and may
not be able to adapt to the new conditions. Harsh summers will cause death
and miseries to a large population. Higher heat and expansion of tropical areas
may lead to increased prevalence of tropical diseases such as malaria.
the unit.
1) How global warming will lead to ecosystem imbalance and species loss
in the long run?
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54 ..............................................................................................................
2) What is the greenhouse effect? Global Environmental Issues
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4.5 ACID RAIN

Acid rain refers to the wet or dry deposition of the excess amount of nitric and
sulphuric acid. In simple words, it means rain that is acidic in nature because
of the presence of certain pollutants emitted through vehicular and industrial
pollution. The term was introduced by a Scottish chemist, Robert Angus Smith,
in 1852. Volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels, emissions from factories
and automobiles are few other causes of acid rain. Normal rain water is also
slightly acidic having a pH range of 5.3-6.0. When the pH level of rain water
falls below this range, it becomes acid rain.
At present, large amount of acid deposition is observed in Canada, United
States and most of Europe.
Forms of Acid Rain
Acid deposition may occur in two forms: wet and dry.
l Wet Deposition: When the acids fall to the ground in the form of rain,
sleet, fog, snow or mist it is called wet deposition of acid rain.
l Dry Deposition: When the acidic pollutants enter into dust or smoke and
fall to the earth as dry particles it is called dry deposition. These pollutants
also deposit houses, trees and buildings.
4.5.1 Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain has significant effects on forests, soil, aquatic life, human beings
and materials.
l Effect on Forests
Acid rain is known to cause severe damage to the forests in Germany,
Poland and Switzerland. It makes trees susceptible to diseases, destroys
their leaves and causes stunted growth of the plants.
l Effect on Aquatic Environment
Acid rain flows into streams, rivers and lakes and over a period of time,
acids get accumulated in the water. In such situations, the conditions
become unsuitable for the survival of aquatic flora and fauna. It leads to
reduced aquatic biodiversity.
l Effect on Soil
The physico chemical and biological properties of the soil are damaged
due to excess acids in rain water. An optimum pH level is required for the
activity of microbes in the soil.
55
Environment and Ecology l Effect on Architecture and Buildings
Acid rain affects the infrastructure and buildings at any given place. . It
causes weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints
on surfaces. Buildings made of marble and limestone is severely affected
due to the reactivity calcium compounds and acids. The effects are clearly
visible on statues, historic monuments, and buildings. Acid rain also
corrodes metals like copper, and iron.
l Effect on Human Health
Human health is not directly affected by acid rain. However, gaseous
particulates in the air like nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide cause
respiratory disorders and heart problems.
4.6 OZONE LAYER AND ITS DEPLETION

Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. When present in troposphere, it acts as a
pollutant but when present in stratosphere ozone layer protects life on earth by
absorbing harmful ultra violet radiations. Due to the release of chlorofluro
carbons (CFCs), the ozone is getting depleted and this thinning of the ozone
layer is commonly termed as Ozone depletion. The primary source of CFCs is
refrigerators, by product of industrial processes, aerosols, fire extinguishers,
etc. CFCs interfere with the ozone formation process in the stratosphere and
ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and
destruction of ozone in the stratosphere is tipped in favour of destruction. You
will learn more about the mechanism of ozone layer depletion in Unit ....of
Block.
The ozone layer is important because it absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation
from the sun, preventing most of it from reaching the earth’s surface. The
depletion of ozone layer allows entering of UV rays from sun into the earth’s
atmosphere which is associated with a number of health related problems in
human beings. Following are some of the effects of ozone layer depletion:
Skin Cancer: Exposure to UV rays leads to increased risk for developing of
several types of skin cancers.
Eye Damage: UV rays are harmful to our eyes. Direct exposure to UV rays
can lead to cataract, or snow blindness.
Damage to Immune system: Increased exposure to UV rays can lead to
weakening of the immune system.
Aging of skin: Exposure to UV rays accelerates the ageing process of the
skin.
Along with these, difficulty in breathing, chest pain, and throat irritation,
etc. are some of the common ailments caused due to ozone layer depletion.
Increased concentration of UV rays affects other forms of life as well. It
adversely affects the fauna which plays a vital role in the food chain and
carbon cycle in aquatic ecosystems. It also impairs the flowering in some
plant species and alters the physiological and developmental processes of
the plants.
56
It is necessary for the countries world over to take some stringent measures to Global Environmental Issues
protect the ozone layer from getting depleted. More and more International
agreements such as Montreal protocol between countries are necessary to bring
down the release of chloro fluro carbons. At individual level everyone can
contribute towards reducing ozone layer depletion. The most important thing
that we can do is spreading awareness regarding these issues. Our individual
efforts will go a long way in protecting the earth and keeping it liveable for
future generations.
4.7 OTHER ISSUES

Apart from those mentioned above, the world is confronting quite a lot of
other issues of global concern. Let us get a brief idea about some other
environmental issues of global importance.
l Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution has become a serious problem the world over which
is threatening the existence of not only man-kind but of other living organisms
as well. It is one of the greatest problems that we are facing today. Environmental
pollution consists of four basic types of pollution, namely, air, water, soil, and
noise. Harmful gases in air, contaminants in water, plastics and toxic chemicals
in soil, etc are the clear indicators that the environmental pollution has reached
the tipping point. Industries, vehicular pollution, fossil fuel burning are
responsible for the addition of sulphur dioxide, carbon di oxide and green
house gases (as you have studied in the previous sections) into the atmosphere.
Similarly agricultural runoff and industrial effluents are polluting the rivers
and lakes. Ganga, Yamuna and all, the main rivers of India are polluted and the
water is unfit for use. It can also be said that an array of environmental problems
like biodiversity decline and water shortages are occurring because of
environmental pollution. We have sacrificed the pure water and air for the
development process. Human beings particularly the poor, elderly and children
have become susceptible to various diseases like asthma, cancer, infections
and the like. It is necessary on the part of the government to take measures on
urgent basis to stop the addition of contaminants in nature. Along with this, at
an individual level, every citizen must contribute to save planet from getting
polluted.
l Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the diversity in the various life forms present on the
Earth. It is the link between all organisms on earth, binding each into an
interdependent ecosystem, in which all species have their role. In other words
it can also be called as the web of life. The varied flora and fauna helps to
restore the ecological balance and provides various environmental services
apart from providing direct benefits such as food, medicines and raw materials.
The main cause of the loss of biodiversity can be attributed to the manipulation
of world’s ecosystems by human beings. They have transformed the
environment, and have modified the territory, exploiting the species directly,
for example by fishing and hunting, changing the biogeochemical cycles and
transferring species from one place to another. Due to environmental pollution,
habitat fragmentation and land degradation, the plant and the animal species
are constantly under threat. We are losing a number of species every year
57
Environment and Ecology because they are not able to cope up with the changing climate and fragmented
habitats. The loss of biodiversity leads to disruption of ecological balance and
deprives us of the various direct and indirect benefits that they provide.
Biodiversity conservation is taken up by several international bodies such as
IUCN, WWF, etc. These conservation bodies have already sent warning signals
for countries to take necessary action to protect the flora and fauna.
l Desertification
Desertification is a process of land-degradation by which a region becomes
progressively drier and drier eventually becoming desert. Much of the
desertification across the world is caused by human activities. Poor agricultural
practices, unplanned deforestation, soil erosion, mining, urbanization, faulty
irrigation practices, etc. are some of the underlying factors of the process. It is
estimated that around 25 % of India’s land is undergoing desertification. The
situation will further heighten because of the impact of climate change,
particularly in dry lands. Due to this, desertification is significantly emerging
out as a global ecological and environmental problem. It has been found that
in the past several civilizations such as Harappa have collapsed on account of
desertification. Loss of productivity, famines, loss of natural vegetation is some
of the other effects of desertification.
l Depletion of Natural Resources
With 7 billion people living on the planet and their increasing demands, the
pressure on natural resources like water, land, forests, etc is bound to increase.
Since earlier times, human beings have utilized the nature’s resources and
services for getting food, shelter and clothing and making life comfortable.
However, when greed takes over need, the over exploitation of natural resources
starts becoming an issue of concern. Today we are utilizing more resources
than their capacity to replenish. Coal, minerals, oil, forests etc, are already
dwindling and losing their quality. In view of this, conservation of natural
resources is becoming a subject of paramount importance. Resource depletion
is of more concern in farming, fishing, mining, water usage, and consumption
of fossil fuels. Due to this, there is already scarcity of water and land. Most of
the pollution problems are growing because of natural resource depletion. When
resources are scarce people tend to use cheaper and low quality fuels for meeting
their daily needs. Hence, natural resource management is essential for the
sustainability of our development processes. Measures should be taken to
conserve water, and energy. Extensive programmes for afforestation and
protection of biodiversity must be undertaken to conserve the resources. Green
technology and ecofriendly know-how must be utilized extensively to conserve
the natural resources.
l Waste Generation and Accumulation
Millions of tons of waste products are generated every day in big cities owing
to rapid industrialisation and urbanization. In India, 960 million tonnes of solid
wastes are generated annually as by-products during industrial, mining,
municipal, agricultural and other commercial and non commercial activities.
The sources and kinds of these wastes may vary but one thing is common that
they are a menace to the environment as well as society. You must have noticed
heaps of wastes lying untreated at various places. There is a great accumulation
58 of wastes which needs proper disposal method. Proper waste disposal is
necessary so that wastes may get converted into resources. Organic wastes Global Environmental Issues
must be treated to form manure which can be used in vegetable gardens.
Similarly recyclable waste must be recycled. If suitable measures are not
undertaken the earth will become a dustbin containing plastics, papers,
chemicals, glass and so on. At present most of the Indian cities dump the entire
quantum of their municipal solid waste into unscientific dump sites, whilst
only partially separating waste recyclable and non recyclable waste. The need
of the hour is to curtail our waste generation by recycling to full potential and
scientifically managing the remaining waste stream.
4.8 CASE STUDIES

There are several cases across the world to support the evidence that
environmental degradation is occurring at a faster rate than ever before. These
cases will help you to understand the causes of environmental degradation in a
precise way and you will be able to think independently and devise solutions
for the current problems. Let us read some case studies below:
l Minamata Disease
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome that results from industrial
pollution and water pollution. Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands
and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage
to hearing and speech. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata
City in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan in 1956. It was caused by the release of
methyl mercury in the industrial wastewater from the Chisso Corporation’s
chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic
chemical bioaccumulated in shellfish and fish in Minamata Bay and the Shiranui
Sea, which when eaten by the local populace resulted in mercury poisoning.
While cat, dog, pig and human deaths continued over more than 30 years.
l Sahel: The Expanding Desert
In the Sahel Desert, desertification is becoming a huge problem. Around the
1950s, people settled into the Sahel region, in areas where there was water.
This resulted in overgrazing, which is one of the greatest causes of
desertification. Eventually, the perennial shrubs were destroyed because of
grazing, and they were replaced by annuals. Then, the annuals were grazed out
which left bare soil. A lot of the topsoil was washed away, and all that was left
were rocks. Silt turned hard when it was hit by rain. Therefore, plants were not
able to grow there because roots could not penetrate this hard layer. Now this
region has turned to desert and it continues to expand. (Desertification, The
Sahel, 2004) Records show that rainfall in Sahel has decreased and sands have
shifted about sixty miles south into the area. Sahel is expanding due to lack of
vegetation in the area. (Sahel, 2005) Another reason desertification is occurring
in the Sahel region is because people are using the slashing and burning method
to clear land. This degrades the quality of soil just like overgrazing.
(Desertification-a Threat to the Sahel, 2000).
l Pesticide Poisoning in Punjab
The southern districts of Punjab- Mansa, Sangrur, Bhatinda, Faridkot, Moga,
Muktsar, Ferozepur and Sangrur, which together make up the Malwa region,
constitute the record number of cancer patients in the country. It is in this 59
Environment and Ecology Malwa region that scores of farmers and their families are coming to grips
with cancer and numerous health problems due to the lush fields hiding a
scary tale. Malwa, which is also Punjab’s cotton belt, requires the use of a
startling amount of pesticides. Reportedly, farmers in this region use 15 different
pesticide sprays and the unregulated and excessive use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides have resulted in farmers and their families living in a cesspool
of toxicity. It is for this reason that excessive pesticide use has been cited as a
reason for the high incidence of cancer in Punjab. The researchers have found
that contaminated water from rapid industrialization and excessive use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides for high-yielding crops are contributing to
increasing the number of cancer patients. These patients travel through the
“cancer train” to Bikaner to get themselves treated. The 12-coach train train is
named so because every day it carries not less than 100 patients who attribute
the cause of cancer in Punjab to pesticide use and growing pollution.
the unit.
1) What are the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiations?
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2) How does acid rain affect aquatic life?
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4.9 LET US SUM UP

The environment all over the planet is witnessing drastic changes in its
composition and processes. This change in the settings of the environment is
commonly termed as environmental degradation Environmental degradation
is evident in the form of environmental pollution, decreasing the availability
of natural resources, loss of biodiversity and generation of waste. The
environmental problems are not region specific as they do not have boundaries.
Pesticides sprayed in field cause air pollution in the nearby areas. Thus issues
of environment have become global in nature. Climate change, global warming,
ozone depletion and acid rain are the issues of global importance in terms of
magnitude and extent of impact. It is necessary to take immediate steps to
control emissions and release of chemicals in land, air and water to prevent
environmental degradation.
60
Global Environmental Issues
4.10 KEY WORDS
Global warming : Increase in the average temperature of the Earth due to
the release of greenhouse gases.
Acid Rain : Acid rain is any form of precipitation that is highly acidic
Stratosphere : The stratosphere is a layer of Earth’s atmosphere. It is
the second layer of the atmosphere as you go upward.
The troposphere, the lowest layer, is right below the
stratosphere.
Ozone Layer : The ozone layer is a region in stratosphere that absorbs
most of the UV radiation coming from the Sun.

READINGS
David Pimentel et al, Ecology of Increasing Disease Population growth and
environmental degradation. Bioscience Vol. 48 No. 1998
Leslie Roberts, Focus: Environmental degradation is contributing to health
threats worldwide. 1998
One Planet Many People: Atlas of Our Changing Environment (2005).
Powell, Fannetta. “Environmental Degradation and Human Disease”. Lecture.
Slide Boom. 2009. Web. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
Sharon Beder Environmental Principles and Policies 2006
ISBN 978-1-84407-40.

l Deforestation
l Industrialisation and release of harmful chemicals
l Environmental pollution
l Chemicals and pollutants in air and water
l Changing lifestyle
l Poor immunity
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
l One aspect of climate change
l Increase in average global temperature
l Flora and fauna not able to adapt. 61
Environment and Ecology 2) Your answers must include the following points:
l Trapping of the sun’s radiations
l Essential for survival of life on this planet.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
l Increase in temperature
l Effect on agriculture
l Diseases in human beings
l Decrease in oxygen
l Fish mortality
l Disruption in aquatic food chain and food web
l Loss of aquatic biodiversity
62
ignou MEV-001
THE PEOPLE'S
AIR, WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION 2

MEV-001
Introduction to
Block
2
AIR, WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION
UNIT 1
Environmental Chemistry and Pollution 5
UNIT 2
Air Pollution 27
UNIT 3
Water Pollution 48
UNIT 4
Soil Pollution 66
1
New Delhi New Delhi

Unit 1 to 3 Unit 4
Environmental Studies, School of Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open National Open University, New Delhi
University, New Delhi
National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi

Dr. B. Rupini Prof. Lalita S Kumar, Chemistry, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Environmental Studies, School Prof. Ruchika Kuba School of Health Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Gandhi National Open disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi
University, Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
New Delhi disciplinary Studies,IGNOU, New Delhi)
FORMAT EDITORS
Environmental Studies, School of Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
February, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-79-1
Copyright holder.
at www.ignou.ac.in
Printed at:
Unit 1 Environmental Chemistry and Pollution provides you an overview of
environmental reactions which occur in the atmosphere that causes environmental
pollution. You will be surprised to know that every substance or chemical
produced by human beings can pollute the environment. It described about
chemical interactions between the layers of atmosphere. It makes the learner
aware of about good ozone and bad ozone.
Unit 2 Air pollution dealt with some interesting factors about air pollution cause
by aerosols which are carried up to the atmosphere for the earth surface. These
units explained the role of chemical constituents present in the atmosphere and
how the atmosphere is getting polluted by them by undergoing certain chemical
process. You will be interested to know about the causes and health effects
of outdoor and indoor air pollution. In the course of the unfolding of the
unit, we will know various effects of the unit; we will know various effects
of air pollution- industrial smog, photochemical smog, Acid precipitation and
various pollutants and their health effects and effects on buildings and materials.
Unit 3 deals with the water pollution, physicochemical and biological parameters
of water. This unit carries types of H2O pollutants with specified industries
such as Food processing industry, textile industry, tanning industry, paper and
pulp industry, due to agro chemicals. This unit also highlighted various sewage
treatment methods and emphasizes the role of the Government.
Unit 4 familiarizes us with the soil pollution components. It provided us the
ultimate information about definition, causes of soil pollution, and its health effects.
It also discussed the prevention measures for soil pollution.
Air, Water and Soil Pollution
4
UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY AND POLLUTION
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 EnvironmentalPollution
1.2.1 Sources of Pollution
1.2.2 Types of Pollution
1.3 Atmospheric Effects and the Reactions inAtmosphere

1.3.1 Atmospheric Effects
1.3.2 Reactions in Atmosphere
1.3.3 Photochemical Reactions
1.3.4 Redox Reactions
1.3.5 Acid-Base Reactions
1.4 Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming

1.4.1 Global Warming Potential
1.4.2 Sources of Greenhouse Gases
1.4.3 Ozone Layer
1.4.4 Ozone Layer Depletion
1.5 Let Us Sum Up

1.6 Key Words
1.8 Answers to Check Your Progresss
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The life on earth cannot exist without its environment or without collaborating with
other species or ecosystems, which are the significant units of life on earth. The life
cycle of living things involves assembling and de-assembling of various atoms from
the environment and returning back to the environment. This cyclic process occurs
in three open systems- the biosphere, the lithosphere and the hydrosphere that you
have studied in Course -1. These spheres are separated from earth to outer space
bya thin layer of gases known as the atmosphere. Matter is continuouslyinterchanging
within and amongst all these spheres in the environment. The industrial revolution
has played a major role in the change of the atmospheric gases and the presence of
particulate matterand their effects on natural environment leading to environmental
pollution
In this unit, we begin with defining environmental pollution and classifying it into
various types. We would discuss the importance of natural chemical processes and
how anthropogenic activities disturb these processes and affect the life adverselyon
the earth. 5
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
 define and classify the types of environmental pollution and pollutants;
 describe the different atmospheric effects;
 analyse the concepts of chemical processes of the environment;
 explain various atmospheric reactions;
 define greenhouse gases and explain their effects; and
 describe the process of ozone layer depletion and its impact.
1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

The term pollution is derived from the Latin word pollutioneum which means
to defile or make dirty. There are many definitions for pollution worldwide.
According to U.S. President’s Science Advisory Committee (1966):
“Environmental pollution may be defined as the unfavorable alterations of our

surroundings largely as a byproduct of man’s action through direct or indirect
effects of change in energy pattern, radiation levels, chemical and physi-cal
constitution and abundance of the organisms”.
According to National Academy of Science, USA (1966), pollution may be

de-fined as, “an undesirable change in physical, chemical and bio-logical
characteristics of water, air and soil that may harmfully affect human, animal and
plant life, industrial progress, living con-ditions and cultural assets.”
According to National Environmental Research Council (1976), “Pollution

is viewed as the release of substances and energy as waste prod-ucts of human
activities which result in harmful changes within the natural environment”.
According to Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - “Pollution is the

presence of substance in the environment that, because of its chemical
composition or quantity, prevents the functioning of natural processes and
produces undesirable environmental and health effects”
Dear learner after going through these definitions we can come to a consensus
that pollution is a contamination of air, soil and water with undesirable amounts
of material or heat which have adverse effects on natural environment as well as
human health.
A pollutant may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance

unintentionallyreleased into the environment, which is directlyor indirectlyharmful
to humans and other living organisms.
1.2.1 Sources of Pollution

Pollution can be classified broadly two types on the basis of their sources. These
6 are given below:
Point Source Pollution (PSP):According to US. Environmental ProtectionAgency Environmental
Chemistry and Pollution
(EPA);itisanysingle identifiable source of pollutionfromwhichpollutants are emitted.
Emission of contaminants in to the environment from a particular location is called
PSP. For example:
 Emissions from waste water treatment plants
 Toxic effluents from industries
 Sewage effluents
Non-Point Source Pollution: It is the emission of contaminants into the environment
from more than one location over a large wide spread area. There is no specific area
of source; instead it comes from many unidentifiable areas. For example:
 Toxic chemicals which have not been properly disposed off
 Harmful bacteria and microorganisms from cattle wastes
 Pesticides, fungicides and nutrients from agricultural fields, residential areas.
 Oil, grease, metals and cleaning agents washed from roads, workshops
 Sediments from construction sites, forests and agricultural fields
 Leaching from garbage dumps etc.
Besides these sources of pollution another source of pollution is fugitive emissions.
In this the pollutants are released into the atmosphere from leaks in equipment,
pipelines, seals, valves etc., but not from the usual source.
Do You Know?
Terminology used in the pollution
Sources: The place from where the pollutants originate is called
‘Source’.Example: Cooking and heating (combustion) are the sources of
CO, NOx, and VOCs.
Sink: The place where the pollutants are transferred/moved/transported
from another place or source.
Example: The major sink for atmospheric N2O is stratosphere wherethe
majority undergoes photolysis to give N2 + O.
Receptor: Anything that is negatively affected by the pollutants.
Example: Human beings and plants
Transport: It is the process by whichthe pollution travels from a source to
a receptor.
Example: Air and water are the transport medium.
Dispersion: Changes that occur in spreading of the pollution through the
environment in the process of transport.
Example: Pollutants from various sources like vehicles, factory emissions
dispersed into the atmosphere and removed from the transport medium
(air) through deposition due to rain.
7
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 1.2.2 Types of Pollution
Pollution may be of the following types:
 Air Pollution:Due totheindustrial revolutionandcertainanthropogenic activities
the gaseous mixture and particulate matter in our atmosphere began to change
and lead to air pollution.Air pollution may be defined as any substance (gases,
aerosols) including radioactive radiation present in such concentrations that
mayhaveharmfuleffectsonthelivingthingsanddisturbsthe naturalenvironmental
processes. The factors which determine the level of air pollution and their effects
will be discussed in detail in the following units of this course.
 Water Pollution: Presence of undesirable substance in water bodies, which
have adverse health effects is called water pollution. The diversity and breadth
of impact of pollution caused by the introduction of pathogens, organic wastes,
chemical pollutants, sediments and nutrients and their effects will be discussed
in detail in the following units of this course.
 Soil Pollution:Addition of undesirable substance, which is non-biodegradable
that adverselyaffects the soil qualityand fertility, is known as soil pollution. The
range of soil pollutants mayvary from polluted water to solid waste to acid rain
and dry deposition.The details of these types of pollution will be studied in the
followingunits.
 Noise Pollution: In general noise is a sound without value. It is a shadowy
human health hazard that can damage hearing and evoke other gynecological
and pathological reactions besides disturbing rest, sleep and communication
that in turn disrupt the balance of human or animal life.
 Thermal Pollution: Industries like chemical, thermal andnuclear power plants,
utilize water from natural water bodies for cooling the conversion losses. The
resultant waste heat energy in the form of hot water gets transferred to the
natural waterways and increase its temperature by 10-150 C known as thermal
pollution which have deleterious effects on aquatic ecosystem.
 RadiationPollution: The emission of energyas electromagnetic waves, which
have high energy,addition of radiation to the natural environment by using
radioactive elements is known as radiation pollution. All of us are exposed to
natural radiation, which comes from radioactive material in the earth like
Uranium-238, inhalation of radon gas and radionucleide in food.
The details of these types of pollution will be studied in the following units. In the
next section you will study about the atmospheric effects and the reactions taking
place in the atmosphere but after answering the following questions.
Note : a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answer given at the end of the
unit.
1. Define pollutant and pollution.
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8
2. List out the types of pollution. Environmental
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1.3 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS AND THE

REACTIONS IN ATMOSPHERE
Dear learners, to understand the pollution and its impacts you have to learn what we
mean by the atmospheric effects and the factors responsible for the changes in the
components of atmosphere. The study forms the basis of understanding of the
concepts involved and the interactions within systems related to biosphere which
directly influences the environment as well as the human health by controlling the
global and regional environmental conditions. We begin with the atmospheric effects
in the following subsection.
1.3.1 Atmospheric Effects

The atmosphere is considered as the smallest geological reservoir of the earth. As
mentioned before natural atmosphere has three open systems viz., biosphere,
lithosphere and hydrosphere. The lowest layer of atmosphere is known as
troposphere, above the troposphere is the stratosphere and beyond the stratosphere
are two more layers- mesosphere and thermosphere. All the layers are separated
byboundaries called tropopause, stratopause, etc.The composition of the atmosphere
is approximatelysame all over the earth because of the high level of mixing inside the
atmosphere. However, some of the meteorological factors keep changing due to
changing conditions.The dailyalterations in temperature, air, pressure, wind, humidity
and precipitation together are known as atmospheric effects. By having an
understanding of these effects we can easily predict the human induced changes,
therefore, these are very significant.
Convection:- The movement of air due to the atmospheric heating and cooling.
For example,thunderstorms are the most apparent of the driving forces.
The molecules in the atmosphere absorb light energy and undergo certain reactions
which do not occur at normal temperature or in the absence of light. The reactions
determine the effect of chemical species responsible for air pollution. The following
subsection deals with some of the important reactions that occur in atmosphere.
1.3.2 Reactions in Atmosphere

Most of the chemical reactions in atmosphere take place in the troposphere region.
The chemical composition of the atmosphere is balanced due to the chemical reactions
which lead to redistribution of chemical species thereby moderate the atmospheric
temperatures. This is explained as follows.
The troposphere in atmosphere contains a mixture of important gases – O2,
N2,CO2,etc. along with water vapour. It is responsible for moderating and the driving
energy flow to the earth, which in turn maintains the biogeochemical cycle of the
gases and water vapours, etc.The troposphere is also known as “turning sphere” 9
Air, Water and Soil Pollution because it is well mixed by convection process. The gases are generally stable but
due to some changes react to form new compounds. The chemical reactions in this
part of atmosphere are initiated bythe solar radiations. The sun emits radiations with
wide range of energies and we are concerned here with visible light that can be
recognized by human eye and UV light which cannot be recognized by human eye
and is of higher energythan visible light.
The earth gets heated up due to solar energy, which in turn heats up the overlying air
causing the convective mixing. This is due to the hot air, which has a tendency to
rise. The rising air generates high pressure up in the atmosphere, leaving low pressure
area near to earth. The rising air at high pressure is cooled by radiating heat and
thereby generates precipitation. Then the air flows horizontally. This pressure
difference in air leads to winds.
All the gases are released into the atmosphere by some process. This could be
either by natural sources or by anthropogenic sources that occur on the surface of
the earth. Along with these gases some electrically charged species also exist. Most
of these species found in the troposphere region have oxidising capabilities. The
important species which participate in most of the atmospheric reactions are given
below.
1. Hydroxyl radical (OH.): It is a short lived free radical and effective scavenger
for trace gases in this region. Therefore, the hydroxyl radical is known as the
detergent of the atmosphere. It is formed during day time by the photochemical
reaction series by the photon of light.
O3(g) + hõ O2(g) + O(g) ——————— equation (i)
O(g) + H2O(g) 2OH (g) ————————— equation (ii)
Thehydroxy radical is ubiquitous hence it reacts with various compounds in the

atmosphere.
For example:
The reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and the OH radical in series of
reactions that leads to the formation of nitric acid (HNO3), one of the contributors
to acid rain.
NO2 (g) + OH (g) HNO3 (g)

Kinetic measurements show that some gases (Table 1.1) have slow rates of
reactions with the OH radical and have long residence time in the atmosphere.
These gases accumulate in the atmosphere and escape across the hydropauseinto
the stratosphere.
Table 1.1: Naturally occurring trace gases of the atmosphere with their
residence time and concentration (from Brimble Comb1986)
Gas Residence Time Concentration
(ppb)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 4 years 360000
10 Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.1 year 100

Environmental
CH4 3.6 years 1600 Chemistry and Pollution
HCO2H 10 days 1
N2O 20-30 years 300
NO 4 days 0.1
NO 2 4 days 0.3
NH3 2 days 1
SO2 3-7 days 0.01-0.1
H2S 1 day 0.05
CS2 40 days 0.02
OCS 1 year 0.5
CH3-S-CH3 1 day 0.0001
CH3Cl 30 days 0.7
CH3I 5 days 0.002
HCl 4 days 0.01
2. Nitrate radical (.NO3) - It does not sustain in sunlight hence it is a
dominant oxidant during night. It is formed during night time byas low
oxidation reaction of NO2 with ozone. Nitrate free radical again reacts with
NO2 to form N2O5 to establish a chemical equilibrium.
NO2 + O3 NO3 + O2
NO3 + NO2 N2O5 (dinitrogen pentoxide)
3. Peroxy radical (RO2.)and Hydroperoxy radical( HO2.):

Formation of hydroperoxy radical is as per the following reaction:
OH + CO + (O2) HO2 + CO2
OH + RH + O2 RO2 + H2O
RO2 further reacts with another molecule of RO2 either in self-reaction or cross
reaction to form HO2 radical.
For Example:
Methyl Peroxyradical
CH3O2 + CH3O2 2CH3O.
2CH3O. + O2 HO2. + HCHO
4. Dismutation: Simultaneous oxidation and reduction reaction in a biological

process
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): The main source of gaseous peroxide is the
dismutationof the hydroperoxy radical.
2HO2. H2 O2 + O 2 11
Air, Water and Soil Pollution The source of aqueous H2O2 is the dissolution of gaseous H2O2 into atmospheric
hydrometeors. The other sources are reduction of superoxide byorganic compounds,
hydrogen carbonate, photolysis of aqueous ozone and water vapour photonucleation.
The photonucleation involves mainly the oxidation reaction of S (IV) to S (VI) in
aqueous phase. This is the important source of sulphate particles that act as cloud
condensation nuclei, which play a key role in the formation of acidic aerosols and
acid rain.
Aqueous H2O2 is also involved in Fenton and Photofenton process. The Fenton
reagent (Fe (II) + H2O2) oxidises organic and inorganic compounds present in water
droplets in the atmosphere. In the photolysis process, Fe (III) complexes are
converted into Fe (II) in the atmospheric hydrometeors.
Dear learners, having learnt about the species present in the atmosphere we can
summarise the synergistic effect of these species in the atmosphere.
In the troposphere, there are three important end-removal processes taking place.
1. Atmospheric pollutants get converted into nonpolluting constituents like water
and oxygen.
2. Gaseous pollutants are absorbed by plants, water and soil by the phenomenon
of dry deposition.
3. The soluble species are eliminated by the process of precipitation.
H2O2 reacts with nitrous acid to form peroxynitrous acid, HOONO. It is highly
unstable species and transformed into.OH + .NO2and.NO3. It also increases the
rate of corrosion of silver when exposed to atmosphere.
In the stratosphere region, the oxygen molecule (O2) in the presence of UV radiation
forms atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen further reacts with molecule of oxygen to
produce ozone (O3). For this reason, ozone concentration is higher in the
stratospheric region, which forms ozone layer. Stratosphere protects the earth
surface from the harmful effects of the sun radiation by absorbing UV light.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
capable of reaching stratosphere. These react with UV light to generate chlorine
atoms. Chlorine molecules present in atmosphere convert ozone to oxygen molecule
hence the concentration of ozone would be decreased.
The chemical reactions which take place in the atmosphere by absorbing solar
radiations are:
1. Photochemical reactions
2. Redox reactions
3. Acid base reactions
These are explained in the following subsections.
1.3.3 Photochemical Reactions
Photochemical reactions are the reactions in the atmosphere that are catalysed by
the electromagnetic solar radiations. These reactions are controlled by two basic
principles given below.
a. Grotthus-Draper Law: It is also known as the principle of photochemical
activation. It states that the solar radiation (light) must be absorbed by a
12
compound in order for a photochemical reaction to take place. For example, Environmental
only the light which is absorbed by a molecule can be effective in producing
photochemical changes in the molecules.
Some of the photochemical reactions are given below.
1. Photosynthesis: Plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and dispose of oxygen as a by-product. Both carbohydrates and
oxygen are required to sustain life on earth.
CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 (g)
2. Formation of Vitamin D:It is a vital vitamin for bone and teeth development
and kidney function. It is formed by the reaction of 7-dehydrocholesterol with
sunlight.
3. Ozone Formation: When oxygen is exposed to sunlight it gets converted into
ozone which will be discussed in Sec 1.4.
b. Stark- Einstein’s Law of Photochemical Equivalence: It states that for
each photon of light absorbed by a chemical system only one molecule is
activated for subsequent reaction. The energy absorbed by one molecule of
the reacting molecules is given by E= h
Where E= Energy of each quanta
h= Plank’s constant (6.6 x 10-27 erg. Sec)
= frequency of the radiation
Therefore, the number of molecules absorbing radiation is equal to the number of
photons absorbed. This means that one molecule is activated by each quantum of
radiation.
a. Primary Photochemical Reactions
In aprimary photochemical reaction molecules absorbs solar radiation, move to the
excited state, and are relatively energized and reactive as well. These molecules
either transfer the energy to other molecules/atoms or lose their energy by emitting
light to reach the normal state.
Example: Photo dissociations
h
1. NO2 NO2.
NO 2 NO + O
h
2. NOCl NOCl.
2NOCl 2NO + Cl2
b. Secondary Photochemical Reactions

In a secondary photochemical reaction, it is not necessary that the absorbed
radiation by a molecule in the form of photon undergoes further reaction. The
absorption of one photon by a molecule in the first step results in the formation
of an activated molecule. This may lead to the reaction of more molecules through
13
a chain mechanism.
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Example: Formation of Free Radicals
In a chain reaction light energy stimulate a series of reactions by generating free
radicals, which are reaction intermediates.
For example: h
SO2 SO2
SO2 + O2 SO4
This reaction can be terminated byreacting with other free radical or suitable species
and terminates the reaction.
Example: SO4. + O2 SO3 + O2
.CH3 + .CH3 CH3 – CH3
The other important reaction is the formation of photochemicalsmog, where the
photooxidation reaction between NO2 and SO2 leads to the formation of
photochemical smog. The formation of photochemical smog is a significant
phenomenon and also an important environmental issue.
unit.
3. What is a photochemical reaction and explain chain reaction.
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1.3.4 Redox Reactions

Redox reactions are the reactions in which oxidation and reduction reactions occur
at the same time with transfer of electrons. These redox reactions in the atmosphere
decide the abundance and the effects of manyorganic and inorganic pollutant species.
Kinetics of these reactions indicates that these reactions in the atmosphere are very
slow. This significant propertyis useful in controlling the air pollution.
The abundance of oxygen is very high in the atmosphere.Since it contains21% of
oxygen,oxidation reactions in the atmosphere are thermodynamically favourable.
The available oxygen in the atmosphere either reduces or oxidises the compounds
containing carbon, nitrogen and sulphur.
You know that in oxidation and reduction reactions two components are always
present in which one component is oxidised and the other one is reduced. When an
organic compound is oxidised by a catalyst, the catalyst itself must be reduced.
Likewise, when an organic compound is reduced by a catalyst, the catalyst
getsoxidised. This phenomenon can also be understood bysome general statements
as given in Fig.1.1.
14
 Increase in the number of C-O bonds or decrease in the number of C-H bonds Environmental
is termed as oxidation.
 Increase in the number of C-H bonds or decrease in the number of C-O bonds
is termed as reduction.
For example: Formation of CO2 from methane
Increase in the number of C-O bond
Increase in the number of C-H bonds
Fig. 1.1: Formation of CO2 from methane indicating oxidation and reduction reaction
Some of the oxidation-reduction reactions are given below.

1. Corrosion: Rusting of Iron
When iron is exposed to moist air, it converts iron into rust and disintegrates it
slowly. Rusting is acommon term used for corrosion of iron. Rust consists of
hydrated iron (III) oxides, Fe2O3. nH2O, iron (III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO (OH),
Fe (OH)3.
2. Acid Rain: Nitric oxide is oxidized to nitrogendioxide then reacts with
atmospheric moisture to form nitric acid,whereas sulphur dioxide is oxidised to
sulphate radical,then gets converted to sulphuric acid. These compounds
precipitate as snow or rain which is known as acid rain which we will discuss
in detail in Unit-2.
1. 4NO + 3O2 4NO2
4NO2 + 2H2O 4HNO3
2. SO2 + O2 2SO4-2
2SO4-2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4
The products from these reactions show adverse effects on the atmosphere like the
photochemical smog that will be discussed in Unit-2.
1.3.5 Acid- Base Reactions
All the species existing in the atmosphere can be classified either as acids, bases or
salts. Acid-base reactions occur between acidic and basic species. In simpler
terms, proton [H] donor is an acid whereas proton acceptor is a base. 15
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Example: Inorganic Acids
HCl, H2SO4, HSO4, H2O, H3O+
Example: Inorganic Bases
H2O, NH3, OH,  NH2
Compounds like H2O that contain both hydrogen atoms and lone pair act as
both acid and base depending on the reaction. Our atmosphere is slightly acidic
in nature because of the presence of CO2 that dissolves in atmospheric water
droplets and dissociates in the following way.
H 2O H+ + OH
CO2 (g) + H2O H+ + HCO3
SO2 (g) + H2O H+ + HSO3
Strong acids like HNO3 and H2SO4 are produced by the atmospheric oxidation
reactions of NO, SO2 and H2S.
The abundance of basic species in the atmosphere is relatively small when
compared to the acidic species. The most important basic species in the
atmosphere is ammonia (NH3). It enters the atmosphere from biodegradation
of nitrogen containing biological matter and from bacterial reduction of nitrate
ion. It neutralizes acidic species in the atmosphere like HNO3, H2CO3, H2SO4
because it is soluble in H2O.
Example:
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH 
NH3 +HNO3 NH4NO3
NH3 + H2SO4 NH4HSO4
After studying the important reactions taking place in the atmosphere, in the
next section we take up an important global phenomenon which is a consequence
of many factors including those discussed in the above subsections. The
phenomenon is called the global warming and the related factors include the
greenhouse gases.
1.4 GREEN HOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL

WARNING
As mentioned in the previous section, there are gases present in the atmosphere
that absorb IR radiations and radiate heat because of which these are responsible
for increased temperature across the globe. The gases are called the greenhouse
gases due to their behaviour like that of a greenhouse. On a global scale, six
main gases are referred to as greenhouse gases. These are: carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH 4) nitrous oxide (N 2O), fluorinated industrial gases like
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). Water vapour is also considered a greenhouse
16 gas. The greenhouse gases are responsible for the well known global warming.
CO2 average life time cannot be measured with a value since it is not destroyed Environmental
over a period of time. It travels from ocean to atmosphere to land system.
Since the absorption in the sink is very slow process it will remain in the
atmosphere for thousands of years. Its 100 years global warming potential is
one ton.
An example is given here to make you to understand the greenhouse gases and
the phenomenon of global warming. The interior of a closed car heats up when
the car is parked in the sun. This is due to the radiation from the sun entering
through windows and getting absorbed by the inner objects of the car, then
converting light energy into heat energy, which releases in the form of IR radiation.
Unlike, sunlight this IR radiation is blocked inside the car and cannot leave the
car. The trapped heat energy causes the rise in temperature inside the car. In
the same way, gases that trap the heat in the atmosphere similar to that of glass
in a greenhouse hence they are called greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gas effect
increases the average temperature of the earth’s climate system that is, known
as global warming. The increase in the greenhouse gas concentration is the
major cause of global warming. Let us try to understand global warming potential,
a term related to global warming.
1.4.1 Global Warming Potential
All greenhouse gases (GHGs) may vary in atmospheric lifetime and heat-trapping
potential.
Global Warming Potential (GWP) unit has been developed to compare the ability
of each greenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to carbon dioxide
(CO2) over a specified time. In general, greenhouse gas emissions are calculated
in terms of how much CO2 would be required to produce an equivalent warming
effect in the given time. This is called the carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e)
value and is calculated by multiplying the amount of gas by its global warming
potential (GWP).
GWP value provides policy makers to compare the impacts of emissions and
reductions of different greenhouse gases. For example, methane is a notable
contributor of the greenhouse effect and has a GWP of 21. This means that
methane has approximately 21 times more absorption capacity of heat radiation
than carbon dioxide per unit of weight. Methane emissions in permafrost areas
could be higher than CO2.
DO YOU KNOW?
The Greenhouse effect was first indentified by French scientist Jean- Baptise
Fourier in 1927. The Greenhouse gases are like heat blankets, insulating
Earth and slowing down the process of IR energy into the space. Without
this insulation average surface temperatures on earth would be about -
19OC instead of +14OC and it would be impossible to sustain life. Therefore,
our global climate depends on the concentrations of greenhouse gases in
Earth.
After understanding the Greenhouse gas phenomenon we should learn about

the sources and effects of greenhouse gases in the following subsection. 17
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 1.4.2 Sources of Green House Gases
The greenhouse gases are generated by different sources as detailed below
for all of these.
1. Carbon dioxide: The increasing source of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is by burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil) solid waste, trees and
wooden products and manufacturing process of cement.
Sink: The terrestrial sink is the absorption of CO2 in the process of
photosynthesis. The oceanic sink is by uptake of CO2 by phytoplankton
as well as dissolution acid-base reactions and reactions of carbonates. The
atmospheric life-time (ALT) of CO2 is 12.4 years and 100 years GWP is
28-36 tons.
2. Nitrousoxide: The main source of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere
isoxidation of ammonia (NH3) in the atmosphere and also from tropical
soils. Anthropogenic sources are agricultural burning of biomass and
anaerobic denitrification process.
Sink: Most of the nitrous oxide (N2O) participate in the photolytic process
and convert it into N2 + O. in stratosphere. The rest of the N2O reacts
with oxygen to generate nitric oxide (NO) that can participate in the ozone
depletion reaction.
3. Methane: It is a third most important greenhouse gas and is a product of
fermentation reactions catalyzed by microbes. The natural source of
methane (CH4) is wet lands. Bacteria emit methane in the process of
decomposing organic materials in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic decay).
Anthropogenic sources are from livestock (methane is generated in the
ruminants stomach as a part of digestive process), natural gas production
and transmission, rice cultivation landfills, coal mines and manure storage
systems.
Sink: The sink for methane is the atmospheric oxidation by hydroxyl radical.
Do You Know?
Human activities that produce CH4 include energy production from natural
gas, coal and petroleum, decomposition in landfills, raising ruminant animals
and rice farming. Wetlands are the main natural source of CH4 (marsh gas
produced by the anaerobic decay of vegetation). A similar induced effect
is caused by the warming planet that has recently caused permafrost
melting in the Arctic with accompanying decay of vegetation that had been
frozen.
CH4 now bubbles from shallow newly-formed lakes caused by permafrost

subsidence and collects under the ice when these lakes freeze over in the winter.
Poking a hole in the ice and igniting the resulting rush of gas produces a striking
effect, Fig. 1.2.
4. Chlorofluorocarbons and Halocarbons: The source of chlorofluoro-
18 carbons and halocarbons are only anthropogenic in nature. This contains
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride, chlorofluoro- Environmental
carbons and nitrogen trifluoride. These gases are emitted from various
industrial processes, commercial and household uses like refrigerants and fire
retardants.
Sink: Removal process is very slow and they will persist from GWP-1000
yrs/10,000 years and are permanent residents.
5. Water Vapour: It is one of the most abundant greenhouse gas. It absorbs IR
radiation and obtained through evaporation and precipitation. It undergoes
rapid turnover in the lower atmosphere controlled by local temperatures. Due
to the ‘positive feedback’ phenomenon it increases the climate sensitivitythereby
increases the anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
The effects of these gases on global warming and therefore climate change
depend upon the following:
1. How much is too much?It means that the adverse effects will be measured
in concentrations (concentrations are measured in ppm/ppb/ppt).
2. How long is too long? Which means average times it remains in the
atmosphere.
3. How strong is too strong?How strongly it absorbs energy.
1ppm- is equal to one drop of H2O into 13 gallons of liquid.
Dear learner, we will quickly go through the consequences of global warming.

Global warming results in to the following effects:
1. Rapid changes in global temperature
2. Extreme weather patterns resultin more hurricanes and drought to
occur. Longer duration of heat waves and intense rain is generally
experienced.
3. Ecosystem impactslikespecies habitats decrease and the chances for
various ecosystems to adapt naturally would diminish.
4. Rising sea levels due to water expand when heated resulting into melting
of polar caps.A large mass of human lives in the coastal line suffers.
5. Ocean acidification caused by dissolving more atmospheric CO2 into
the oceandisrupts the ability of oceanic life to make shells and skeleton
of calcium carbonate.
6. Increase in pests and diseases of the agricultural crops
1.4.3 Ozone Layer

The Earth’s atmosphere consists of various layers. The troposphere is the lowest
layer extending to 15 kms in altitude. Next layer is stratosphere that extends upwards
to an altitude of 50 kms. The terrestrial life cannot sustain in stratosphere since its
density is too low but it is the house of the ozone layer, which has the ability for life
to survive on earth. About 90% of ozone present in stratosphere and remaining
ozone is located in troposphere. Dear learners, you have learnt in school about 19
ozone layer that filters the UV radiation from the sun before reaching the earth
and is known as protecting layer.
The molecular oxygen (O2) and the ozone (O3) interconvert in stratosphere in
the presence of UV radiation of the sun.
Interconversion reaction in the stratosphere can be written as follows:
h
1. O2 2O (i)
O2 + O O3 (ii)
h
O3 O2 + O (iii)
The high energy solar radiation splits O2into oxygen atoms, which combine with
other molecules of O2 to produce O3 as in the first and second reactions. Ozone
is a bluish gas with pungent odor. Ozone may be generated by many ways by
the atmospheric reactions. Sometimes, ozone may be produced near high-voltage
equipment by the action of electrical discharges. In the troposphere, ozone is
produced by NO2. NO2 splits in the presence of sunlight, releases oxygen atoms
and in the lower atmosphere it produces ozone. Ozone can also produced by
carbon monoxide (CO)(Fig. 1.3). Oxidation of CO produces hydrogen atom
that reacts with oxygen in the following way.
CO+OH CO2+H
H+O2  HO2
The HO2 radical undergo self-reaction to produce hydrogen peroxide.
HO2 + HO2 H2O2+O2

This hydrogen peroxide acts in three different ways in the atmosphere.
1. Due to its soluble nature it is removed from the atmosphere and deposited
by rain water.
2. It produces hydroxy radical on photolysis.
h
H 2O 2 2OH
3. It reacts with hydroxy radical to produce HO2 radical.

H2O2 +OH HO2+H2O
The regenerated HO2 reacts with atmospheric NO produce ozone in the following
manner.
HO2 +NO OH+NO2
h
NO2+ O2 NO+O3
The sequences of repeated chain reactions that occur in the atmosphere are as
20
follows:
O2 Environment Pollution and
Chemistry
CO+OH CO2+ HO2
HO2+NO OH+NO2
h
NO2+ O2 NO+O3
The over all reaction is

CO+2O2 CO2+O3
hv
O3 Stratosphere
Troposphere
hv
NO2 NO
O3 hv
H2O OH HO2 H2O2
co
Deposition
Fig. 1.3: Mechanism for O3HOXNOX  CO chemistry
Ozone acts as a natural atmospheric filter for biologically damaging UV-B light
by absorbing it in the range of 200-310 nm frequency where interconversion of
ozone and molecular oxygen occurs as shown in the above reaction. The role of
stratospheric ozone is by undergoing photo dissociation reaction where it
intercepts the damaging UV radiations from reaching the Earth’s surface. This
absorption of UV radiation by stratosphere prevents 99% of UV radiation from
reaching the Earth’s surface. The radiation energy in this range is enough to
cause skin cancer in human beings and damages our environment. For that reason
stratospheric ozone is termed ozone shield and the ‘good ozone’. The ozone
in the troposphere is highly reactive with living tissue causing adverse effects on
humans, forest damage and reduced crop production and finally alters the
ecological welfare. Hence the ozone in the troposphere is known as destructive
ozone or ‘bad ozone’.
Let us read in the next section how the ozone layer depletion is affecting the
whole ecosystem.
1.4.4 Ozone Layer Depletion

The depletion of ozone layer is not good for the living beings as has earlier been
mentioned.A number of factors play role in this for example; chlorofluorocarbons
play a major role in the depletion of ozone. Specific examples like CFCl3 (CFC-
11), CF2 Cl2 (CFC-12) compounds are non-flammable, volatile but readily
liquefiable, non-toxic and relatively inert in nature. Because of these beneficial
properties they are useful in refrigerators as coolants, in foam plastic
manufacturing, aerosol propellants and industrial solvents. These properties
are useful for human comforts but adversely affect the stratospheric ozone. Once, 21
Air, Water and Soil Pollution these gases release into the atmosphere, these persist for very long time because
of relative inertness in the troposphere and enter into the stratosphere through
atmosphere mixing. The high energy solar radiation in the stratosphere
decomposes chlorofluorocarbons and is involved in reactions which curtail the
concentration of ozone.
Series of chemical reactions that deplete the ozone layer in the stratosphere are
cleavage of C-Cl bond that results in chlorine free radical as shown in the
following steps:n the stratosphere are cleavage of C-Cl bond results in chlorine
free radical
Step (i)
h
CFCl3 (g) CF 2Cl. (g) + Cl. (g)
Step (ii)
The chlorine free radical reacts with ozone molecule by chain reaction mechanism
producing chlorine monoxide free radical and an oxygen molecule.Chlorine
monoxide free radical reacts further in the following way.
Cl. (g) + O3 (g) ClO. (g) + O2(g)
Step (iii)Chlorine monoxide reacts with oxygen atoms to form oxygen molecule
and chlorine free radical.
ClO. (g) + O Cl.+ O2
The net reaction for conversion of two ozone molecules into three oxygen
molecules
2O3 (g) 3O2
The chain reaction increases the rate at which stratospheric ozone is destroyed
but it does not alter the rate of ozone formation. The reports says that, one
chlorine atom will destroy as many as 1, 00,000 molecules of O3 before it is
suspended to the troposphere as HCl.
The cycle of ozone destroying reactions disturbs the abundance of ozone since
ozone is depleted quickly than it is being produced.
The evidence of stratospheric ozone depletion is the formation of Antarctic
ozone hole. According to the British atmospheric report in 1985, thinning of
ozone layer in the stratosphere over the south pole in September and October.
Scientists found reasons that during summer, NO2 and CH4 react with chlorine
monoxide to trap the chlorine forming chlorine reservoirs. During winters in the
extreme cold weather a vortex of extremely cold air forms clouds containing ice
crystals provides surface for various chemical reactions which produce hydrogen
chloride and chlorine nitrate (ClONO2). They react with each other to form
chlorine molecules.
HCl (g) + ClONO2 (g) Cl2 (g) + HNO3 (g)
During spring, the chlorine molecule photodissociate into chlorine free radicals
that can further involve in the ozone destruction reaction.
22
Environment Pollution and
Do You Know? Chemistry
Newer alternatives to CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and

hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).These compounds have similar properties as
CFCs, but decomposed by OH radical before reaching the stratosphere,
hence these will not participate in the radical reactions resulting in
O3destruction. Propane and butane are now used as propellants in spray
cans in place of CFCs.
The 1995 Nobel Prize in chemistry was awarded to Mario Molina, Paul
Crutzen and F.Sherwood Rowland for their work in elucidating the
interaction of Ozone with CFCs.

unit.
4. Enlist the gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
5. What are the anthropogenic sources of methane?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
6. Write a brief note of global warming potential.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
1.5 LET US SUM UP

This unit dealt with environmental pollution and different reactions that occur in the
atmosphere, since the source of pollution is occurred by anthropogenic activities.
Every substance or chemical or material produced by humans or nature can pollute
the environment. Based on the chemical composition, and properties atmosphere is
divided into various regions. There are different physical and chemical reactions
occur in the atmosphere because of chemical interactions between its components.
Tropospheric ozone, methane and nitrous oxide are considered as green house gases.
These have both natural and anthropogenic sources and contribute to the global
warming. The stratospheric ozone is useful for life on earth by protecting them from 23
Air, Water and Soil Pollution UV radiation. Where as tropospheric ozone harmful to the humans and other living
beings.
1.6 KEYWORDS
Acid deposition : Any form of acid precipitation and also fallout of
dry acid particles.
Acid precipitation : Includes acid rain, acid fog, acid snow, and any
other form of precipitation that is more acidic than
normal (i.e., less than PH 5.6). Excess acidity is
derived from certain air pollutants; namely, sulfur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
Aerosols : Microscopic liquid and solid particles originating
from land and water surfaces and carried up into
the atmosphere.
Anthropogenic : Referring to pollutants and other forms of impacts
on natural environments that can be traced to human
activities.
Base : Any compound that releases hydroxyl (OH-) ions
when dissolved in water. Asolution that contains a
surplus of hydroxyl ions.
Biosphere : The overall ecosystem of Earth. The sum total of
all the biomes and smaller ecosystems, which
ultimatelyare all interconnected and interdependent
through global processes such as the water cycle
and the atmospheric cycle.
Biotaliving : Thesumtotalofalllivingorganisms. Thetermusually
is applied to the setting of natural ecosystems.
Buffer : A substance that will maintain the pH of a solution
by reacting with the excess acid in the solution.
Limestone is a natural buffer that helps to maintain
water and soil at a near-neutral pH.
CFCs : Nuclear reaction wherein each atom that fissions
(splits) causes one or more additional atoms to
fission.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons: Synthetic organic molecules in which one or more
hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine
atoms. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are hazardous
compounds because they tend to be non-
biodegradable and therefore to bio-accumulate and
many have been shown to be carcinogenic. They
are also called organochlorides.
Chlorine cycle : In the stratosphere, a cyclical chemical process in
which chlorine monoxide breaks down ozone.
Chlorofluorocarbons : Synthetic organic molecules that contain one or
(CFCs) more of both chlorine and fluorine atoms and that
24 are known to cause ozone destruction.
Convection : The vertical movement of air due to atmospheric Environmental
heating and cooling.
Environmental impact : Effect on the natural environment caused by human
actions. Includes indirect effects, for example,
through pollution, as well as direct effects such as
cutting down trees.
Photosynthesis : The chemical process carried on by green plants
through which light energy is used to produce
glucose from carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is
released as a by-product.
Precipitation : Any form of moisture condensing in the air and
depositing on the ground.
Primary pollutants : Pollutantsreleased directlyintothe atmosphere mainly
as a result of burning fuels and wastes, as opposed
to secondary pollutants.
Troposphere : The layer of Earth’s atmosphere from the surface to
about 10 miles in altitude. The tropopause is the
boundary between the troposphere and the
stratosphere above. The troposphere is well mixed
and is the site and source of our weather, as well as
the primary recipient of air pollutants.

READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry byA.K.De
2. Environmental Chemistryby StanleyManahan
3. Environmental Science textbook by Richard T. Wright
1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A pollutant may be defined as a physical, chemical or biological substance
unintentionally released into the environment which is directly or indirectly
harmful to humans and other living organisms. Whereas pollution is the
presence of substance in the environment that, because of its chemical
composition or quantity, prevents the functioning of natural processes and
produces undesirable environmental and health effects.
2. Air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, Noise pollution,Thermal and
Radiation pollution.
3. Reactions that occur by absorbing sunlight are known as photochemical
reactions with the formation of various types of free radicals as intermediate
species. A chain reaction is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product
or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain
reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events. Due
to the abundance of oxygen molecules in the atmosphere oxidation and
reduction reactions will occur. Some chemical reactions in the atmosphere 25
Air, Water and Soil Pollution can occur as gas phase collisions between molecules, on the surfaces of
solid particles (particulate matter) or in aqueous solution (in water droplets).
The reactions that take place in water droplets are mainly acid-base reactions.
4. CO2, CO, CH4, CFCl3, NOX, SOX.
5. Anthropogenic sources are from livestock (Methane is generated in the
ruminants stomach as a part of digestive process) natural gas production
and transmission, rice cultivation landfills, coal mines and manure storage
systems.
6. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a measure to allow comparisons
of the global warming impacts of different gases. It provides how much
energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of
time, relative to the emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). The higher
the GWP the more that a given gas warms the earth compared to CO2 over
that time period. The time period usually used for GWPs is 100 years.
GWPs provide a common unit of measure, which allows adding up emissions
estimates of different gases and allows policymakers to compare emissions
reduction opportunities across sectors and gases for making decisions.
26
UNIT 2 AIR POLLUTION
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Air Pollution: Definition
2.3 Sources -of Common Air Pollutants
2.4 Types of Air Pollutants
2.4.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants
2.4.2 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
2.4.3 Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollutants
2.4.4 Urban and Rural Air Pollutants
2.5 Effects of Air Pollution

2.5.1 Industrial Smog
2.5.2 Photochemical Smog
2.5.3 Acid Precipitation
2.6 Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

2.7 Effects of Air Pollution on Materials
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit of this block you have studied about the nature of atmosphere
and various types of environmental reactions that occur in the atmosphere.
Present day atmosphere has changed with the onset of the industrial revolution.
Previously everybody heard about atmosphere consistting of various gases
with major constituents like nitrogen(78.08%), oxygen(20.95%), argon(0.93%),
CO2(0.04%), water vapor(0-4%) and trace gases including ozone, helium,
hydrogen, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide. It is learnt that in addition to these
gases, microscopic liquid and solid particles like dust, pollen grains, carbon
particles, sea salt and microorganisms collectively known as aerosols are
carried up to the atmosphere from land and water surfaces. In this unit you
will study the role of these constituents in the atmosphere and learn about the
chemical processes that explain how and why the atmosphere is getting polluted.
The unit also deals with how the natural properties of air pollutants are influenced
by external factors and the environmental medium where these exist. In the
next section we will begin with defining air pollution.
27
2.1 OBJECTIVES
 define air pollution;
 enlist the sources of common air pollutants;
 classify various types of air pollutants; and
 describe the effects of air pollution.
2.2 AIR POLLUTION: DEFINITION

By definition air pollution is the presence of contaminants or pollutants in the
air like noxious gases, particles of solid and particulates of liquid matter in
high concentrations that interfere with human health or welfare, or produce
other harmful environmental effects (US-Environmental Protection AgencyUS-
EPA). In other words, any substance in the atmosphere which can create
harm to the natural environment and human beings is known as air pollutant..
The level of air pollution can be determined by three factors given below.
1. The quantity of pollutant that is present in the air
2. The area in which the pollutants are dispersed
3. The removal process of pollutants from the air
Let us first of all study the common pollutants in air and their sources.
2.3 AIR POLLUTION: DEFINITION

On the basis of adverse effects of air pollutants like impaired health, destroying
the environmental resources and damaging property, as per the clean air act
of 1970,the sources of air pollutants can be classified as follows:
1. Mobile Sources: Mobile sources of air pollution start with the exhaust
from the vehicles that contains notable pollutants like lead particulates,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen,
and small amounts of sulfur oxides. These pollutants generate secondary
pollutants when react in the atmosphere and adversely impact on the
environment like photochemical smog and acid rain.
2. Stationary Sources: Stationary sources are two types: point sources
and rea sources
Point sources: These include some of the most important stationary
sources like furnaces and the combustion of carbonaceous fuels, boilers,
ovens and dryers, process systems which produce volatile chemicals,
gases, etc.
Area sources: Solvents from solvent-based paints, leaking pipe joints,
maintenance work involving the dismantling of pumps or breaking of
pipeline spills, unloading /loading procedures and contaminated ground
come under this type of sources.
3. Fugitive Emissions: Fugitive emissions are those which escape from a
28 process rather than being discharged. They enter the atmosphere untreated
by which they show adverse effects. These emissions can be reduced by Air Pollution
implementing standard operating procedures but natural emissions are
impossible to control. For example: industrial sources, dry cleaning,
agricultural practices, natural sources like volcanoes, forest fires.
The particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and lead (Pb) are some of the air pollutants
about which you would study in the following paragraphs. The sinks (place
of absorption or dispersal) of some of these pollutants are also given here.
1. Particulate matter: The particulate pollutants mean very minute solid or
liquid particles. They may be different in size and shape, also in physical
and chemical properties. These can be either natural or man made. The
major sources are stack emissions, construction work, unsealed roads
etc., Since they are very small in size they provide surface for many
reactions for the formation of secondary pollutants and also diffuse light
by which reduce visibility. The particulate pollutants are classified as:
a. Dust: These are solid particles with >100¼m in diameter dispersed into
the air.
b. Fume: These are solid particles from factories and industries usually
between 0.03- 0.3 ¼m in diameter. Example: metallic oxides
c. Mist: These are liquid particles with 0.5-3.0 ¼m in diameter formed by
condensation reactions.
For example: SO3 + H2O H2SO4
d. Smoke: These are solid particles between 0.5-1.0 ¼m in diameter
produced by incomplete combustion of carbon containing material.
e. Spray: These are liquid particles which are formed by the process of
atomization.
If the size of the particulate matter is >3 m, these are negatively charged
where as particles with < 0.01 m size are positively charged. These electrical
charges will have considerable effect on the rate of coagulation and deposition.
Once the particulate matter releases into the atmosphere it undergoes many
physical and chemical changes like increase in size, absorb or desorb gases,
change in electrical charge, colloid or cohere with other particles, change in
specific gravity, converting into sulpahate and nitrate aerosols .Due to this the
pH, chemical reactivity, and toxicity changes dramatically that affects the life
time of these particles in the atmosphere.
For example: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). PAHs are generated
by coal furnace (>1 m), cigarette smoke (0.1 m) and chemical reactions
involving ethene and ethane > 5000C.
2. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colurless, odourless and tasteless gas found in abundance,
around 530 million tonnes (about 0.00001%), with an average residence time
of 36 to 100 days. The natural existence of atmospheric CO is due to
volcanic eruptions, photolysis of methane and terpenes, forest fires, chlorophyll
decomposition, and microbial action in oceans. 29
Air, Water and Soil Pollution It enters the atmosphere by anthropogenic sources like transportation, disposal
of solid waste, burning of agricultural waste, steel production, etc. It is also
emitted directly into the atmosphere by inefficient combustion of fossil fuels.
2C + O2 2CO
Sink:The CO in the atmosphere by anthropogenic and natural sources will be
naturally removed from the air by conversion to CO2 in a sequence of chemical
reactions either by aerial oxidation or soil microorganisms.
2CO + O2 2CO2
3. Carbon dioxide
In the natural atmosphere carbon dioxide is generated by the combustion of
organic matter, weathering or biological decomposition.
CO2 acts as thermal absorber by which it can absorb energy from infrared
(IR) radiationThe energy from the incoming IR photon causes the CO2 molecule
to vibrate and the extra energy has been removed by the emitted photon in
a continuous process. This potential of CO2 to absorb and re-emit infrared
energy makes this gas an effective heat-trapping greenhouse gas. The gases
like nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) are not able to absorb infrared photons
because of lack of vibration. The details of greenhouse gases and the importance
of greenhouse effect have already been discussed in the previous unit. Sink:
Because of its nature of solubility in water, the major sink for CO2 is ocean
where 50% of all anthropogenic emissions are getting absorbed. The forests
also serve as a sink.
4. Sulfur Compounds
Number of sulfur compounds are released into the atmosphere from both
natural and anthropogenic sources. The major sources are from volcanic
eruptions and man made emissions like incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
The common sulfur compounds exist in the atmosphere is SO2, SO3, H2S and
H2SO4. Combustion of fossil fuels and roasting of metal sulfide ores are the
anthropogenic sources. Out of these sulfur trioxide (SO3) is directly emitted
in ore smelting and fossil fuel combustion and also by the oxidation of SO2
and readily soluble in water to produce H2SO4 which is known as acid rain.
The reactions of formation are as follows.
S + O2 SO2
2 SO2 + O2 2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
It is estimated that100-130 million tonnes of SO2 per year enter the atmosphere
through anthropogenic activities and 50-70 million tonnes are released from
natural sources like volcanoes, sea spray and microbial activities.
Sink:
The removal process of SO2 from the atmosphere is by both dry and wet
deposition. SO2 dissolves in water to form a dilute solution of sulfurous acid
30 (H2SO3). This sulfurous acid remains in clouds, rain droplets or at the surface.
A portion of the SO2 is converted into H2SO4 by its gas-phase oxidation with Air Pollution
subsequent aerosol formation by nucleation or condensation. Sulfuric acid
reacts with ammonia (NH3) to form ammonium hydrogen sulfate (NH4HSO4),
ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4] or mixed salts with ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3) salts.
The atmospheric SO2 is converted to sulfate aerosol in other process and is
removed from the atmosphere by dry and wet deposition processes.
5. Nitrogen Compounds
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen with 78.09% abundance.
The major gaseous forms of nitrogen in the atmosphere are molecular nitrogen
(N2), nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitric oxide (NO) and
ammonia (NH3). The details of these gases and their role in pollution are
explained here.
Nitrous Oxide
It is a natural constituent of the air in the atmosphere with concentration of
0.30 ppm. It acts as a strong oxidizing agent. It is also called laughing gas
because of its euphoric effects. It is produced in the soil by anaerobic bacteria.
It generates NO in the stratosphere by photolytic dissociation.
Nitric Oxide
Nitric oxide is generated naturally by anaerobic processes in soil and water,
by combustion processes and by photochemical destruction of nitrogen
compounds in the stratosphere. The major man made sources are automobile
exhaust, combustion of fossil fuel-fired electric generating stations, industrial
boilers, incinerators and home heaters.
Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is light yellowish orange at low concentrations and brown at
high concentrations. It is produced by the direct oxidation of NO in the
atmosphere as per the following reaction.
2NO + O2 2NO2
It can also be generated by photochemical reactions of O3, peroxy radical
(RO2), hydroxyl radical(OH)•, hydroperoxide radical (HO2) and H2O2.
Therefore, higher NO2 levels occur on sunny days. Some of the important
reactions are shown below.
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
RO2 + NO NO2 + RO
HO2 + NO NO2 + OH
Sink:
The significant sink for NO is its conversion by direct oxidation and
photochemical processes to NO2. A major sink for NO2 is its conversion to
nitric acid as is shown below.
OH• + NO2 + M HNO3 + M 31
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Where M is a species which absorbs energy (generally O2 or N2).
NO2 +O3 NO3• + O2
NO2+ NO3• N 2O 5
N 2O 5 + H 2O 2HNO3
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with ozone to produce nitrate free radical (NO3).The
nitrate free radical further reacts with nitrogen dioxide to give dinitrogen
pentaoxide (N2O5). This react with water swiftly to produce HNO3. HNO3
reacts with ammonia (NH3) or other alkaline species to form salts like
NH4NO3.The nitrate aerosol is removed from the atmosphere either by dry
or wet deposition processes known as acid deposition or acid rain like in
the sulphate aerosol.
Lead: Lead is a significant heavy metal air pollutant. The exhaust of the
vehicles which use leaded petrol is the primary source of this pollutant. It is
used as a fuel in the form of tetraethyl lead (Pb (C2H5)4) to aid even
combustion. The reaction is as follows:
Pb (C 2 H 5 ) 4 +O 2 +Petrol (Halogenated organic compound
CO2+H2O+PbCl2+PbBrCl+PbBr2
Other major sources of lead in the air are waste incinerators, processing of
ore and metals, aircraft operating on leaded aviation fuel, utilities, lead-acid
battery manufacturers, lead smelters, lead-based paints, ceramics, pipes,
plumbing materials, solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition and cosmetics.
Now you can assess your understanding about the sources of air pollutants
by trying to answer the following questions. After this you will study the types
of air pollutants in the next section.
1. Fill in Sources of the following air pollutants
a. Ozone
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
b. Nitrogen Dioxide
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
c. Carbon Dioxide
.....................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................
2.4 TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

There are different types of air pollutants depending on how and where these
are generated . These are listed below and explained in the following
32 subsections.
l Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutant Air Pollution
l Primary and Secondary Pollutants

l Outdoor and Indoor Pollutants
l Stationary and Mobile Source Pollutants
2.4.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Pollutants
The pollutants which are released by the natural sources such as eruption of
volcanoes, sea sprays, lightning and microbial processes are called natural
pollutants. Where as pollutants released by human activities such as industrial
and vehicular emissions are known as anthropogenic pollutants.
The sources for natural pollutants are listed below:
1. Biogenicsources-: soil micro organism, hydrosphere organism, vegetation
and animals.
2. Geophysical sources- soil dust and sea salt
3. Geochemical sources- volcanism, burning of biomass and lightening
The anthropogenic sources are:
1. Biogenic sources- Agriculture
2. Chemical sources- chemical processes, high temperature processes and
combustion
3. Physical processes -dust resuspension and volatilization
2.4.2 Primary and Secondary Air Pollutants
The pollutants which are released directly into the atmosphere from a particular
source of pollution which means they are the direct products of evaporation
and combustion. Example: CO, CO2, CH4, NO, N2O, NH3, H2S, SO2,
chlorides, fluorides, bromides and participate matter/aerosols.
The carbon particulate matter is released into the atmosphere by burning of
fuels and wastes. In addition to this incomplete combustion of fuel molecules
releases in to the atmosphere as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC).The
nitrogen gas in the air gets oxidize during combustion at high temperatures and
releases various nitrogen oxides (NOx).The pollutants like sulfur oxides are
release into the atmosphere by burning of coal. Coal contains 0.2-5.5% sulfur
and heavy metal impurities like mercury.
Source: Industry or vehicles
Effects: Photochemical smog Secondary Air Pollutants
The primary pollutants which can under go further reactions by light energy,
heat or the presence of other chemicals and get converted into undesirable
toxic compounds are called secondary pollutants.
Example: Ozone is a secondary pollutant which is formed by the photolysis
reaction of oxides of nitrogen followed by subsequent reactions with VOCs
NO2, SO2, HNO3 and H2SO4. formed from SO2. 33
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Effects:: Acid rain
Some pollutants may act both as primary and secondary pollutants that mean
they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants also.
Some primary and secondary pollutants, their sources and the effects are
listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Some Primary and secondary pollutants, their sources and
effects
Primary Pollutants
Name Symbol Source Effect
Suspended particulate PM Smoke, metal particles, Respiratory ailments,

matter soot from cooking and impair lung growth in
heating. Dust through infants and heart
wind. attacks
Volatile organic VOC Incomplete combustion Carcinogenic

compounds of fossil fuels
emissions from
industries, evaporation
of gasoline and solvents
Carbon monoxide CO Incomplete combustion It binds to

of fuels hemoglobin and
block the oxygen
delivery tissues
Nitrogen Oxides NOx Burning of Nitrogen Causes acid rain and

containing fuels, Lung irritation
biomass at high
temperatures, lightening
and microbial process.
Sulfur Oxides SOx Burning of Sulfur Causes acid rain and

containing fuels (coal), impairs breathing
volcanoes, sea spray
and microbial process.
Lead Pb Burning of lead Causes brain damage

containing fuels and and death
solid waste
Radon Rn Natural breakdown Lung cancer

of radium and Uranium
containing rocks
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) Leakages from Causes ozone

refrigerants and the dep letion and
causes
use of aerosols. skin cancer
Secondary Pollutants
Ozone O3 Photochemical reactions Oxidizes rubber,

34 of VOCs & NOx highly reactive in
Air Pollution
lungs and shows
adverse effects on
animals and plants
Peroxyacetylnitrates PAN Photochemical Adverse effects on

reactions plants, lungs and
of VOCs & NOx eyes
Persistent organic POPs Pesticides, solvents Causes

pollutants and pharmaceuticals cardiovascular
disease and cancer
2.4.3 Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollutants

Dear learner, have you ever thought that one source of pollution could be our
own house which is a first indoor environment for a child? This is called indoor
air pollution. Let us look into some of the factors which cause indoor air pollution
that affects our health. . The causes and the health effects of indoor air pollutants
are given in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: The causes and the health effects of indoor air pollutants
S.No Cause of indoor air pollutant Health effect of the pollutant
1. Inadequate ventilation in poorly Irritations of eyes, nose and

ventilated dwellings pollutants will throat, dry mucous membranes
accumulate to higher concentrations and skin erythema (reddening or
than that of outside. This is known as flushing of the skin), rashes,
‘Sick building syndrome’. mental fatigue, headache,
sleepiness, cough, hoarseness,
wheezing, nausea, dizziness,
unspecific hypersensitivity
reactions
2. High temperature and humidity Fatigue, irritability, headache and

a decrease in performance and
alertness
3. Combustion of oil, gas, kerosene, coal, Bronchoconstriction, lung
wood, and tobacco products. cancer.
4.  Building materials: Formaldehyde  Irritation in eyes, nose and
released from pressed wood throat, coughing, skin
products like hard wood, plywood, rashes, headache, dizziness
wall paneling, fibre board and and vomiting.
urea-formaldehyde foam
insulation.  Radon is a carcinogen.
 Radon released from rocks and  prolonged exposure causes
other building materials under the asbestosis, mesothelioma
constructions of homes, schools and lung cancer.
and offices enters inside with dust.
 Asbestos found in materials used
in the automotive industry and
construction of buildings, ceiling,
and floor tiles. 35
5. Second hand tobacco smoke/ Respiratory tract infections and
Environmental tobacco smoke lung cancer
(ETS): releases from burning end
of cigarette and smoke exhaled by
the smokers.
6. Biological pollutants - Mites -Allergens Hypersensitivity, pneumonitis,

– Molds developed in damp or wet allergic rhinitis and some
areas such as cooling coils, humidifiers, types of asthma
condensate pans or unvented
bathrooms can be moldy draperies,
bedding, carpet and other areas where
dust collects that may accumulate
biological contaminants.
7. Volatile organic compounds(VOCs) Eye, nose and throat irritation,
emitted from paints, and other headache, loss of
solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol coordination, nausea,·
sprays cleansers and disinfectants, damage to liver, kidney
moth repellents and air fresheners, and central nervous system
stored fuels and automotive products· cancer in animals, some are
dry - cleaned clothing, pesticides, suspected to cause cancer in
building materials, furnishings, office humans
equipment such as copiers and
printers, graphics and craft materials
including glues and adhesives,
permanent markers and photographic
solutions.
Outdoor Air Pollutants
The causes and health effects of outdoor air pollution are given in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: The causes and health effects of outdoor air pollution
S.No Cause of outdoor air pollutant Health effect
1. Combustion of fossil fuels from Respiratory morbidity
domestic heating, power (pneumonia, asthma) Increased
generation and motor vehicles mortality (from all causes)
releases primary particles Decreased lung growth and
containing sulpahate, metals and function.O3 causes lung irritation
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and inflammation, impaired
and secondary particles containing pulmonary function, eye, nose
nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and throat irritation
and ozone.
2. Industrial processes release Decrements in lung function,
nitrogen oxides, CO, sulphur reduces oxygen-carrying capacity,
oxides other than dust, fly ash, chronic bronchitis, broncho-
smoke, fog, soot and fumes constriction
3. Agricultural processes-biological N-ARD, ARD, infections and cancer,
36 agents like fungi, mycotoxins, Acute respiratory problems.
glucans, actinomycetes, viruses, Air Pollution
microbial enzymes, plant,
mammalian and invertebrate
proteins. Burning of agriculture
waste releases greenhouse gases
like N2O and methane, SPM.
4. Waste incineration releases PM Autism, Attention Deficit
containing heavy metals, dioxins, Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
furans, mercury etc. lung cancer, dementia damages
immune system
5. Natural processes like volcanic Headache, dizziness, increased

eruptions releases CO2, SO2, H2S, heart rate, irritation of the upper
HF, HCl and HBr respiratory tract and , pulmonary
edema and death during long
exposure

unit.
2. What is “sick building syndrome”?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. What is the difference between primary and secondary air pollutants?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. What are the sources of VOCs?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
5. Give two sources each of the indoor and outdoor air pollutants.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2.4.4 Urban and Rural Air Pollution
Urban air pollution is mainly caused by both ‘mobile’ sources (vehicular) and
‘stationary’ sources (i.e. biomass). Other sources include exhaust fumes from
vehicles, emissions from factories and power generation plants.
Three types of air pollution that affect rural areas are solid fuels like coal and
biomass for cooking and heating, outdoor pollution from urban sources and
secondary pollutants from the transport of emissions far from their primary. 37
Do You Know?
Lichens are natural biological indicators of air pollution because of their
source of nourishment is air. Gray-green crusty lichens indicate highly
polluted air, Orange crusty lichens indicate moderate air pollution and leafy
lichens indicate clean air.
We will now learn about the effects of air pollution.
2.5 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Primary and secondary pollutants are threat to human health particularly
respiratory related ailments. Severe exposure to some of these pollutants will
be chronic and life threatening. Some pollutants are carcinogenic too. Dear
learner, we are all in one way or the other exposed to a number of particulate
and gaseous pollutants with inhaled air. The adverse effects of these pollutants
may vary from proximity to the source, nature of wind and weather and
concentration. These effects may be additive, synergistic or antagonistic.
Additive effects are those which occur when the exposure to various pollutants
produces an effect equal to the sum of the effects of the pollutants acting alone.
Synergistic effects are those where the sum of the effects of two or more
pollutants is greater than the combined effect. Antagonistic effects are those
where one pollutant minimizes the effect of another pollutant. These effects are
more often synergistic in nature.
Smog is a kind of air pollution which reduces visibility and is composed of
tropospheric ozone (O3); primary particulate matter such as pollen and dust;
and secondary particulate matter such as sulphur oxides, volatile organic
compounds, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia gas. It is of two types: Industrial
smog and Photochemical smog depending on the nature of pollutants. Industrial
smog generally exists in the urban areas. Smog is
Even though the colour of both appears to be brown haze but the differ in their
formation and chemical composition
2.5.1 Industrial Smog
It is also called as grey or black smog and develops under cold and humid
climatic conditions especially in urban areas where industrial sources like heating
of reactors, roasting process in the nonferrous heavy metals etc., and power
plants run on fossil fuels like coal. These industries emit approximately about
2.5 tons of sulfur per hour. This sulphur immediately reacts with water vapour
and the secondary pollutant sulphurdioxide is formed. At high humidity SO2 is
rapidly oxidized to form sulphuric acid and sulphate particles. Sometimes catalytic
oxidation of dust particles containing heavy metals and soot in the presence of
water droplets in the atmosphere makes the droplets acidic. These create a
thick blanket of haze known as acid smog or industrial smog. It is formed
close to the ground. The general reactions of industrial smog are given below.
1) C + O2 CO2 (carbon dioxide)
38 2) S + O2  SO2 (sulfur dioxide)
3) SO2 + O2  SO3 + O (sulfur trioxide) Air Pollution
4) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
5) H2SO4 + NH3  (NH4 )2SO4 (solid ammonium sulfate)
Let us learn about another type of smog called the photochemical smog.
2.5.2 The Photochemical Smog

The photochemical smog is formed in a series of chemical reactions of secondary
pollutants in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. Photochemical smog
appears mostly in urban areas, which has exhaust from vehicles.
The photochemical smog is formed when the primary pollutants like NOx and
hydrocarbons are captured in the lower atmosphere on exposure to UV radiation
from the sun. The pollutants in the photochemical smog are ozone (O3), hydrogen
peroxide (H 2O 2), organic peroxides (ROOR’), organic hydroperoxides
(ROOH), peroxyacyl nitrates (RCO3NO2) PAN . The latter are formed by the
irradiation of mixtures of alkanals, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. As seen in the
previous unit the concentration of O3 in lower atmosphere is higher than formed
by photolysis of NO2 alone because chemical conversion of NO to NO2 is not
catalyzed by O3.
The rate of formation of O3 is influenced by the concentration of peroxy radical

(RO2.). Peroxy radicals are produced when hydroxy radicals (OH•) and HOx
react with hydrocarbons. The hydroxy radicals are produced by photolysis of
O3, carbonyl compounds and nitrous acid. Thus the concentration of O3 in
polluted atmosphere is based on intensity of sunlight, nature of hydrocarbons;
NO2/NO ratios and other pollutants like alkanals and CO.
The general reactions of Photochemical Smog are given below:
1) NO + VOC  NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)
2) NO2 + UV  NO + O (nitric oxide & molecular O)
3) O + O2 O3 (ozone)
4) NO2+ VOC  PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate)
Net result:
NO + VOC + O2+ UV O3 + PAN + other particulates
We would how learn another effect of air pollution caused by the presence of
sulphur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere called the acid precipitation.
2.5.3 Acid Precipitation

Acid precipitation means any type of deposition like rain, fog, mist or snow
which is more acidic than normal. The pH of rain water in the absence of pollution
is approximately 5.6 because of solubility of CO2 in the air to produce carbonic
acid. Acid deposition is the combination of precipitation and dry acidic particle
fallout with a pH less than 5.5 which occurs usually in the industrial regions. 39
Air, Water and Soil Pollution The acid precipitation principally contains a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3) in a ratio of two to one. As we have read in the previous
sections of this unit and also in the previous unit that burning of fuels generates
sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the troposphere either by anthropogenic or natural
Acid is any chemical that sources. These oxides are oxidized by hydroxyl radicals to sulfuric acid and
releases hydrogen ions when nitric acids which immediately dissolve in rain water or adsorb to particulate
dissolved in water. The more matter and brought down to earth as acid deposition. If the deposition is wet
acidic substance means the
higher the concentration of then we can call it as acid rain. Some times acidic particles brought down to
hydrogen ions in the solution. earth by the phenomena of dry deposition (acid aerosols) called the acid fog.
It is expressed as pH. The pH
starts from 0(highly acidic) Acid materials reaching the earth by any of the above processes have
through 7(neutral) to significant harmful affects on flora, soil and surface waters and change the pH.
14(highly basic).This scale
represents the negative Air pollution affects the human health in various ways. Let us learn in the next
logarithm (power of 10)of the subsection.
hydrogen ion concentration,
expressed in grams per liter
(g/L). 2.6 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN
HEALTH
In general human beings are affected by air pollution. The first effected system
Ex:To say that a solution has of our body is the respiratory system due to the synergistic effects of ozone and
a pH 1 means the hydrogen NOx causing chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. The air pollutants
ion concentration in the may also alter major body functions such as exchange of oxygen in the lungs
solution is 10-1g/L(0.1g/L)
and oxygen transport in the blood. Irritant pollutants may lead to irritation and
long term damage to eyes, nose, throat and other wet surfaces of the body and
the soluble particles get transferred to the blood. One of the most important
particles in the atmosphere is H2SO4, which irritates the mucous membranes
and leads to bronchial constrictions.
Most of the gaseous pollutants like SO2, O3 and NO2 are pulmonary irritants,
and cause congestion, edema and even hemorrhage. Gases like NO, H2S and
CO are asphyxiants. These gases bind the hemoglobin molecules and prevent
oxygen transfer within the body. Organic gas pollutants such as acrolein (l-
propenal) causes eye irritation.
Living spaces in urban areas are polluted and people suffer from chronic effects.
Some of the effects are given in Table 2.4
Table 2.4 : Some pollutants and -their effects on human health
Pollutant Effect on human health
SO 2 Bronchitis
O3 Inflammation which leads to lung fibrosis and failure of
lungs
CO Reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood and
contribute to the heart disease
NO x Impairs lung function and affect the immune system
Particulate Matter Broad spectrum of health ailments, respiratory infections
to heart disease.
Let us look into the effects specific to various pollutants.
40
Carbon Monoxide Air Pollution
Inhaling of high concentrations of carbon monoxide shows adverse effects on

human beings. It binds irreversibly to hemoglobin in the blood forming
carboxyhaemoglobin thereby reduce the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
When comparing to oxygen, CO has a greater affinity (200 times greater) for
haemoglobin.
The concentration of CO at around 10ppm has primary health effect as reduction
in awareness and at around 100ppm, headaches and drowsiness are observed.
Unconsciousness and death occurs at 250ppm level. The continuous exposure
to low levels of CO may cause nervous disorders and finally causes heart disease.
At concentrations in excess (1000ppm) death results from anoxia because of
insufficient supply of O2 to body tissues and brain. The effects of CO on human
health at different concentrations are given in Table 2.5
Table 2.5 : The effects of CO on human health at different concentrations
Concentration of CO in ppm Effect on health
10 Lowered awareness and driving
performance
50 – 100 Headaches and drowsiness, changes in
driving performance and increased
reaction time to visual stimulation
>250 Death
Sulfur Compounds
The most important sulfur compound in the atmosphere is sulfur dioxide. The
adverse effects of sulfur dioxide are often associated with particulate pollutants
since both have common source of generation like combustion of fossil fuels.
Hence high concentration of SO2 is associated with high concentration of
particulate matter forming sulfate aerosols. These aerosols show significant threat
to human health than do sulfur dioxide emissions alone. These aerosols are retained
in the lungs and cause maximum physiological damage. At elevated
concentrations these result in higher mortality from bronchitis and lung cancer.
Sulfur dioxide alone causes respiratory tract irritation and breathing difficulty.
The effects of SO2 to human health are given in Table 2.6. Table 2.6: Effect of
SO2 to human health at different concentrations
SO2 (concentration in ppm) Health effect
500 Reduction in human sensation
800 Threshold of taste
1400 Threshold of odour
4400 Bronchial constriction
20000 Immediate throat irritation
30000 Immediate eye irritation
50000 Immediate coughing
41
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitric oxide is a relatively non toxic and non-irritating gas when compared with
NO2 but it is rapidly oxidized to NO2, which is toxic in nature. Because of its
less solubility in water NO2 generally diffuses deep into the lung and causes
tissue damage. At high concentrations it shows the effects like pulmonary edema.
The major health problem created by nitrogen oxides is that they are the origins
for the mixture of pollutants which form photochemical smog.
Hydrocarbons
All hydrocarbons are relatively nontoxic in nature at the ambient concentrations
but they encounter reactions in the atmosphere with O2, O3, NOx, SOx and
other components to form photochemical smog which is very harmful to human
health. At high concentrations HCHO (methanal), acrolein, and peroxyacyl
nitrate (PAN) cause reduction in visibility, unpleasant odours and cause skin
and eye irritation. Hydrocarbons like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
benzo ( ) pyrene (BaP), are carcinogenic in nature.
Ozone
As per the ambient air quality standards ozone is one of the most toxic pollutant.
In polluted ambient environmental conditions ozone causes significant
physiological and pathological changes in both animals and human beings. The
ambient air quality standard for O3 is 0.12ppm (235mg/m3). Some of the adverse
effects of ozone on exposure are given below.
 At 0.1- 0.4ppm range of for 1-2 hours significant lung function changes in
smokers, adults over 55yrs, asthmatics, or individuals with chronic
obstructive lung disease are more responsive to O3 exposures.
 Above 0.12ppm range symptoms including throat dryness, chest tightness,
coughing, pain whilst deep breathing, shortness of breath, lassitude, malaise,
headache, nausea and also cause decrease in athletic performance.
 O3 exposures inhibit the immune system activity.
 At 0.08-0.10ppm concentrations for three hours causes increase in the
susceptibility of mice to bacterial infectionProlonged and acute exposure
causes death.
Particulate Matter
One of the major air pollutants is particulate matter. Because of its size it exhibits
toxic effects like irritation. The concentration of adsorbed substances includes
SOx, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and heavy metals such as lead,
cadmium, zinc and mercury. Particles less than 2.5µm are called “respirable”;
they can enter pulmonary tissue and be deposited there. Particles smaller than
10µm are described as “inhalable particles” and be deposited in the respiratory
system. The deposition of these particles shows adverse effects on health. It
depends on their level of concentration, pH, solubility and synergistic effects
with pollutants such as SO2. The main health effects are acute bacterial and viral
bronchitis, bronchial asthma and pulmonary emphysema.
At Total Suspended Particulate Level (ug/m3) of 200 TSP, minor reversible
changes are observed in the lung function of children. At 250-500 TSP acute
bronchitis and at 1000 TSP results in increased mortality are observed.
42
Air Pollution
Lead
Exposure to lead particulates results in lead poisoning and the most affected
organs are the blood, the brain, the kidney, the nervous system and the
reproductive system. Symptoms of acute lead poisoning are shock, anaemia,
nervousness, and irreversible kidney and brain damage. In growing children,
lead poisoning affects intelligence, length of concentration and activity. Lead
poison has the ability to cross the placenta, hence in a pregnant woman results
in high lead levels in the foetus that may lead to mental retardation.
Asbestos
Asbestos is the name given to a number of mineral silicates which are compressed
together to form fibrous materials. It cannot be classified under distinct mineral
species but applied to various fibrous materials with varied composition and On the basis of chemical
physical properties for commercial purpose. The fibres in asbestos are highly and mineralogical studies
toxic in nature with very long dormancy periods. Once the asbestos fiber is asbestos is grouped
inhaled by an individual it has the potential to cause cancer for the rest of the under silicate mineral.
Asbestos is a mixture of
individual’s life.
six varieties of silicate
The asbestos particulates show a considerable public health problem due to minerals having common
properties of eponymous
their wide use in the construction and insulating material. Inhalation of the fibres
asbestiform nature. They
causes the lung disease known as asbestosis which is characterized by chronic are chrysotile, crocidolite,
inflammation and scarring disease affecting the tissue of the lungs. Patients with amosite, anthophyllite,
asbestosis may experience acute shortness of breath and are at an increased tremolie and actinolite.
risk for certain cancers, including lung cancer and, less commonly, mesothelioma
(cancer of the lining of the body cavity).
Chromium
Chromium emissions in the air are mainly from industries like iron and chrome,
and associated industries like refining, chemical and refractory processing, cement
production plants, automobiles, leather tanneries, chrome based dyes and
stainless steel production. Moisture is required to
cause the corrosion of
The harmful effects of chromium are related to respiratory ailments like shortness iron and steel in the
of breath, coughing, and wheezing. Chronic exposure results in septum damage, presence of sulfur oxides.
disrupted pulmonary function- pneumonia and lung cancer. Metal samples in dry air
containing oxides of
Let us now learn how the air pollution affects building and materials. sulfur do not corrode.
Deterioration by a
chemical reaction will
2.7 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON increase with
BUILDINGS AND MATERIALS temperature. Surface
which is below the dew
In fact, most of the materials are affected by the direct exposure of air pollutants. point temperature will
cause surface
Some of them are different types of stones, metals, papers and textiles which
condensation and
may be deteriorated by either of the processes of abrasion, chemical exposure, enhanced reaction with
deposition and corrosion. The moisture, temperature and freezing and thawing soluble pollutant gases. If
are the conditions which influence the rate of deterioration. temperatures drops
below the freezing point
1. Abrasion: Solid particles of sufficient size travelling at high speed can of water, freezing and
cause destructive abrasion. defrosting cause cracks
and spalling on stone,
2. Deposition and Removal: Solid pollutants deposited on the surface may exposing new surfaces to
cause discoloration and the removal of the deposit causes deterioration to reactive pollutants.
the structure. 43
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3. Direct and Indirect Chemical Attack: Some of the air pollutants like
sulfur oxides, mainly sulfur trioxide (SO3) react with marble or limestone
(CaCO3) irreversibly and converted to gypsum that cause deterioration.
Materials made by leather absorb sulfur dioxide (SO2) which gets converted
to sulphuric acid that damage the leather goods.
4. Corrosion: Gases like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) are
corrosive in nature and in the presence of moisture they undergo
electrochemical reaction and corrode the metal objects.
We will now learn how the buildings and materials may get affected in terms of
discoloration, loss of material, soiling and structural failure.
Stone: In general most of the historic monuments are constructed by different
types of stones. For example: Marble, Granite and Mosaic. These get affected
in the following manner in the case of marble.
Marble: Marble is a metamorphic rock of carbonate mineral. The constructions
made by marble or alternate calcareous stones are vulnerable to air pollutants
like total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
We have already learnt about acid rain and how SO2 gets converted into
H2SO4.This sulphuric acid goes deep into the marble stone thereby solubilises
the calcium carbonate and drags to the surface by the process of natural heating
and reaction with moisture, where it is deposited as gypsum. During wet and
dry environment cycles recurring deposition of gypsum and the porous crust
formed has no link to the stone. It can easily detatch the stone and scale it off.
The dust particles in TSPM contain soot which quickly gets deposit on porous
crust which appears as a black surface.
Decolouration of Taj Mahal- a 17th Century Islamic Architecture: A Case
Study
India’s most famous pride and tourist attraction Taj Mahal is not an exception
to be a non-living victim of the pollution. The industries like Mathura oil refinery,
rubber processing, automobile located around Agra have been responsible for
producing pollutants like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These air pollutants
react with water vapor present in the atmosphere forms sulphuric and nitric
acid. These acids reach the ground with rain in the form of acid rain. Acid rains
decolorize the white marble and also corrode the marble which is known as
“Marble cancer”.
5. Match the words in column A with those of column B appropriately in
the following:
1. Industrial smog a. Asbestos
2. SO 2 b. Lung fibrosis
3. Acid rain c. H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4
4. Photochemical Smog d. Carcinogenic
5. O3 e. H2SO4, HNO3
6. PAH f. Bronchitis
44 7. Asbestos g. O3
Air Pollution
2.8 KEY WORDS
Acid Precipitation : Includes acid rain, acid fog, acid snow, and any
other form of precipitation that is more acidic than
normal (i.e. less than pH 5.6). Excess acidity is
derived from certain air pollutants; namely,
sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.
Asbestos Fibres : Crystals of asbestos, a natural mineral, that have

the form of minute strands; asbestos is a serious
health hazard in indoor spaces.
Greenhouse Effect : An increase in the atmospheric temperature

caused by increasing amounts of carbon dioxide
and certain other gases that absorb and trap heat,
which normally radiates away from Earth.
Hydroxy Radical : The hydroxyl group (OH), missing the electron.

The hydroxyl radical is a natural cleansing agent
of the atmosphere. It is highly reactive, readily
oxidizes many pollutants upon contact, and thus
contributes to their removal from the air.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) : A group of nitrogen-oxygen compounds formed

when some of the nitrogen gas in air combines
with oxygen during high-temperature combustion.
Nitrogen oxides are a major category of air
pollutants and, along with hydrocarbons, are a
primary factor in the production of ozone and
other photochemical oxidants that are the most
harmful components of photochemical smog.
Nitrogen oxides also contribute to acid
precipitation.
Photochemical Smog : The brownish haze that frequently forms on

otherwise clear, sunny days over large cities with
significant amounts of automobile traffic.
Photochemical smog results largely from sunlight-
driven chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons, both of which come primarily
from auto exhausts.
Primary Pollutants : Pollutants released directly into the atmosphere

mainly as a result of burning fuels and wastes, as
opposed to secondary pollutants.
Secondary Air Pollutants : Air pollutants resulting from reactions of primary

air pollutants resident in the atmosphere.
Secondary air pollutants include ozone, other
reactive organic compounds, and sulphuric and
nitric acids.
45
2.9 LET US SUM UP
There are a number of forms of air pollutants which exists in the form of gases,
fumes, clouds, smoke, mist, fog, smog, haze, dust, aerosols, etc. They are
classified as natural/anthropogenic, primary/secondary, particulates/gases,
ambient air/indoor air/ global, stationary/mobile etc. Air pollutant concentrations
are measured in the form of their threshold values which are different for different
pollutants. Above these values the pollutants shows adverse effects on human
beings. The common problem is the respiratory tract infection, bronchitis and
other diseases can occur due to inhalation of toxic pollutants. Pollutants such as
arsenic, lead, fluoride, insecticides and pesticides affect human beings adversely.
Air pollutants also deteriorate the objects made of ferrous, aluminum, copper,
silver, building materials, leather, paper and textile.

READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry byA.K.De
2. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
3. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.

Answers to check your progress should include the following points.
1 a. Lead: Exhaust of the vehicles which use leaded petrol, waste
incinerators, processing of ore and metals and aircraft operating
on leaded aviation fuel, utilities, lead-acid battery manufacturers, lead
smelters, lead-based paint, ceramics, pipes, plumbing materials,
solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition, and cosmetics.
b. Nitrogen dioxide: It is produced by photochemical reactions of O3,
peroxy radical (RO2), OH•, HO2, and H2O2
c. Carbon dioxide: It is generated by the combustion of organic matter
weathering, or biological decomposition.
2. In poorly ventilated dwellings pollutants will accumulate to higher
concentrations than that of outside causes irritations of eyes, nose, and
throat, dry mucous membranes and skin erythema known as ‘Sick building
syndrome’.
3. Primary pollutants are the pollutants which are released directly in to the
atmosphere from a particular source of pollution which means they are the
direct products of evaporation and combustion. Where as the primary
pollutants which can under go further reactions by light energy, heat or the
presence of other chemicals converted in to undesirable toxic compounds
are known as secondary pollutants.
4. VOC’s emitted from paints, and other solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol
sprays, cleansers and disinfectants, moth repellents and air fresheners,
46 stored fuels and automotive products, dry - cleaned clothing, pesticides,
building materials, furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, Air Pollution
graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent
markers and photographic solutions.
5. 1. c
2. f,
3. e
4. g
5. b
6. d
7. a
47
UNIT 3 WATER POLLUTION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Physico-Chemical and Biological Parameters of Water
3.3 Types of Water Pollutants
3.3.1 Industrial Water Pollutants
3.3.2 Pollutants from Food Processing Industry
3.3.3 Pollutants from Petrochemical Industry
3.3.4 Pollutants from Textile Industry
3.3.6 Pollutants from Tanning Industry
3.3.6 Pollutants from Paper and Pulp Industry
3.3.7 Water Pollutants due to Agrochemicals
3.3.8 Sewage Water Pollutants
3.4 Sewage Treatment Methods

3.5 Role of the Government
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Water pollution can be defined as the presence of any solid, liquid, gaseous material
and the heat generated contaminants in such concentration that maydrasticallychange
the quality of water thereby impairing the utility of water. Water pollution problem
has become more pressing nowadays because of increase in population growth and
increased use of per capita material energy. This has resulted in increase in the
production of by-products as effluents that reach water bodies and affect the entire
biosphere. The water pollutants generated from human activities reach surface and
ground water through various pathways. These pollutants are categorized as point
and non-point sources. Effluents from factories, sewage systems are point sources
where as agriculture run-off and atmospheric deposition are some of the examples
of non-point sources. Water is an excellent solvent for many chemicals which have
adverse health effects on the environment. Petroleum products, pesticide run-off
and industrial chemicals pollute many water bodies even at low concentrations.
Dear learner, in this unit we would first learn about physico-chemical and biological
parameters of water which is helpful in understanding the pollution levels of various
water sources. The point and non-point sources of water pollutants, pollution
parameters and waste water treatment methods are discussed in detail in different
sections. We start with the study of physico-chemical parameters.
48
Water Pollution
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 define various physicochemical parameters of waste water,
 define industrial effluents and describe their characteristics,
 explain the origin of pollutants in petrochemical industries,
 enlist various health effects of industrial pollutants,
 explain water pollutants due to agrochemicals
 List out the general characteristics of sewage, and
 Describe sewage treatment methods.
3.2 PHYSICO-CHEMICALAND BIOLOGICAL

PARAMETERS OFWATER
Water gets contaminated byhuman use for different purposes that include household,
industry, agriculture, etc. The contaminated water is called the waste water which is
required to be estimated by known methods of analysis. Quantitative analysis of
waste water is indicated by predictable parameters which delineate the nature of
waste and its potential impact on the health of environment and human health. The
following are the physico-chemical and biological parameters:
Total Suspended Solids 2. pH 3. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 4 Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) 5. Oil 6. Turbidity 7. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 8. Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD)
Let us understand these parameters in detail.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS): The particles that are larger than 2 microns and
non-filterable are considered as suspended solids. These particles may be sediments,
sand, silt, plankton, algae, animal decay and chemical precipitates. The heavier
suspended particles settled at the bottom of the water body over a period of time
are known as sediments or bedload. The remaining particles which float in water
are known as colloids.
Effects: The SS changes the colour and reduces the light penetration there byaffecting
the photosynthesis process where generation of oxygen ceases.
Hypoxic inadequate supply of oxygen at the tissue level
The increase in TSS increases the water temperature and decrease in dissolved
oxygen levels. The high rate of heat absorption by TSS than clear water increases
the temperature of surrounding water bythe process of conduction there bydecrease
in dissolved oxygen levels.Another effect of increase in surface water temperature
is the water stratification. Because of this, the lower layers of water become hypoxic
for survival of the organisms.
pH: pH is a chemical parameter that values between 0 to 14 on a defined scale. It
provides the intensity of acidity and alkalinity of a given water sample along a 49
Air, Water and Soil Pollution logarithmic scale. It has direct influence on the treatment procedures. It provides
critical information in the treatment of waste water which removes heavy metals
or organic compounds. The effluents contain heavy and toxic metals in the
dissolved form. These will be removed by altering the pH by different suitable
methods. High or low pH of water may kill water organisms and sterilize the
water bodies, thereby inactivate the vital microorganisms in waste water
treatment.
Do you Know?
The lower the number, the more acidic the water is. The higher the number, the
more basic it is. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. The logarithmic scale means
that each number below 7 is 10 times more acidic than the previous number
when counting down. Likewise, when counting up above 7, each number is 10
times more basic than the previous number. The pH measurement can be done
byusing electrometric technique.
Dissolved Oxygen:
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is non-compound, free oxygen in the stream of water which
is an important criterion to assess the quality of water.
The dissolved oxygen for aquatic animals varies from species to species ranges 1-6
mg/L to 4-15 mg/L. The DO is required for microbial decomposition of organic
material at the bottom of the water. The DO levels decrease with increase of
temperature, concentration of salts and increase in pressure.
Do You Know?
Causes of low dissolved oxygen (DO) primarily result from excessive algal
growth caused by phosphorus. Nitrogen is another nutrient that can
contribute to algae growth. As the algae die and decompose, the process
consumes dissolved oxygen. This can result in insufficient amounts of
dissolved oxygen available for fish and other aquatic life. Dying off and
decomposition of submerged plants also contribute to low dissolved oxygen.
The process of decomposition is called Carbonaceous Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (CBOD). Sources of phosphorus include discharges
from municipal and private wastewater treatment, cropland and urban storm
water runoff, and natural decay of vegetation. Direct discharge of pollutants
from point source and non-point sources into a river segment add to its
CBOD loadings, creating an oxygen demand that may depress DO below
acceptable concentrations.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): It is a measure of organic and inorganic substance

in a given liquid. TDS mainlyconstitutes calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium
cations and carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate anions.
The organoleptic properties (qualities like taste, colour, odour, feel, etc.) of water
with respect to TDS are as follows:
<300mg/L - Excellent
300-600 mg/L –Good
50 600-900 mg/L –Fair
900-1200 mg/L –Poor Water Pollution
>1200 mg/l L -Unacceptable

TDS in water streams is generated from urban and agricultural run-off, sewage,
industrial wastewater, road de-icing salts and natural sources.
Turbidity: Turbidity is the only parameter which has optical determination. It
is an indicator of water quality on the basis of clarity and relatively estimated
TDS in water. Turbid water looks cloudy, coloured because of suspended solids
that is based on the amount of light scattered by these. In addition to the
suspended solids, coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM), fluorescent
dissolved organic matter (FDOM) and dyes enhance the turbidity of water.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen required for
microbial metabolism of organic compounds in water at certain temperature
(~200C) and a period of time (~5 days). It is a chemical procedure to measure
the quantity of dissolved oxygen that indicates the quality of water. It is
dependant on temperature, pH, microorganisms and organic and inorganic
materials.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): It is the amount of oxygen required in
chemical oxidation of organic matter present in water. It essentially indicates
the amount of oxidizable pollutants in water body and thus helps to know the
pollution levels.
unit.
1. List out physico-chemical parameters of the waste waters.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. What is the importance of pH in waster waters?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.3 TYPES OFWATER POLLUTANTS

As mentioned earlier, water can get contaminated by various means. There are a
number of sources that are responsible for adding pollutants to the running water,
underground water or a natural water body. Thus the pollutants can come from
Food Processing, Petrochemical, Textile, Tanning, Paper, etc. industry and also
fromAgrochemicals and Sewage. The pollutants from all these sources are discussed
in the following subsections.
3.3.1 Industrial Water Pollutants
Industrialdevelopment leads to industrial effluents, andthe untreated effluents become
responsible for water, soil and air pollution. The quantitative assessment depends on 51
Air, Water and Soil Pollution the concentration of these effluents present in the waste water. The expression of
concentration of impurities is either by mgL-1 or ppm or percent saturation.
According to the Press Information Bureau, Government Of India (GOI), Ministry

of Environment and Forest (MoEF) 2016, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEFCC) has developed the criteria of categorization of industrial
sectors based on the Pollution Index (PI) which is a function of the emissions (air
pollutants), effluents (water pollutants), hazardous wastes generated and consumption
of resources. For this purpose the references are taken from the the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Cess (Amendment)Act, 2003, Standards so far prescribed
for various pollutants under Environment (Protection) Act , 1986 and Doon Valley
Notification, 1989 issued by MoEFCC. The Pollution Index of any industrial
sector is a number from 0 to 100 and the increasing value of PI denotes the increasing
degree of pollution load from the industrial sector and the following is the criteria
on ‘Range of Pollution Index ‘for the purpose of categorization of industrial
sectors.
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above –

Red category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59 –

Orange category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40 –

Green category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl.&upto 20 –

White category
This unit discusses about some of the industries which are under the category of
Red.
3.3.2 Food processing industry

The waste from food and food processing industries are termed as by-products.
These by-products have the properties of high water holding capacity, binding,
gelling and thickening. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) are the important organic
parameters to determine the liquid wastes from food industry.
The by-products from some of the food processing industries which pollute
the water bodies are summarized in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Some food processing industries and their by-products
Industry By-Products/Wastes
Fruit and Vegetable Industry High amount in glucose, citric and linoleic
acids, tocopherols, and isorhamnetin-O-(di-
deoxyhexosyl-hexoside), polysaccharides
(e.g. pectin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin
and gums) and phenolic compounds bound
with skin, i.e. dihydrochalcones, flavonols and
phenolic acids
52
DairyIndustry Dairy effluents, fats, oil and grease, whey by- Water Pollution
product contains solvent proteins like ²-
lactoglobulin, ±-lactalbumin, immunoglobulin,
bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, and
lactoperoxidase, high content of essential amino
acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine and
ammonia.
Grain Processing Industry Rice bran, oil, tocotrienols ²-glucans, the spent
grain rich in cellulose and non-cellulosic
polysaccharides, the hot trub and the residual
yeast, the powder of macaroni boiling water,
slime and waste waters
Brewery and Winery Industry Wine prunings, grape stalks, grape pomace
and grape seeds, yeast lees, tartrate, carbon
dioxide and wastewater
Meat Industry Carcasses, skins, bones, meat trimmings,

blood, fatty tissues, horns, feet, hoofs or
internal organs that are rich in lipids,
carbohydrates and proteins
Marine Industry É-3 PUFAs from the livers of white lean fish,
waste flesh parts of fatty fish, blubber of
marine animals, hydrolysates from fish guts/
cleanings, peptides, and products from
crustaceans such as chitosan, chitosan
oligomers and glucosamines

unit.
3. What are sources of waste in fruit and vegetable industry?
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. What is the range of pollution index?
.............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................. 53
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3.3.3 Pollutants from Petrochemical Industry
Petrochemical waste from production to refining is considered to be complex to
treat among the industrial wastewaters. Occasionally these are released into the
atmosphere by accidental discharges due to the technical error and abnormal
operations from polyethylene and ethylene oxide glycol industries. These are
highly industry specific and typically generate hazardous solid waste, sludges
and colloids which contain huge quantities of heavy metals, toxic organic
substances like polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, metal
derivatives surface-active substances, sulphides, naphthylenic acids and other
chemicals which contaminate the water bodies that pose adverse consequences
on the ecosystem.
3.3.4 Pollutants from Textile Industry

The textile industry is one of most rapidly developing important industry on
the globe. It requires large volume of water for numerous unit operations and
chemicals for various processes involves wet processing sequences. The waste
generated by this industry has high negative impact on the environment since
this industry plays a major role in the fashion garment that varies in type of
demand and coloured fabrics. The textile processing produce loads of liquid,
solid and gaseous waste in each step.
The textile industry uses natural fibres like wool, hair, silk, cotton and flax and
synthetic fibres like rayon and nylon. These wastes have salts, surfactants,
ionic metals and their complexes, toxic chemicals, emulsifiers, dispersants
and biocides that contributes to BOD,foaming and effluent aquatic toxicity.
The pollutants generated in various processes of the textile industry are listed
in the Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Nature of effluents generated in the textile

industrial processes
Process Pollutants
Energy production Particulate matter, NOX, SO2
Coating, drying and curing Volatile organic compounds
Cotton handling activities Particulate matter
Sizing NOx, SOx, COx
Bleaching Chlorine and Chlorine dioxide
Dyeing H2 S
Printing and finishing Hydrocarbons and NH3
Chemical storage VOCs

54
Water Pollution
3.3.5 Pollutants from Tanning Industry
Tanning Industry is considered to be one of the major sources of pollution
with a potential environmental concern. The leather production process
consists of the following stages and used hazardous chemicals at every stage.
These are 1. Preparatory stages 2. Tanning 3. Crusting and 4. Surface Coating
(Fig. 3.3).
Fig. 3.3: Different stages in leather production process
Nature of Effluents:Approximately80% of the organic pollutants, limed and non-

limed waste is generated in the pretanning process. The waste water contains
pollutants like salts (Cl), fats, proteins, preservatives (soaking); lime and ammonium
salts,ammonia, protein (hair), andsulphides(fleshing, trimmingating);chromium(salts)
and polyphenolic compounds (tanning);and dye and solventchemicals (wet-finishing).
Significantthreat to environmentand human healthfromtanneries have beenobserved
because of chromium contamination, high chemical oxygen demand and BOD.
3.3.6 Pollutants from Paper and Pulp Industry
Paper and pulp industry is also one of the large industrial polluter to water, air and
soil. The major process of a paper industry is depicted in Fig. 3.4. 55
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Acid sulphite Liquor
Alkaline Sulphate Liquor (Kraft)
Neutral Sulphite
Pulp Log
Wood Pulping Screening Washing

Preparation
Evaporation (Heat
generation As by- Thickning
Kraft and neutral

sulphite recovery
Bleaching
Finalising and neutral Paper Machine Stock

sulphite recovery preparation
Fig. 3.4: Flow diagram of the processes in paper and pulp industry
Paper and pulp are manufactured from cellulosic fibres of wood, straw, cereal,
reeds, jute, flax and esparto grass. These different raw materials used for different
types of paper. For example, coarse type paper is generated from straw. Kraft,
sulphite, neutral sulphite, soda, cold soda and ground wood are important pulps
used to produce paper.
The major steps in the industry are raw material preparation, wood pulping, pulp
bleaching and paper manufacturing. Raw material preparation includes debarking of
wood, chipping of logs and screening of chips. The chemical pulping process fibres
are released from the wood matrix since the lignin is eliminated by solubilizing in
cooking liquor at elevated temperature.
Nature of Effluents
The major effluents from pulp and paper making are from wood preparation unit,
screeningand pulp cleaningunit, mechanical and chemical pulping, chemical pulping,
textile fiber pulping unit, machine and bleaching waste which contains dissolved
organic substances and suspended particles. They contain chlorine and chlorine
based materials, sulfur, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. The chlorinated
compounds are mainly used in bleaching process of wood pulp and chemical pulp.
The pollutants from bleaching process contain significant amounts of dioxins which
belong to a group of POPs, with high toxic potentials. The waste waters contain
various solids, nutrients; sulfur compounds and Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM).
Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous cause eutrophication. DOM changes the
ecological characteristics of water bodies that lead to the high levels of BOD which
can cause the death of aquatic organisms, SO2 released from the processing of
sulphur compounds that makes the water bodies more acidic. Solid pollutants consist
of clay particles, CaCO3, titanium dioxide and fiber.
3.3.7 Water Pollutants due to Agrochemicals
The pesticides, biocides, manures and fertilizers are categorized under agrochemicals
56 that are used to enhance the yield of the crop. The essential hydrological processes
that loop rainfall, runoff and leaching, and which bring about erosion and transport Water Pollution
of chemically augmented soil particles, are important in aquatic contamination by
fertilizer products. The major sources of pollutants due to pesticides are industries,
agriculture, forestryand also air which becomes a means of spreading the pollutants.
The dust particles in the air adsorb the pesticides from pesticides sprayin agriculture,
forestry and then contaminate water bodies, sediments and soil through rain water.
The high quantity of the residual pesticide eventuallybe leached to aquifer levels and
pollute the groundwater. The amount of pesticide leachability is measured in terms
of the groundwater ubiquity score (GUS).
The GUS indexcan be written as

GUS = log (DT50). [4–log(Ka )],Where DT50 and Ka are persistence and
mobilityrespectively. The tendencies of groundwater contamination are (i) non-
leacher (GUS < 1.8), (ii) transition (1.8 < GUS < 2.8) and (iii) leacher
(GUS > 2.8).
Leaching of pesticides depends on the amount applied per area per year, application
procedure, the solubility of the compound, how strongly it is bound by the soil and
how quickly it degrades in the root zone. After a pesticide application a part of it
may be lost to the atmosphere through volatilization, and a part is carried away to
surface waters by runoff, or broken down by photolysis. The pesticides from the
contaminated water are taken up by plants and animals and enter the food chain.
Once they enter into the body they are tissue degradative, relatively stable and
carcinogenic in nature. Some of them damage the liver and the nervous system.
Further more, certain pesticides are found to alter the enzymatic activities of the
bodywhich leads to different types of diseases. Some of the commonlyused pesticides
and their health hazards are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 : Most commonly used pesticides and their health hazards
Pesticide Diseases/Adverse effects
Aldrin Attacks the nervous system, convulsion,
repeated dosage damages the liver,
carcinogenic
Benzene hexa chloride (BHC) Liver tumour
Captan Abnormality in the eyes and brain,
carcinogenic
Chlordane Carcinogenic
DDT Liver damage, carcinogenic
Dieldrin Liver damage, carcinogenic, destroys
enzymatic activities
Endosulfan Carcinogenic
Hexa Chloro Benzene Highly toxic, bone marrow damage,
mutagenic, teratogenic, carcinogenic
57
Heptachlor Liver damage, carcinogenic
Malathion Low toxic but sometimes carcinogenic
Methoxychlor Low toxic but sometimes carcinogenic
Mirex Carcinogenic
Commercialfertilizers contain mainlypotassiumand nitrogen and phosphorous. Some
of the fertilizers are identified as possible sources of water pollution. The improper
dissemination causes adverse toxic effects on the environment and humans as well
since these substances are toxic in nature. For example, surface water fertilization
results in eutrophication, i.e., intense growth of algae which causes unmanageable
changes to the biological equilibrium. These chemicals enter the water bodies by
intentional or unintentional application for pest control. Globally many soils are
deficient in phosphorous, which is required for plant growth. In its phosphate form,
phosphorus is significant for cell’s genetic material, and available as adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the energy carrier in cells. Phosphorous based fertilizer is the
major contributor to run-off phosphorous pollution from the agriculture land and
through manure into waterways. Excess phosphorus results into harmful algal blooms,
known as eutrophication. The blooms consume much of the dissolved oxygen in
the water, are lethal to fish and other plant life, also release toxins that are toxic to
humans and animals. Toxic effects of potassium in humans are very rare since it is
promptly excreted in the absence of pre-existing kidney damage. The impacts of
some of the agrochemicals are listed in Table 3.3.
Table 3.4: Some agrochemicals and their impacts
Agrochemicals Impacts
Ground Surface Ecosystem Humans

water water
Pesticides Some pesticides Pesticides runoff Pesticides Adverse

may leach into contaminates the inhibit the effects on
groundwater surface water and growth and human health
and contaminate biota; Pesticides causes by eating
the drinking are also travel reproductive contaminated
water causing long distances as failure. food like
human health dust by wind and Consequent fruits,
problems. contaminate upon vegetables and
aquatic systems. malfunctioning fish, breathing
of ecological contaminated
system in air etc.,
surface waters
occurs by loss
of top predators.
Fertilizers Nitrogen Surface runoff Water with
Nitrate can toxic
Nitrogen fertilizers in any carry nitrogen high quantity
to plants that
based form leach in to fertilizer to the of nitrate and
causes stunted
groundwater water streams and food
growth and
and converted lakes there by consumed by
excessive nitrate
into nitrites by contaminates. humans and
accumulates in
microorganisms cattle gets
the leaves of the
that converted into
crop.
contaminate nitrites by
ground water. microorganism’s
causes the
disease
58
Water Pollution
methemogl-
obinemea (blue
baby
syndrome) in
children and
by the
formation
nitrosamines
have the same
effect in cattle
also.
Potassium Potassium is Potassium

based strongly held by toxicity causes
clay particles in chest tightness,
soil. Therefore, nausea and
leaching of vomiting,
potassium diarrhea,
through the soil hyperkalaemia,
profile and into shortness of
ground water is breath and
important only heart failure.
on coarse-
textured soils
Phosphorous Leached Excess Excess of Excess of

based phosphorus phosphorus Phosphorous phosphate can
stored in bed caused harmful causes toxic cause health
sediments algal blooms algal blooms, problems, such
which is known as loss of as irritation in
released back to eutrophication. biodiversity and eyes, kidney
the water The blooms increased health damage and
column causing consume much risks for the osteoporosis.
‘dead zones’. of the dissolved plants, animals
Phosphate oxygen in the and humans that
fertilizer can water, lethal to come in contact
also contribute fish and other with polluted
heavy metal like plant life, also waters.
cadmium to release toxins
food chain. that are toxic to
Cadmium is humans and
present in animals.
concentrations
ranges between
5-280mgkg-1 in
Rock
phosphate.
Do You Know?
Methemoglobinemea is caused byhigh levels of methemoglobin in the blood.
Methemoglobin is one of the forms of hemoglobin that contains the ferric [Fe3+]
ion and the affinity for oxygen of ferric iron is impaired and the binding of
oxygen in the remaining heme sites that are in ferrous state within the same
tetrameric hemoglobin unit will increase. Hypoxia will occur when
methemoglobin concentration is elevated in red blood cells. This leads to an
overall reduced ability of the red blood cell to release oxygen to tissues.
59
Air, Water and Soil Pollution 3.3.8 Sewage Water Pollutants Sewage includes domestic
wastewaters and municipal wastewater that is produced by a population. Sewage
contains organic wastes as well as chemicals pollutants. It consists of grey water,
black water, soaps and detergents. Sewage is drained off in large quantities into
rivers and other water bodies without treating. This causes adverse effects on
biodiversity and humans. The characteristics of sewage water are as follows.
i. Temperature, Odour and Turbidity: The information about the temperature
of sewage is helpful in measuring the solubility of oxygen, which affects
sedimentation and rate of biological activity. At extremely low temperature
viscosity increases and affects sedimentation adversely. The odour of old
sewage is offensive and unusual smell observed in the case of industrial sewage
water. Fresh sewage is highly turbid and grayish in colour.
ii. Inorganic and Organic Matter: The nitrogen compounds in domestic sewage
are proteins, amines, amino acids, and urea formed by the bacterial
decomposition of organic constituents. Nitrogen content in the untreated
sewage is observed to be in the range of 20 to 50 mg/L measured as Total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen(TKN). Phosphorus in domestic sewage arises from food
residues containing phosphorus and their disintegration products. The huge
quantities of synthetic detergents add substantially to the phosphorus
content.
Organic constituents in the sewage are mainly proteins, carbohydrates
and fats. The microorganisms metabolize sewage organic compounds for
the source of energy by catabolism. Protein contains C, N, H and O and
sometimes P. The source of nitrogen in the sewage is urea that decomposes
immediately to CO2 and NH3. Proteins also release H2S gas in the process
of reduction. Carbohydrates contain C, H, O and mainly exist in the form
of sugars and starch. By the bacterial action they produce organic acids
and the pH of brackish sewage water is low when compared to the fresh
sewage. Fats also contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They form thin
film and decompose to produce filthy smell.
The parameter that characterizes all sewage organic compounds is that
which can be oxidized and contains organic carbon. Oxidation of organic
compounds can be measured by 1) the Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) and 2) the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) tests. Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) test is the other test to measure the concentration of the
organic material.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The BOD of the sewage is the
amount of oxygen required for the biochemical decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic conditions. The established
range of BOD for raw sewage is 100 to 400 mg/L.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The COD of the sewage is the
amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation. The established range
of the COD of raw sewage is 200 to 700 mg/L. In BOD test, the oxidation
of organic matter takes several weeks, whereas, biochemical oxidation of
organic matter takes barely two hours.
iii. Microorganisms: Microorganisms found in sewage emerge from two sources.
1. soil and 2. sanitary waste. One milliliter of sewage ranges between 100,000
60
and 1 million microorganisms. Some of them considered as good bacteria that Water Pollution
purify sewage. In anaerobic conditions they hydrolyze protein, reduce urea
and emulsify fats. They also reduce sulphate and nitrates giving rise to CH4,
CO2 and NH3. They add nitrites, nitrates, CO2 and H2O. Some forms of
parasitic bacteria produce toxins that are capable to cause diseases and infection
in humans and animals. Pathogens commonly found in sewage are E. coli,
Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Streptococcus,
Mycobacterium and Giardia Lamblia.
3.5 SEWAGE TREATMENT METHODS

The polluted water has to be treated by using different waste water treatment
technologies depending upon the type of pollutants. The type of pollutants in
waste is divided into four categories.
1. Debris and grit
2. Particulate organic material
3. Colloidal and dissolved organic material
4. Dissolved inorganic matter.
In addition to these pollutants raw waste water, pesticides, heavy metals and
other toxic compounds are also present. The general procedure of sewage
treatment is depicted in Fig. 3.5.
The sewage treatment invoves the following steps:
1. Preliminary treatment involves screening and settling process for the removal
of debris and the grit.
2. Primarytreatment for the removal of particulate organic matter involves floating
process by primary clarifiers.
3. Secondary treament involves trickling-filter system or activated sludge
system for the removal of colloidal and dissolved organic matter. Secondary
treatment is also known as biological treatment because it uses organisms
which are natural decomposers and detritus (waste) feeders.The principle
behind this is creating such environment that enables these organisms to feed
on the waste containing organic matter and break it down to CO2, mineral
nutrients and water in the process of cell respiration.
4. Biological nutrient removal (BNR) process for the removal of dissolved
inorganic material involves various processes like denitrification for
nitrogen containg pollutants and chemical filtration for phosphorus
containg pollutants.
The secondary-treatment systems were designed for biological digestion
and the secondary activated-sludge systems have been added, which
remove both nutrients and oxidize detritus by the process known as
biological nutrient removal.
Nitrogen: It is converted by bacteria (ammonia and nitrate) through
denitrification process into nonnutritive nitrogen gas that is released into
the atmosphere.
61
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Phosphorus: In oxygen rich environment the bacteria absorb phosphate from
solution and store it in their bodies. The raw sludge istreated with these phosphate
containing bacteria producing a more nutrient-rich treated-sludge product and
can be removed. Phosphorous can be eliminated by precipitating as calcium
phosphate with lime or treat the effluent with ferric chloride, which produces
insoluble ferric phosphate, or with an organic polymer, which gives rise to a
floc.
5. Treatment of sludge: Anaerobic digetion,composting,and pasteurization
procedures are used for the treatment of sludge. These are explained below.
Anaerobic Digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a process of enabling the
bacteria to feed on the detritus in the absence of oxygen. In the absence of
oxygen, organic matter is broken down by anaerobic bacteria and
decomposed to biogas which is a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane,
and water. Because of its methane content, biogas is flammable and can
be used for fuel.
Composting: Another process used to treat sewage sludge is composting.
Raw sludge is mixed with wood chips or some other water-absorbing
material to reduce the water content. It is then placed in windrows – long,
narrow piles that allow air to circulate conveniently through the material
and that can be turned with machinery. Bacteria and other decomposers
break down the organic material to rich humus-like material that makes
an excellent treatment for poor soil.
Pasteurization: After the raw sludge is dewatered, the resulting sludge
cake may be put through ovens where the sludge is pasteurized to
sufficiently kill any pathogens. The product is dry, odorless and the organic
pellets are used as organic fertilizer.
6. On-site waste water treatment systems, reconstructing wetland systems
are the alternate treatment methods.
7. Ground water remediation involves drilling wells, pumping out the
contaminated water, purifying and reinjecting.
You are aware that water pollution is one of the most burning problem
across the globe. The intervention of the Government is a must and it has
tried to enforce a number of Acts to streamline the procedures for reducing
water pollution. In the next and the last section of the unit let us study
about the Acts and the regulations formulated by the Government and
analyse the role of stakeholders in the whole proces.
3.6 ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT

1. In India Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 has been
enacted for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution and the
maintenance or restoration of the wholesomeness of water for the
establishment.
2. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Water Act 1974 advise
the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and
control of water pollution by collecting, compiling and publishing technical
62 and statistical data relating to water pollution and the measures devised
for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides Water Pollution
relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate
information (MoEF).
3. CPCB in association with state pollution control boards has been monitoring
the qualities of water bodies under National Water Quality Monitoring
Programme (NWQMP).
4. CPCB has identified many polluted rivers and preparing action plans for
prevention and treatment of pollution.
5. Steps have been taken for the initiation of installation of online effluent
monitoring system, issuance of directions to the industries for
implementation of zero liquid discharge etc.
3.7 LET US SUM UP

Quantitative analysis of waste waters is indicated by predictable parameters
which delineate the nature of waste and its potential impact on the health of
environment and human health. The physico-chemical and biological
parameters are total suspended solids, pH, dissolved oxygen, oil, turbidity,
biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand. The waste water
from dairy includes huge amounts of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
The waste water from petrochemical industries release huge quantities of heavy
metals, toxic organic substances like polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons,
phenols, metal derivatives, surface-active substances, sulphides, naphthylenic
acids and other chemicals which contaminate the water bodies that pose adverse
consequences on the ecosystem. This unit also discussed different pollutants
from tanning industry, paper and pulp industry. The sewage treatment plant for
treating the polluted water involves different stages like, preliminary, primary,
secondary, biological removal of nutrients and sludge treatment. The unit finally
discusses the role of the Government to mitigate the water pollution problem
in the country.
3.8 KEY WORDS

Acidity : Quantitative capacity of aqueous
solutions to react with hydroxyl ions.
Chemical Oxygen Demand : Measure of oxygen consuming capacity
of substances present in the waste water.
Turbidity : Condition in waste water due to the
presence of suspended particles
resulting in the absorption and
scattering of light rays.
Eutrophication : Eutrophication, or hypertrophication, is
when a water body becomes nutrient
rich that influence excessive growth of
plants and algae.
Herbicide : A chemical used to kill or inhibit the
growth of undesired plants.
63
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Petrochemical : A chemical made frompetroleumas a base
rawmaterial–include plasic, synthetic fibre
etc.
pH : Scale used to designate the acidity or
alkalinity of solutions or soil, expressed
as the logarithm of the concentration of
hydrogen ions.(H+),pH 7 is neutral;
values decreasing from 7 indicate
increase in acidity, values increasing
from 7 increasing alkalinity.
Persistent organic pollutants : Any member of a class of organic
(POP) pollutants that are resistant to
biodegradation and that are often toxic;
for ex: DDT, PCBs and dioxin are
POPs. Such chemicals may remain
present in the environment for periods
of years.
Phosphate : An ion composed of a phosphorous
atom with four oxygen atoms attached.
Denoted PO 4 -3 , phosphate is an
important plant nutrient. In natural
waters, it is frequently the limiting
factor; therefore, additions of phosphate
to natural water are often responsible
for algal blooms.
Pathogen : An organism, usually a microbe that is
capable of causing disease.
Pasteurization : The process of applying enough heat to
kill pathogens to extend the shelf life
of the product.
Sludge cake : Treated sewage sludge that has been
dewatered to make a moist solid.

READINGS
1. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry by A.K.De
2. Environmental Chemistry by Stanley Manahan
3. Textbook of Environmental Science by Pearson.

1. a. Total suspended solids b. Total dissolved solids c. Dissolved oxygen d.
Biological oxygen demand e. Chemical oxygen demand
2. One of the most important characteristics of industrial waste is their acid
or alkali content. It provides critical information in treatment of waste
64
waterswhich removesheavymetals or organic compounds. The effluents contain Water Pollution
heavyand toxic metals in dissolved form. These will be removed byaltering the
pH by different suitable methods. High or low pH of water may kill water
organisms and sterilize the water bodies, thereby inactivate the vital
microorganisms in waste water treatment.
3. High amount in glucose, citric and linoleic acids, tocopherols, and isorhamnetin-
O-(di-deoxyhexosyl-hexoside), polysaccharides (e.g. pectin, cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin and gums) and phenolic compounds bound with skin, i.e.
dihydrochalcones, flavonols, and phenolic acids.
4. The Pollution Index PI of any industrial sector is a number from 0 to 100 and
the increasing value of PI denotes the increasing degree of pollution load from
the industrial sector and the following is the criteria on ‘Range of Pollution
Index ‘for the purpose of categorization of industrial sectors.
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 60 and above
- Red category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 41 to 59
– Orange category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score of 21 to 40
– Green category
 Industrial Sectors having Pollution Index score incl.&upto 20
- White category
5. Eutrophication, or hypertrophication, is when a water body becomes
nutrient rich that influence excessive growth of plants and algae.
6. Water with high quantity of nitrate and food consumed by humans and
cattle gets converted into nitrites by microorganism’s causes the disease
methemoglobinemea in children and by the formation nitrosamines have
the same effect in cattle also.
65
UNIT 4 SOIL POLLUTION
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Causes of Soil Pollution
4.3 Sources of Soil Pollution
4.3.1 Agricultural Sources
4.3.2 Industrial Sources
4.3.3 Urban Sources
4.3.4 Nuclear Waste Sources
4.4 Effects of Soil Pollution

4.4.1 Effects on Agriculture
4.4.2 Effects on Ecosystem
4.4.3 Effects on Humans
4.5 Prevention of Soil Pollution

4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Soil is the unconsolidated outer layer of the earth’s crust consisting of a mixture of
minerals, organic material, living organisms, air and water that together support the
growth of life. The process of soil formation is complex and involves a number of
physical, chemical and biological transformations. Several factors contribute to the
formation of soil. The factors include mechanical weathering of rocks due to
temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical weathering
activities and lichens. Climate and time are also important determinants in the
development of soils. Extremelydryor cold climates develop soils veryslowlywhile
humid and warm climates develop them more rapidly. The topmost layer of the soil
richer in nutrients and supports maximum bioforms composed of minerals of varying
sizes and organic matter along with pore space filled with air and water. There are
different classes of soil types based on the particle size distribution patterns. The soil
ecosystem includes inorganic and organic constituents, and microbial groups. The
soil biota can be categorized as bacteria, algae, fungi, actinomycetes, protozoans,
nematodes and microarthropods. The biota helps in decomposition of soil, organic
materials and in nutrient cycling. Soil microbes are the active agents in the
decomposition of plant and animal wastes and are referred to as nature’s garbage
disposal system. These soil microbes keep the earth free of toxins and help in
biogeochemical cycling of elements i.e. C, N, and P. However, soil gets contaminated
through a number ways which is referred to as soil pollution/land pollution. Soil can
be contaminated with pollutants from different sources like industries and agricultural
66 practices. Heavymetal contaminations of soil through anthropogenic activities such
as chemical and metallurgical industries have degraded the soil quality. These Soil Pollution
substances change the quality of soil and make it less fertile to support life.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
 define soil pollution;
 describe the sources of soil pollution and types of soil pollutants;
 explain the effects soil pollution; and
 discuss some prevention measures to reduce soil pollution.
4.2 CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the soil physico-chemical
properties, which can result in adverse effects on human beings, plant life and animals.
Soil pollution occurs when the presence of some toxic chemicals or contaminants in
the soil is in reasonably higher concentrations that can pose a risk to plant life,
animals and humans. Global warming, unsustainable practices, agricultural fertilizers
and pesticides are responsible for converting arable land to non-arable lands finally
leading to the process known as desertification. Soils are often contaminated with
persistent toxic organic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials and
biological disease causing agents. Pollution of the soil makes soil less suitable for
crop cultivation causing severe ecological disturbances. Biological contaminants like
bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, nematodes and vectors like mosquitoes multiply in
numbers in polluted soils that pose severe health threats. Some of the pollutants
biomagnify in the food chain giving rise to undesirable and disastrous effects.
The United Nations Food andAgricultural Organization estimate that annually 75
billion tons of soil, is lost to erosion, water-logging and salination.Ahealthy soil has
several physical, chemical and biological properties. A healthy soil, (1) needs to
incorporate adequate organic matter, (2) have a good structure, and (3) be home to
a diverse mix of organisms. These properties allow the soil to carry out important
functions, and this maybe achieved in a natural setting bya soil reaching equilibrium
with its surroundings, or in managed settings by human intervention to improve the
overall soil’s health. Agricultural soil health is linked to human health, as poor soils
yield fewer crops with decreased nutritional value. Healthy soils also limit erosion,
and help improve air and water quality (Brevik et al. 2013).
The European Commission has proposed the following definition of ‘contaminated
site’: a site where there is a confirmed presence, caused by human activities, of
hazardous substances to such a degree that they pose a significant risk to human
health or the environment, taking into account land use (Commission Proposal COM
(2006) 232). The major causes of soil pollution occur from industrial activities, oil
spills, domestic activities, agricultural activitiesand acid rain. Local soilcontamination
occurs in places where intensive industrial activities, inadequate waste disposal,
mining, military activities or accidents have introduced excessive amounts of
contaminants. Soils have a limited ability to process these contaminants through
filtering or transformation. Once this ability is exceeded, problems such as water
pollution, plants taking up contaminants etc. become more significant (EEA, 2007).
67
4.3 SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Over 200 years of industrialization have caused soil contamination to be a widespread
problem in the world. Decision makers, scientists, businesses and individual citizens
generallyaccept and understand that pollution can have negative impacts on human
health, but the impacts of soil pollution on our health are not so well understood. The
major sources of soil pollution include: mining and quarrying, household waste,
construction industrywastes, biomedical wastes, agricultural wastes etc. These wastes
reach the soil and infiltrate eventuallyentering the ground waters, rivers, lakes, streams
through rainfall, irrigation, drainage thus polluting and disturbing the natural balance
of the ecosystems. Soil gets polluted in a number of ways and some important
sources are discussed below.
4.3.1 Agricultural Sources
a) Pesticides
In modern agriculture the use of various agrochemicals is a common practice. A
wide range of pesticides have been developed, almost more than 450 compounds.
The most commonly used include herbicides, insecticides, fungicides while others
include nematicides, miticides, rodenticides and molluscicides. Pesticides applied
on seed or foliage act in a number of ways depending on their application and
ultimatelyreach the soil.Accumulation of pesticide residues in the biosphere creates
ecological stress causing contamination of soil, water, and food. After the Second
WorldWar, manycountries suffered from food shortage and this introduced chemical
fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals. Pesticides such as DDT i.e.
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane a chemical pesticide, wasintroducedwhich isa potent
nerve poison in insects. DDT was found to bioaccumulate in the food chains.
Persistent pesticides may accumulate in the bodies of animals and over a period of
time increase in concentration if the animal is unable to flush out the toxins leading to
bioaccumulation. When an affected animal is eaten by a carnivore, the pesticide is
further concentrated in the carnivore. This phenomenon of increasing in the
concentration of a nondegradable substance along the food chain is called
‘Biomagnification’. DDT prevents the shelling of bird eggs. The war of Vietnam in
1970’s introduced another chemical, dioxin. Dioxin is a toxic chemical and was
used as a defoliant bytheAmerican army.After the war, it was found that the chemical
caused congenital deformities and mental aberrations to the children born to the
American soldiers. Insecticides such as, lead arsenate, calcium arsenate, and Paris
green are used extensively and can penetrate soil and ground water.
b) Fertilizers
Farmers started using artificial fertilizers at the end of the 19th century that enabled
more land to be brought under cultivation. The production of these man-made
fertilizers requires large amounts of energy and depletes the world’s resources of
phosphate ores. In recent decades the use of inorganic fertilizers has increased
dramatically. Between 1952 and 1985, the global consumption of these fertilizers
increased from14 million tonnes to 125 million tones which is a tremendous increase.
Inorganic fertilizers are used in preference to organic fertilizers as the nutrients are in
a more readily available form and are released quickly after their application to the
soil. The agricultural production depends on chemical fertilizer application, as most
68
of our high yielding varieties are fertilizer responsive. Continuous application of Soil Pollution
chemical fertilizers lead to deterioration of soil properties and cultivated soils lose
their natural characteristics. Fertilizers like ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride
and urea reduce the soil pH. Many crops, for example like potato, grapes, citrus,
beans are sensitive to chloride toxicity. Excessive use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers
in agricultural practices has been associated with soil acidification, partlythrough the
process of nitrification. If the levels of NO3- ions in soil are in excess of plant
requirements, theywill behave as mobile anions, thus increasing the leachingprocess.
The acidifying effect of nitrogen fertilizers is mobilized in the form of organo-metallic
complexes. If mineral acids predominate then aluminium is mobilized in its ionic form
Al3+. This form of aluminium is very toxic to fish and many freshwater organisms.
The excess use of nitrate containing fertilizers leads to nitrates discharged in the soil
and ground waters. When human beings consume nitrate rich waters, the nitrates
are converted to nitrites by the action of intestinal flora. The nitrites have an affinity
to hemoglobin and combine with it to form methaemoglobin that interferes with the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This phenomenon is called
‘methaemoglobinaemia’. It is common in infants and often called the ‘blue baby
syndrome’ as the symptoms include blue colouration of the skin, vascular and
respiratory problems, headache, giddiness, and ocular tensions. Serious nitrate
poisoning is reported in Rajasthan and Punjab. Integrated nutrient management helps
to sustain the productivityof soils. The use of organic manures and bio fertilizers are
recommended as supplements to chemical fertilizers.
Blue baby or methemoglobinemia

Nitrates can enter the ground water from chemical fertilizers used in
agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentrations in drinking water
pose an immediate and serious health threat to infants less than 3 months
of age. The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, reducing the blood’s
ability to carry oxygen and this produces a disease called blue baby or
methemoglobinemia. In this illness the infant’s blood is unable to carry
enough oxygen to the body cells and tissues. An infant with moderate to
serious ‘blue baby syndrome’may have a brownish-blue skin tone due to
the lack of oxygen. The symptoms observed include: fatigue, diarrhea,
vomiting, headache, respiratory disorders and in severe cases it can cause
death.
c) Excess Salts and Water

Salinization refers to the impregnation of soils by various salts most importantly,
calcium sulphate (gypsum: CaSO4.2H2O) and sodium sulphate (thenardite Na2SO4)
andinsome cases varioussaltsof magnesiumsulphate (epsomite) and sodiumchloride
(halite). They precipitate from the ground water by percolating vertically through
capillaryunder the influence of evapotranspiration during spells of drought, and not
from the evaporation of stagnant water on impermeable soils. They dissolve again
and seep downwards when rain occurs; hence an alternate vertical motion of salts
occurs with time. Salinization usually occurs per ascensum when capillary water
brings up phreatic water and when supersaturation of dissolved salts occurs through
evaporation. Hence, excess irrigation which shifts the groundwater level is a significant
cause of soil salinization. The irrigation water helps to produce more yield than
69
rainfed land. Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and in the dry seasons, water
Air, Water and Soil Pollution is in the form of saline solution which evaporates leaving its salts such as sodium
chloride (NaCl) in the top soil. This saline soil causes stunted plant growth, lower
yield and productivity. Flushing out salts reduces the salinitybut makes downstream
irrigation water saltier.
4.3.2 Industrial Sources

Indiscriminate dumping of untreated or inadequately treated industrial wastes is an
important source of soil pollution. Fall out of gaseous and particulate air pollutants
from mining and smelting operations, smoke stacks etc. are some of the major source
of industrial soil pollutants. They can be wastes from textile, tannery, chemical,
electroplating, glass, distilleries, paper, petroleum, cement industries, pharmaceutical
etc. These wastes contain inorganic and organic materials that alter and change the
natural composition of our soils. Toxic chemicals leached into the soil are potential
threats to large numbers of birth defects, cancers, respiratory, nervous and kidney
diseases.
Heavymetal pollution
Metalliferous wastes which include heavymetals like: mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium,
copper, nickel are commonly found in soils where ore extraction and smelting
processes have occurred. Further metal contamination can also occur on land/soil
used for scrap metal dealing and ammunition factories. The heavymetals include all
metals with atomic numbers greater than 23 (with a few exceptions). The metals are
classified as “heavy metals” if in their standard state they have a specific gravity of
more than 5 g/cm3. There are sixty known heavy metals. Heavy metals get
accumulated in time in soils and plants and could have a negative influence on
physiological activities of plants (e.g. photosynthesis, gaseous exchange, and nutrient
absorption), determining the reductions in plant growth, dry matter accumulation
and yield (Devkota et al. 2000, Baker 1981). In small concentrations, the traces of
the heavy metals in plants or animals are not toxic (De Vries et al. 2008). Lead,
cadmium and mercury are exceptions; theyare toxic even in very low concentrations
(Galas-Gorchev 1991). Heavy metals are hazardous and toxic to man and other life
forms. Most of them are slow poisons as they accumulate in the body and cause
serious disorders.Another description often used interchangeablywith heavymetals
is ‘trace elements’. These elements occur naturally in rocks and in variable amounts
in soils, depending on their location and the rocks that have broken down to make
the soil’s components. The group ‘heavymetals’for the purpose of discussing health
risks or impacts generally includes: Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Cadmium (Cd),
Chromium (Cr) (although only the form Cr(VI) is toxic), Copper (Cu), Mercury
(Hg), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn). Several of these elements are necessary for human
health, and are beneficial when taken in to the body in foods or as supplements at
appropriate, low levels. Conversely, cadmium, lead and mercury have no known
biological function and are toxic to humans. Heavymetals are widelyused in industrial
processes and as biocides. These can be discharged into the environment byimproper
treatment, resulting in their accumulation causing public health hazards. Toxic metals
can exist in soil in a number of forms including adsorbed cations, attached to clay
and humus colloids and organometallic chelates. Their availabilityto plants depends
on a number of soil metals. In soils with low cation exchange capacity (CEC), the
metals are not retained effectively and will be leached from the soil. But in the case
of soils with highcation exchange capacitytheyare fixed in the soil through adsorption.
Hence the mobility and availability of heavy metals is important and is greater in
70 acidic soils (pH<5.5) than in near neutral and alkaline soils. The heavy metals once
mobilized can enter the food chain through water supplies, aquatic organisms, arable Soil Pollution
produce and grazing animals.
Table 4.1: Some sources of heavy metals in soil
Heavy metal Sources
Lead Plumbing, petrol, paint, battery, refinery,

Arsenic sm elter, plumbing pipes
Mercury Wood preservative, pesticides,
Zinc uranium mining, glass/copper
Cadmium smeltersPesticides, mining, refinery,
Chromium photography, scientific instruments
Nickel Electroplating, textile industry
Fertilizers, tannery, smelter, battery,
electroplating, paint pigments
Dyeingindustry
Electroplatingindustry
4.3.3 Urban Sources

Annually tonnes of untreated urban waste are produced. This cause serious health
hazards to humans, pollute the soil and decreases its fertilityand productivity. Plastics
constitute a major portion of global domestic and industrial waste. Plastics are non-
biodegradable so they remain in the environment for a number of years. Municipal
wastes mainly include domestic and kitchen wastes, market wastes, hospital wastes,
livestock and poultrywastes, slaughterhouse wastes etc. Wastes from the residences
are usually found dumped on soil and is a serious cause of concern. These wastes
include garbage, organic wastes, paper, glass, plastics, clothes, metal containers
etc. These do not degrade easily and cause toxicity to the soils. Hospital wastes
contain organic materials, chemicals, metal needles, plastic and glass bottles, vials,
etc. Dumping of domestic and hospital wastes contaminate the environment with a
variety of pathogens that can seriously affect human health. Plastics form a major
part of global domestic and industrial waste. Theyare nonbiodegradable and remain
in the soil addingto pollution. Using photodegradable plastic or biodegradable plastic
are solutions to the problem. Photodegradable plastic contains an element sensitive
to UV rays. Under the effect of solar rays the element is activated and breaks the
polymeric chain of the photodegradable plastic. It results in small fragments that are
easily digested by microbes.
4.3.4 Nuclear waste sources

Radioactive materials
They are often released into the soil from nuclear explosions, atmospheric fallout
from nuclear dust, discharges from radioactive laboratories etc. Uranium, Thorium,
Radium, and Cesium are commonly found in the environment that keep emitting
radiations and persist for a long time. They are known to bioaccumulate in plants.
Radiations can enter human beings when plants and food containing them are ingested
resulting in mutations and genetic disorders.
71
Activity 1
 Identify some activities in your residence/ offices that are responsible
for soil pollution.
 Identify the soil pollution generating sources in your neighborhood.
 Classify them based on the sources and type

unit.
1. What is soil pollution?
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2. Describe the sources of soil pollution.
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4.4 EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollutants may be responsible for health effects costing millions of Euros, but
studies to quantify them are in still in the preliminary stages. Health problems from
cancers (arsenic, asbestos, dioxins), to neurological damage (lead, arsenic), kidney
disease (lead, mercury, cadmium), skeletal and bone diseases (lead, fluoride,
cadmium) are serious issues, that needs to be addressed. Some countries have
detailed soil monitoring networks to measure soil quality, however, these mayreflect
national or regional priorities and standards, and so comparing results between
countries is extremely difficult. Recent improvements in data collection mean that
the number of reported contaminated sites could increase by as much as 50% by
2025 (EEA, 2007).
4.4.1 Effects on Agriculture

The major effects of soil pollution on agriculture are: loss of nutrients in the soil, soil
erosion, less fertile land for vegetation, reduction in crop yield and reduction in
nitrogen fixation. Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil
contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil
conservation. The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil.
Pesticides can hinder nitrogen fixation in legumes. DDT was one of the first synthetic
organic insecticides to be used. DDT, methyl parathion, and pentachlorophenol have
beenshown to interfere with legume rhizobiumchemicalsignalingresulting inreduced
nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. DDT also interferes with the
72 production of normal eggshells in birds making them weak and thin shells. Pesticides
lead to poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth. Soil Pollution
Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life.
The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread
contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the
soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria found in the
soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil
erosion. The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and
anylocal vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land to become
hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such
land cannot support most forms of life. The toxic chemicals present in the soil can
decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil
is then used to produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may
contain some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people
consumingthem.
4.4.2 Effects on Ecosystem

Soil pollution can affect the ecosystem in the following ways: ecological imbalance,
permanent change in the chemical properties of soil, alteration in the metabolism of
endemic microorganisms resulting in eradication of the primaryfood chain, adverse
health effects on all organisms. In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable
extent and cause food poisoning over a long period of time. The soil pollution can
even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.
4.4.3 Effects on Humans

We are also affected by soil pollution as crops and plants grown on polluted soil
absorb much of the toxic contaminants. Long term exposure to polluted soil can
affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing congenital illnesses and chronic
health problems that cannot be cured easily. These include: pollution in drinking
water, contamination in vegetation due to presence of chemicals, problems of waste
management, polluted environment with harmful gases to breathe in and foul smells
and health issues. Exposure to pesticides by consumption of food can result in skin
irritation, birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine
disruption, and even coma or death. Soil can enter our bodies via three main routes:
eating, inhalation and through the skin. (a) Ingestion: Eating soil or geophagia is
common among children under the age of three. Children are particularly sensitive
to contaminants and at highest risk from contaminated soils. Accidental ingestion
mayoccur in adults (i.e. byeating fruits or vegetables with some soil contamination).
When consumed, some chemicals are absorbed in the oral cavity while others are
swallowed and move into the digestive system. From here, they may be absorbed
into the body and transported to the liver. In the liver, some chemicals are largely
returned to the digestive system via bile, but others will enter the bloodstream. Some
chemicals are broken down in the liver before theyreach the blood. Some chemicals
are not absorbed, and remain in the gut and may cause toxicity to the gut lining. (b)
Inhalation: Working with soil releases particulate matter into the air that may be
inhaled by workers. These particles may enter the lungs and may be absorbed into
the bloodstream. Compared to ingestion, this is a far less significant source of
exposure, but may be relevant to those exposed repeatedly over a long time period.
(c) Skin contact: Volatile, organic compounds are absorption through the skin.
Absorptionofa chemical through the skin is known as ‘dermal absorption’, ‘cutaneous
absorption’ or ‘transcutaneous absorption’. (d) Indirect contact: Soil contaminants
maymove from soils into ground or surface water, leading to contaminated drinking 73
Air, Water and Soil Pollution water. They may also be taken up by plants which are subsequently consumed,
either byhumans or byagricultural livestock, causingcontaminants to enter the human
food chain. Some of these effects may be quite significant, as in the case of dioxins
accumulating up the food chain, or large quantities of cadmium in crops grown in
contaminated soils. High levels of arsenic in drinkingwater supplies are often another
significant indirect result of soil contamination.Arsenic mayalso be naturallypresent
in groundwater.Acontaminant becomes toxic in the human body once the system is
unable to detoxify. The body starts to be exposed to excess amounts of the chemical
or the metabolite produced when the body’s normal metabolic pathways are
saturated. If a chemical accumulates in tissues, reaching critical toxicity long-term
accumulation and toxicity occurs. Factors that are relevant in this case are the body’s
rate of elimination (bymetabolism or excretion), and the overall ‘body burden’ – the
quantity of chemicals stored in body tissues (EnvironmentAgency, 2009).
unit.
1. Explain the various routes through which soil can enter the human body?
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2. Describe some important effects of soil pollution?
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4.5 PREVENTION OF SOIL POLLUTION

The different types of wastes namely agricultural, industrial and urbanization have
decreased the soil fertilityand made it highlycontaminated. Some ways in which soil
pollution can be controlled are discussed below:
(i) Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and
animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly
practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid
waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports
field.
(ii) Use of bio-pesticides and biofertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used
in place of toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in
place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. To increase agricultural yield, most
farmers use chemical fertilizers. The microorganisms in these fertilizers will
help in increasing the fertility of the soil. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung
may be used to prepare compost manure instead of disposing them into soil.
74 The concept of Integrated Plant Nutrient System (IPNS) can also be used.
(iii) Proper Hygienic Condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary Soil Pollution
habits. Ex: lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal
methods.
(iv) Public Awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs
should be imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental
education. Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary
agencies can achieve this.
(v) Recycling and Reuse of Wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes
such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products
and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and reused. Ex: Industrial
wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment
methods should be adopted. Therefore, people should consider shifting
to reusable containers like glass, cotton bags, etc. Although paper does
disintegrate faster, a lot of trees are cut for producing paper bags.
Therefore, it is best to opt for cloth bags. Similarly, instead of using
tissue papers in the kitchen, etc., one should use cloth napkins,
handkerchief, etc. This will go a long way in reducing land-fills.
(vi) Ban on Toxic Chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and
pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals.
Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should
be banned.
(vii) Reduce Toxic Waste: Toxic waste is a significant aspect of soil pollution.
Hence, industrial toxic waste should be treated to reduce its toxicity
before it is disposed of. At the same time, responsible methods should
be used for disposing off the waste. The best however, is to avoid the use
of harmful chemicals unless they are of extreme importance.
(viii) Deforestation: To prevent soil pollution, deforestation measures have
to be undertaken at rapid pace. Soil erosion is caused, when there are no
trees to prevent the top layer of the soil from being transported by different
agents of nature like water and air. At the same time, measures should be
taken to avoid over cropping and over grazing, as it leads to flood and
soil erosion and further deterioration of the soil layer.
(ix) Reforesting: Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted
through restoring forest and grass cover to check wastelands, soil erosion
and floods. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can improve the fertility of
the land.
(x) Solid Waste Treatment: Industrial wastes can be treated physically,
chemically and biologically until they are less hazardous. Acidic and
alkaline wastes should be first neutralized; the insoluble material if
biodegradable should be allowed to degrade under controlled conditions
before being disposed. Further, storage of hazardous waste should be
investigated such as deep well injection and more secure landfills. Composting
the waste in locations situated away from residential areas is the simplest and
most widely used technique of solid waste management. Environmental and
aesthetic considerations must be taken into consideration before selecting the
dumping sites. Incineration of other wastes is expensive and leaves a huge
residue and adds to air pollution. Pyrolysis is a process of combustion in 75
Air, Water and Soil Pollution absence of oxygen or the material burnt under controlled atmosphere of
oxygen. It is an alternative to incineration. The gas and liquid thus obtained
can be used as fuels. Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes like firewood, coconut,
palm waste, corn combs, cashew shell, rice husk paddy straw and saw dust,
yields charcoal along with products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone
and a fuel gas.
(xi) Soil Conservation: Soil conservation is the protection of soil against excessive
loss of fertility by natural, chemical, or artificial means. It encompasses all
management and land-use methodsprotectingsoil against degradation, focusing
on damage by erosion and chemicals. Soil conservation techniques can be
achieved through crop selection and rotation, fertilizer and lime application,
residue management, contouring and strip cropping, and mechanical methods
(e.g., terracing).
4.6 LET US SUM UP

Dear learners, in this unit we have learnt that soil serves as a natural sink for pollutants
byconcentrating contaminants which end up in the soil from various sources. Modern
cities have enormous impacts on soils. Here, the city’s soils are covered with asphalt,
cement, stone, waste piles, pollutants and the soils have lost their natural cover of
vegetation. The natural exchange of gases between the soil and air is greatlyreduced.
Such soils lose their organic matter and are likely to be waterlogged, compacted
and impervious to water flow. Pollutants decrease soil quality, disturb the soil’s natural
balance and may also lead to wear and erosion. Different types of soil pollution can
be distinguished by their source, as well as the effects each has on the ecosystem.
Anthropogenic or human activities that pollute the soil include: agricultural practices
that use excessive pesticides, industrial wastes, radioactive emissions that contaminate
the soil with various toxic substances etc. Soil pollution affects plants, animals and
humans. Soil pollution may cause a variety of health problems in human beings,
starting with headaches, nausea, fatigue, skin rash, eye irritation and potentially
resulting in more serious conditions like neuromuscular blockage, kidney and liver
damage and various forms of cancer. Some prevention measures for soil pollution
are also discussed.
4.7 KEY WORDS

Methemoglobinemia: The nitrate ions react with blood hemoglobin, reducing the
blood’s ability to carry oxygen and this produces a disease called blue baby or
methemoglobinemia.
Soil conservation: Soil conservation is the protection of soil against excessive loss
of fertility bynatural, chemical, or artificial means.
Land Farming: It is a bioremediation treatment process that is carried out in the
upper soil zone.
Reforestation: It involves replanting areas of forest which have previously been
damaged or destroyed, using native tree species.
Deforestation: It refers to the removal of a forest or trees where the land is thereafter
76 converted to a non-forest use.
Soil Pollution
READINGS
Baker, A.J.M. 1981. Accumulator and excluders: Strategies in response of plant
to heavy metals. J. Plant Nutr., 3, 643-654.
Botkin, D.B and Keller, E.A. 2000. Environmental Science: Earth as a living
planet. 3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons INC, USA, 645p.
de Vries, W.; Romkens, P.F.; Schutze, G. 2007. Critical soil concentrations of
cadmium, lead, and mercury in view of health effects on humans and animals.
Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 191, 91-130. Int.
J. Mol. Sci. 2008, 9 452.
Devkota, B., Schmidt, G.H. 2000. Accumulation of heavy metals in food plants
and grasshoppers from the Taigetos Mountains, Greece. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 78(1), 85-91.
EEA (2007). Progress in management of contaminated sites (CSI 015).
Copenhagen: European Environment Agency. Available at: www.eea.
europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/progress-in-management-ofcontaminated-
sites/progress-in-management-of-contaminated-1
Galas-Gorchev, H. 1991. Dietary Intake of Pesticide Residues: Cadmium,
Mercury and Lead. Food Add. Cont., 8, 793-806.
Rana, SVS. (2005). Essentials of ecology and environmental science, Second
Edition. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, pp 488.

1. Your answer must include the following points:
Soil pollution can be defined as an undesirable change in the soil physico-
chemical properties, which can result in adverse effects on human beings,
plant life and animals. Soil pollution occurs when the presence of some
toxic chemicals or contaminants in the soil is in reasonably higher
concentrations that can pose a risk to plant life, animals and humans.
Agricultural sources
Industrial sources
Urban sources
Nuclear waste sources
Soil can enter our bodies via three main routes: eating, inhalation and through
the skin. 77
Air, Water and Soil Pollution Ingestion
Inhalation
Skin contact
Indirect contact
Soil pollutants maybe responsible for health effects costing millions of Euros,
but studies to quantifythem are in still in the preliminarystages. Health problems
from cancers (arsenic, asbestos, dioxins), to neurological damage (lead,
arsenic), kidney disease (lead, mercury, cadmium), skeletal and bone diseases
(lead, fluoride, cadmium) are serious issues, that needs to be addressed.
Effects onAgriculture
Effects on Ecosystem
Effects on Humans
Effect on growth of plants and soil fertility
78
ignou MEV-001
THE PEOPLE'S
NOISE, RADIATION, SOLID WASTE,

ELECTRONIC WASTE POLLUTION 3
MEV-001
Introduction to
Indira Gandhi National Open University Environmental Health
Block
3
NOISE, RADIATION, SOLID WASTE,
ELECTRONIC WASTE POLLUTION
UNIT 1
Noise Pollution 5
UNIT 2
Radiation and Pollution 17
UNIT 3
Solid Waste Pollution 27
UNIT 4
Electronic Waste 39
1
New Delhi New Delhi

Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Rita Dahiya, Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Chirashree Ghosh
Environmental Studies, School of Soil Science, Haryana Environmental Studies, School of Department of
Interdisciplinary and Trans- Agricultural University, Interdisciplinary and Trans- Environmental Studies,
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi Hisar, Haryana disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi University of Delhi,
National Open University, National Open University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi
National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New University, New Delhi
New Delhi Delhi

Environmental Studies, School Prof. Ruchika Kuba, School of Health Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Gandhi National Open disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi
University, New Delhi Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies,IGNOU, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITORS
Environmental Studies, School of Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
February, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-80-7
Copyright holder.
at www.ignou.ac.in
Printed at:
Environmental Science is Considered as One of the sources of reliable
knowledge, especially for providing the knowledge of pollution realities around
us by clearing the myths and strives to explain the actual data of various
Pollutions. This block is devoted to 4 Units - Noise Pollution, Radiation &
Pollution, Solid Waste Pollution and Electronic Waste.
Unit 1 Introduces Noise Pollution and its definition, concepts of noise and sound,
sound and the human ear. It also explained sources of noise pollution. You
will be surprised to learn the health effects of noise pollution, effects on
ecosystem- plants, animal’s effects on wild life & marine life. This unit also
dealt with the prevention of domestic, road traffic noise, noise in sensitive areas.
Unit 2 Highlights the Radioactive Paterials and their radiation phenomena among
different types of pollutants responsible for environmental pollution, radioactive
radiations are posing serious threats to the environment. This unit discussed
above the sources of radioactive radiations, biological effects of nuclear
radiations, control measures of radiation pollution. It provides the information
above regulations regarding safety measures and recommendations of international
commission on radiological protection (ICRP).
Unit 3 Studies about Solid Waste Pollution, its definition and the sources. The
rapid growth in urban areas has not been backed adequately with provisioning
of basic sanitation infrastructure and thus leaving many Indian cities deficient
in services as water supply, sewerage, storm water drainage and solid waste
management. Effects of solid waste pollution and its prevention have been
discussed at the end of the unit.
Unit 4 We have brief outline of understanding of Electronic Waste and its
significance, identification methods of different types of e-wastes. It also
highlighted the laws enacted for electronic waste. The illegal dumping of e-
waste is a major problem faced in various regions across the globe. This unit
concluded with effects of e-waste on human health.
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste,
Electronic Waste Pollution
4
UNIT 1 NOISE POLLUTION
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objective
1.2 Noise pollution: Definition, Concepts
1.2.1 Noise and Sound
1.2.2 Sound and the Human Ear
1.2.3 Path of Sound Waves through the Ear
1.3 Sources of Noise Pollution

1.4 Effects of Noise Pollution
1.4.1 Effects on Human Health
1.4.2 Effects on the Ecosystem
1.5 Prevention of Noise Pollution

1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 References and Suggested Further Readings 1.7Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Health and development is intimately linked with the state of the surrounding
environment. Pollution and degradation of the environment has tremendous
negative effects on the health of human beings. Presently pollution is aggravated
by human induced activities or anthropogenic sources and it high time we think
and work together to manage this effectively. All activities whether domestic,
commercial and industrial produce noise that can be detrimental to health. In
this unit we will focus on noise pollution. High levels of noise have affected the
quality of hearing and deafness is increasingly becoming common at a very young
age. It is realized that mostly it is not pollution that causes the problem but the
unscientific management that leads to serious environmental problems. Hence
we should understand the problems and preventive measures to protect ourselves
from the same.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
 define and describe the sources of noise pollution;
 describe the impacts and effects of noise pollution; and
 explain the prevention measures for reducing noise pollution.
1.2 NOISE POLLUTION: DEFINITION, CONCEPTS

The word Noise comes from the Latin word “nausea”. Noise pollution is referred
to as an undesirable sound that causes uneasiness to the ear and can result in serious 5
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, health hazards. Presently, noise pollution is more prevalent in metropolitan cities and
Electronic Waste Pollution urban areas compared to the suburban areas. Increasing population, lifestyle,
transportation, industries, institutions, factories, and residential areas collectively
The intensity of sound is
produce large amount of noise. Traffic is the main noise pollution in urban areas.
measured in decibels (d = deci Noise pollution causes disturbance in health and behavior.
meaning 10 and B = Bell named
after the scientist Alexander 1.2.1 Noise and Sound
Graham Bell
‘Noise’ can be defined in simple terms as unwanted sound. ‘Sound’ is a compression
waveform that travels through matter. It can readily travel in water, steel, air but it
Since loudness is represented does not travel through vacuum. Sound waves are characterized by amplitude,
in logarithmic scale, dB can be frequency, velocity and wavelength. When sound hits an object the object vibrates.
represented as: Sounds produced by all vibrating bodies are not audible. Sounds that are generally
dB = 10 x log 10 I/Io considered to be pleasant create variations in pressure with a regular pattern. Sound
waves that are called as noise have irregular patterns. The patterns of sound waves
where, I is the measured sound
intensity and Io is the softest
for human voices are a mixture of both irregular and regular sound pulses. Thus,
audible sound intensity. noise is produced by fluctuations in air pressure, and includes sound and vibration.
Sound becomes noise due to the unbearable pitch and the lack of control over it.
The characteristics of unpleasant sound depend on the frequency and intensity of
sound waves, time/exposure/ intermittence of sound waves.
Noise is characterized by loudness which is measured by decibel (dB) and pitch or

frequency that is measured in hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to one vibration second-
1
. Noise can be of two types: high frequency or low frequency. An adult normally
can hear frequencies between 16 to 20,000 hertz (Hz). The range of vibrations
below 16Hz are infra-audible and those above 20,000 Hz are ultrasonic. The
frequencies between 2000 Hz - 8000 Hz are most annoying and those >500 Hz are
less annoying. The World Health Organization (WHO) has fixed the safe level for
noise in cities as 45 dB. The differentiation between sound and noise also depends
upon the habit and interest of the receiver, the ambient conditions and impact of the
sound generated during that particular duration of time. Many animals can hear
sounds that are inaudible to the human ear, for example, dolphins and bats, can hear
frequencies up to 100,000 Hz. Bats have evolved very sensitive hearing to adapt to
their nocturnal activity. Elephants can hear sounds at 14 to 16 Hz, while some whales
can hear infrasonic sounds as low as 7 Hz (in water).
Case Study: Noise Pollution induced Presbycusis

Many people in New Delhi, India complain of Presbycusis i.e. age-related
hearing loss as early as 60 years of age, says a study conducted by the
Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health at Maulana Azad
Medical College (MAMC), New Delhi. Normally this sets in above 75
years. It is reported by Dr T K Joshi, Director of the Centre for
Occupational and Environmental Health, MAMC the age for the medical
condition has actually come down by almost 15 years. After analysing
thousand cases they concluded that this is due to very high pollution
levels in the city. Noise trauma is one of the major reasons that induce
presbycusis at an early age though other factors include: poor diet,
smoking and hypertension. Further, studies conducted by the Delhi
Pollution Control Committee (DPPC) reported dangerously high noise
levels central Delhi, Rohini, Pitampura, Dwarka and IGI Airport where
the levels ranged between 80 - 93 dB during day and night. These levels
are deafening. Source: Chandra,N. 2013.
6
1.2.2 Sound and the Human Ear Noise Pollution
The human ear is an organ whose primary function is to hear a sound and to detect
and analyze noise by transduction. The sound waves are converted into electrical
impulses and the compression in the air has to be converted into electrical signals for
our brain to detect them.
(a) Structure of the Human Ear

The human ear has three main parts: the outer ear, middle ear and the inner ear
(Figure 1.1).
(i) Outer Ear: The outer ear is the external portion of the ear and includes
the pinna, the ear canal and the outer layer of the eardrum.
(ii) Middle Ear: The middle ear lies between the outer ear and the inner ear.
It consists of an air-filled cavity called the tympanic cavity and includes
the three ossicles and their attaching ligaments; the auditory tube; and
the round and oval windows. The ossicles are three small bones that
function together to receive, amplify, and transmit the sound from the
eardrum to the inner ear. The ossicles are the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup). The stapes is the smallest
bone in the body. The middle ear also connects to the upper throat at
the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal opening of the Eustachian tube. The
three ossicles transmit sound from the outer ear to the inner ear.
(iii) Inner Ear: The inner ear is situated in the temporal bone in a complex
cavity called the bony labyrinth. The inner ear structurally begins at the
oval window, which receives vibrations from the incus of the middle ear.
Vibrations from the middle ear are transmitted into the inner ear into a
fluid called endolymph, which fills the membranous labyrinth. The
endolymph is situated in two vestibules, the utricle and saccule. These
connect to the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The three semicircular
canals are situated at right angles to each other which are responsible for
dynamic balance. The cochlea is a spiral shell-shaped organ which is
responsible for the sense of hearing. These structures together create
the membranous labyrinth. The cochlea consists of three fluid-filled spaces:
the vestibular duct, the cochlear duct, and the tympanic duct. Hair
cells responsible for transduction i.e. converting mechanical stimuli into
electrical stimuli are present in the organ of Corti in the cochlea.
(b) Path of Sound Waves Through The Ear:
The outermost part of the human ear called the “pinna” gathers sound. The ear
converts the energy of sound waves into pressure waves. These are transferred
into nerve impulses that travel to the brain. The compressions in the air reach
the pinna which directs the sound to travel through the ear canal to reach the
ear drum or tympanic membrane. The sound waves collected by the pinna
travel down the auditory canal, resulting in the tympanic membrane to vibrate
at the same frequency as the entering sound waves. When sound reaches the
eardrum, they become vibrations. The vibrations are then passed on to three
bones in the ear connected to the ear drum: hammer, anvil and stirrup and by
the vibrating ossicles a pressure wave in the fluids of the cochlea is produced.
Here the vibration is amplified approximately20 times the actual vibration. The
7
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, pressure wave in the cochlear fluids moves through the vestibular canal to the
tympanic canal. The fluid pressures then push onto the cochlear duct and on
the membranes near the organ of Corti. The hair cells of the organ of Corti
detect the vibration and send signals to the brain via the auditory nerve. The
brain reads the electrical impulses and detects it as sound. The auditory part of
our brain interprets this electrochemical impulse and instructs us what to do.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Differentiate between noise and sound?
0 ............................................................................................................
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2. Define noise pollution
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3. Describe the structure of the human ear.
..............................................................................................................
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4. Explain the process of sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain.
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1.3 SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Noise maybe natural such as wind, thunder, lightening, rustling of leaves, rainfall, the
movement of water in oceans, rivers, streams or noise can be man-made. Many of
us are exposed to high levels of noise everydayand it directlyaffects our health. The
sources of noise may be from residential/domestic, natural (shores, birds chirping,
from animals, sounds from wind, sea tides, waterfall), commercial (automobiles,
aeroplanes, laboratory, machinery etc.) industrial (generator sets, boilers, plant
operations, trolley movement, transport vehicles, pumps, motors etc.). Constant
noise can affect a person both physically as well as mentally. Noise pollution can be
classified into indoor and outdoor sources.
(a) Indoor Sources: They include noise produced from radio, television,
generators, lawn movers, electric pump sets, electric fans, air coolers, air
conditioners, different home and kitchen appliances, etc.
(b) Outdoor Sources: They include noise from loudspeakers, industrial activities,
8 automobiles, rail traffic, aeroplanes, farm machines, pump sets etc.
They can also be classified based on the source of the noise generated. Noise Pollution
(a) Domestic Sources: Normal gadgets like food mixer, grinder, vacuum cleaner,
washingmachine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners, transistors, radio, television,
musical instruments, which we use in daily life can be very noisy and injurious
to health. Others include loud speakers of sound systems and ipods, ear phones
and animals like barking dogs.
(b) Social Events: In India social events are noisy and can be disturbing for
neighbours. Sometimes places of worship, discos, marriages, Jagrans,
firecrackers, political rallies, parties and other social events also create a lot of
noise for the people living in that area. Further, in many market areas, people
sell their products with loud speakers.
(c) Commercial and Industrial Activities: Printing presses, manufacturing

industries, construction sites, contribute to noise pollutions in large cities. The
most annoying noise pollution sources are from compressors, generators,
furnaces, looms, grinding mills, releasing valves which are used in industries
and are situated in open or closed sheds. An 80 to 120 Hz dB noise level is
most common to the units. This can be disastrous to health. In an industry, most
of the workers are subjected to noise levels for almost 8 hours per day and 6
days per week. Some of the industrial processes are much noisier than others,
but it is known that permanent hearing damage is often found in those workers
associated with weaving, ship-building, boiler-making, forging, pressing and
blasting operations units. Thus, industrial noise is a complex phenomenon. It
can vary with the design, direction, of movement of working parts, and the
method of mounting of machines. Industrial noise is often produced in three
stages such as: (i) initial disturbance at the point of origin of the sound;
(ii) amplification that is caused by the resonance of the machine parts, the
workplace or the floor; and finally(iii) radiation of the sound to the surrounding
environment. Noise produced by any machine is often a combination of the
above three stages. Some industrial noise pollution sources in India and their
sound levels are listed below in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Industrial noise pollution sources and their sound levels
Source: Tiwari and Ali, 1989
Industry Sound Level in dB (A)
Glass 82 – 95
Ceramics 90 – 100
Foundry 90 – 100
Machinery 85 – 96
Leather 85 – 95
Fabrication 82 – 95
Paper 88 – 96
Chemicals 85 – 96
Food processing 80 - 90 9
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, (d) Transportation: Aeroplanes, underground trains, metro trains, vehicles on
road constantly make a lot of noise and people always struggle to cope with
them. Continuous movementofvehicles, cause traffic noise. Noise fromvehicular
sources produces disturbance to more people than from any other source of
noise. In past decades more cars have increased on Indian roads and the road
traffic leading to congestion with honking has become a serious noise pollution
factor. In contrast to high levels of noise in industrial situations, the intensityof
traffic noise may not be as damaging as that of industrial noise levels. However,
traffic noise has other insidious effects. For example, continuous exposure to
traffic noise mayaccelerate age-induced deafness. The people living near railway
lines, bus stations and aerodromes are the worst sufferers. The average traffic
noise levels in Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata is about 95 dB.
(e) Other Sources: Some other sources of noise pollution include crowded
markets, circus, carnivals, street processions, satellite launching activities and
atomic explosions. Some examples of noise levels from some sources are given
in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 : Some Sources of Sound
Sources Sound Level in dB
Rockets 180
Jet plane take off 140
Aeroplane take off 120
Industrial grinders 90-115
Steam turbine (12,500 kW) 91
Car horn 90-115
Trucks 90-100
Air compressors 95-104
Racing cars 110
Garbage Trucks 100
Motor cycle 90
CityTraffic 60-90
Hydraulic pumps 80
Vacuum cleaners 70
Talking(normal) 40-50
Whispering 30
Flowing streams 15
Rustling of a leaf 10
Trains 96
Clock 30
Sports car 80-95
10
Noise Pollution
1.4 EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution can cause stress, hearing impairments, high blood pressure and sleep
disturbances. Further it can cause some changes in the immune system. The first
organ to be affected by noise is the ear. Hearing impairment or presbycusis occurs
naturally with age. But continuous exposure to high levels of noise has induced
presbycusis and permanent loss of hearing in a large fraction of the human population
at alarming rates.Also, high noise levels can induce stress, accident rates, aggressive
behaviour and other anti-social behaviours. The social costs of traffic noise cost
several billion Euros per year.
1.4.1 Effects of Noise Pollution on Human Health

Majority of people are exposed to high levels of noise everyday and it directly
affects their health. The effects on human beings can be broadly classified into two
categories: (i) Auditory effects and (ii) Non-auditory effects
(i) Auditory Effects: These effects include neural hearing loss caused due to
damage to auditory nerves, sensory hearing loss caused due to damage to the
inner ear most commonly associated with high noise levels. Extremely high
noise levels can result in excessive ear wax secretion, a damaged ear drum or
fluid in the middle ear. Some more serious effects include permanent deafness,
pain and ringing in the ears.
(ii) Non-Auditory Effects: These effects include psychological and physiological
effects leading to increase in blood pressure, blood cholesterol, increase in
heart rate, dilation of pupil, adrenalin hormone changes, digestive spasms,
damage to respiratory and digestive systems. Constant noise can lead to stress
disorders that can become ulcers. It can also cause speech disorders, mental
illnesses, depression, sexual dysfunction, sleep disorders, heart attacks,
constriction of blood vessels, insomnia, anxiety, sweating, giddiness, nausea,
gastrointestinal problems, peptic ulcers, etc. In children, it can result in decrease
in alertness and the ability to memorize, nervousness, pupil dilation and a
decrease in the visual field. Chronic noise can lead to abortions and congenital
defects. Some instant reactions to noise levels include: constriction of blood
vessels, dialation of pupils, closure of eyes, wincing, holding breath, tense
voluntary and involuntary muscles, increase in blood pressure, increase in
adrenalin etc.
Activity 1
- Identify some activities in your residence/ offices that are responsible
for noise pollution
- Identify the noise generating sources in your neighborhood
- Classify them based on the sources and sound frequency
1.4.2 Effects of Noise Pollution on the Ecosystem

Noise pollution affects not only human health, but also the natural environment.
Noise pollution causes manyadverse effects on animals and plants. Noise pollution
makes it difficult for animals to communicate with each other. For example the mating
11
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, signals and warning cries that animals use to communicate are being threatened and
the entire species are being displaced. Birds in a city need to call longer and louder
in polluted areas compared to noise-free zones. Noise pollution disturbs the feeding
and breeding patterns of some animals and has been identified as a contributing
factor of the extinction of some species. Aircraft noise and sonic booms have been
implicated as a cause of lowered reproduction in a varietyof animals. Militarysonar
has had adverse effects on dolphins and whales. In the dairy sector, cows when
exposed to excessive noise reduces feed consumption, milk yield, and rate of milk
released. Intense noise can affect growth of chickens and egg production. Noise
has also been shown to have a detrimental effect on the reproduction of some plants
through interfering with pollinator or seed spreading activity.
(a) Effects on Plants: Noise pollution can be harmful to plants and trees that can
last for decades even after the sources of noise subside. Plants and trees are
dependent on birds and other animals to transfer pollen from one flower or tree
to the other, or to disperse their seeds, but due to noise pollution many animals
are changing their behavior or moving to quieter places. Consequently, noise
pollution is altering the landscape of plants and trees. For example, the pinyon
pine experiences a decline because the animals or birds that help in pollination
keep awayfromthe noise and thisresultsinthe decline intree or plant populations.
These small disturbances that are vital for the community will have effects
throughout the ecosystem leading to large-scale changes.
(b) Effects on Animals: Noise pollution has changed the behavior between
predator and prey detection and threatened the animal sounds used in
communication, especially in relation to reproduction and navigation. Thus,
noise can have a detrimentaleffect on animals, increasingtheir riskofdeath. Some
other effects that are observed in animals include: hearing loss and rapid increase
in heart rate. High intensity sound induces fear among animals that can force
species to leave their habitats. In some places it is observed that birds sing at
higher frequencies, bats and owls can have trouble finding prey, terrestrial
insectivores lose habitats by avoiding areas with roads and construction, frogs
struggle to find mates etc. In the long run species can get endangered and it
mayfinallylead to extinction.
(c) Effects on Wildlife: Noise also affects wildlife. Several zoo animals like lions,
rhinos, deers, are known to be affected by noise and they behave dull and
inactive. Several species of migratory birds have stopped resting in habitats
close to noisy cities. Grizzly bears, musk-oxen, Kangaroo rats in Malaysia
have moved to quiter habitats.
(d) Effects on Marine Life: Noise pollution can also disturb life below the surface
where almost every living organism depends on sound as the primarysense for
mating, communicating, hunting, and survival. Since the mid 1960s, the amount
of commercial vesseltraffic in Earth’s oceans has doubled resulting in an increase
in the background noise intensity. Further, the rising level of intense underwater
sound produced by industrial ocean noise, oil and gas exploration, shipping
traffic, seismic surveys, military sonar and other man-made sources can affect
marine life and threaten the marine species like whales, fishes, dolphins etc.
Even short exposures to low-intensity, low-frequency sound can affect the
sensitive systems of squid, cuttlefish and octopi. Sound provides animals a way
to communicate for mating, hunting, and for survival. The impact of continuous,
12 high-intensitynoise pollution in the oceans could be devastating. Militarysonar
and ship engine noise can send a deafening tidal wave of noise for miles as sound Noise Pollution
in the water travels five times faster than on land. Whales, dolphins and other
marine mammals have died of cerebral hemorrhage due to high levels of noise.
Even oil and gas surveys have been shown to damage fish and dramatically
reduce catch rates. Sounds produced due to noise pollution affect marine life
and the survival of the species.
1. Describe the sources of noise pollution.
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2. State two harmful effects of noise pollution on human health.
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3. Explain the effects of noise pollution on the ecosystem.
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1.5 PREVENTION OF NOISE POLLUTION

The general public must be made aware of the problem and seriousness of noise
pollution which can be achieved through media or community gatherings. Society
and people have the ability to make the greatest changes concerning noise pollution.
Noise reduction or mitigation measures are essential. Some of the control measures
adopted are to control noise levels generated from a source (vehicle/machine design),
to control noise transmission (noise barriers) and to reduce the level of sound reaching
a receiver (soundproof buildings).
 Control of Domestic Noise: Houses can be made sound proof by using
heavycurtains on the windows, puttingrugs / carpets on the floors, and acoustical
tiles on the ceilings and walls.
 Control of Road Traffic Noise: Old vehicles should be replaced, less use of
sirens and horns, proper oiling of engines, making new or upgraded roads,
construction of one-ways, bridges or flyovers for regularizing the traffic, proper
functioning of the traffic lights to avoid honking of horns can help in reducing
noise. Vegetation buffer zones must be created in different parts of the city.
Trees like the ashoka, banyan, neem, casuarina, coconut and tamarind can be
used for roadside plantations.
 Control of Noise in Sensitive Areas: These include using noise mounds,
noise attenuation walls, ban of car horns and quieter road surfacing.
13
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste,  Control of Air Traffic Noise: Design and construction is important,
aerodromes should be away from residences, schools, hospitals, construction
of smooth runways.
 Control of Railway Noise: They include upgrading existing tracks, designing

new bridges to reduce noise, use of electric locomotives, altering the holding
pattern of trains to avoid them being held at signals for extended periods.
 Control of Industrial Noise: They include using sound absorbers, acoustic

tiles, silencers in engines and home appliances. Workers at factories should
wear earmuffs or earplugs to decrease the amount of noise levels.
Since noise creates stress and can lead to other health problems, industries and
governments around the world are working to reduce noise levels. Some methods
of reducing noise pollution around airports have been rerouting airline traffic so that
it passes over less-populated areas. Sound barriers have been installed along many
highways to absorb and/or reflect sound away from houses built alongside the
roadside. In countries such asAustria and Belgium, roadways are being constructed
with a material called whisper concrete which reduces noise by 5 decibels. Sweden
has developed a road surface made of pulverized rubber that can reduce the noise
level by as much as 10 decibels.
1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about noise pollution, its effects on human health and on
the ecosystem. The unit presents a detailed account of the definition, sources and
types ofnoise pollutants, andhowhuman inducedactivitieshave led to the deterioration
of human health and the environment quality. The unit also brings forth an account of
the prevention measures to reduce noise pollution with some examples.
1.7 KEY WORDS

Noise Pollution: An undesirable sound that causes uneasiness to the ear and can
result in serious health hazards.
Noise: Noise is defined in simple terms as unwanted sound. Noise is characterized

by loudness which is measured by decibel (dB) and pitch or frequency that is
measured in hertz (Hz).
Sound: Sound is a compression waveform that travels through matter.
Pinna: The outermost part of the human ear is called the “pinna”.
Sound Absorbers: They are porous materials which act as a ‘noise sponge’ by
converting the sound energy into heat within the material.

READINGS
Alam, P. andAhmade, K. 2013. Impact of solid waste on health and the environment.
Special Issue of International Journal of Sustainable Development and Green
14 Economics (IJSDGE), ISSN No.: 2315-4721, Vol 2, (1), 165 – 168.
Chandra, N. 2013. New study warns ‘dangerous’ levels of noise pollution in New Noise Pollution
Delhi are causing age-related hearing loss 15 years earlier than normal. Mail Online
India.
Firdaus, G andAhmad,A. 2010. Noise Pollution and Human Health:ACase Study

of Municipal Corporation of Delhi. Indoor and Built Environment. Vol. 19 (6), 648
– 656.
Rana, SVS. (2005). Essentials of ecologyand environmental science, Second Edition.

Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, pp 488.
Robert, C.M. 1978. Analysis of Urban Solid Waste Services –
A Systems Approach.
Tiwari T. N., Ali Manzoor, 1988. Survey of noise pollution in Rourkella-1: Traffic
Noise, Indian Journal of Environment, vol.8, No.8, pp.595–600.

1. Differentiate between noise and sound?
Your answer should include the following points:
 Definition of noise and sound
 Characteristics of noise and sound
 Regular and irregular patterns they create
 Measurement, frequencies and the unit in which it is measured.
 Safe levels of noise
2. Define noise pollution.
 Definition: Noise pollution is referred to as an undesirable sound that causes
uneasiness to the ear and can result in serious health hazards.
3. Describe the structure of the human ear.
 The human ear has three main parts: the outer ear, middle ear and the
inner ear.
Outer ear
Middle ear
Inner ear
4. Explain the process of sound transmission from the outer ear to the brain.
 Path of sound waves through the ear: Through the outer, middle and inner
ear and finallytransmission of sound waves into nerve impulses that travel
to the brain. 15
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Describe the sources of noise pollution.
 Indoor and outdoor sources
 Domestic sources
 Social events
 Commercial and industrial activities
 Transportation
 Other sources
2. State two harmful effects of noise pollution on human health.
 Auditoryeffects
 Non-auditory effects
3. Explain the effects of noise pollution on the ecosystem.
 Effect on plants
 Effect on animals
 Effect on wildflife
 Effect on marine life
16
UNIT 2 RADIATION AND
POLLUTION
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Radioactive Radiations
2.2.1 Nature of Radioactive Radiations
2.3 Sources of Radioactive Radiations
2.3.1 Natural Sources
2.3.2 Man-made Sources
2.4 Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiations
2.5 Control of Radiation Pollution
2.6 Regulations Regarding Safety Measures
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The change in any component of environment, created by the human beings or
some times by the nature is known as environmental pollution. Among different
types of pollutants responsible for environmental pollution, radioactive radiations
are posing serious threats to the environment. These radiations are emitted by
radioactive decay of unstable heavy atomic nuclei. Approximately 17% of the
electrical energy in the world is generated from nuclear power plants, and X-
rays are used to examine bones for fractures, nuclear radiations are also used to
treat cancer and diagnose diseases. However, destructive use of radioactive
materials as nuclear bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan is impossible to
forget. Several serious accidents have also caused worldwide concern about
safety and disposal of radioactive wastes. Hence, radioactive materials can be
beneficially used for producing nuclear energy and medical science instead of
their harmful use such as nuclear weapons.
This chapter describes the nature and sources of radioactive radiations,
harmful effects of nuclear radiations on human health and environment, and
measures to control radioactive pollution, various regulations regarding safety
measures for radiation exposures, etc.
17
Electronic Waste Pollution 2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to about:
 describe radioactive materials, high energy radioactive radiations;
In 1896, Henri Becquerel
discovered radioactivity  explain radiations pollution, nuclear hazards and their effects on humans;
and
 describe to control radiation pollution, regulations and safety measures
while using the radioactive substances.
Radioactivity:
phenomenon of emission 2.2 RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS
of radiation during
radioactive The unstable isotopes of the radioactive substances/element disintegrate until a stable
disintegration isotope is formed by emitting energetic radiations. The examples of radio isotopes
are:
Uranium 233, Uranium 235, Thorium 232, etc.If N is number of nuclei in radioactive
substance at any time t, then the radioactivity R is expressed as:
R= -dN/dt
The unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq) in SI system and Curie (Ci) as traditional unit
such that
1 curie= 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
2.2.1 Nature of Radioactive Radiations
The energetic radiations emitted during the radioactive decay are alpha particles,
beta particles, gamma and neutron radiations. The alpha particles are fast moving
positively charged (He+2) particles, beta particles are high speed negatively charged
electrons, gamma rays are high energy short wave electromagnetic radiation (no
mass and no charge), and neutron radiations are high energy neutrons produced
during spontaneous fission of nuclear reactors. These high energy radiations have
variable penetration power depending upon their energyand charge. The high energy
neutrons have highest penetration power because they are neutral in nature and
alpha particles have lowest penetration power. The energetic neutrons can penetrate
through paper, aluminum and even through lead but gamma radiations can pass
through paper and aluminum but not through lead, on the other hand beta particles
can be blocked bya wood or a few millimeters of aluminum sheet and alpha particles
can even be stopped by a sheet of paper. Higher is the penetration power of the
particles/ radiations, higher is the harmful effects in the environment. The radioactivity
of radioactive substances depends on its. For example, half life of uranium (U238) is
4.5 × 109 years, radium (Ra226) is 1602 years and that of iodine (I137) is 24 seconds.
a) What are radioactive isotopes?
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b) What is radioactivity? Radiation and Pollution
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c) What are alpha particles?
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2.3 SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS

The sources of radioactive radiations are grouped into two types:
(i) Natural sources and

background
(ii) Man-made sources. radiation: small
level of radioactive
2.3.1 Natural Sources radiations which are
present everywhere
The natural sources of radioactivityare mainlyhigh energyionizing cosmic rays from
outer space. The radioactive elements like Uranium, Radium, Thorium, Strontium,
Iodine, Carbon, etc. found in rocks, soils and water are also natural sources of
radioactive radiations. The naturally occurring radioisotope in soil such as Radon-
222 (half life is 3.82 days) is another natural source of radioactive radiations. There
is a certain amount of radioactive radiations almost everywhere on the earth and
these are onlyrarelyharmful as the radiation level is generallyquite low. It is observed
that natural radioactive emissions from soils have been increased during the last 200
years because of human activities, e.g., mining activities, cement production, road
building and other construction activities, etc.
2.3.2 Man-made Sources

The man- made sources of radioactive radiations are:
i. Diagnostic medical applications: The nuclear radiations are used for diagnostic
and therapeutic purposes. The X-rays are used in radiology and CT scan for
medical purposes, and gamma rays for treatment of cancer. The exposure to
radiations during these applications causes radioactive pollution.
ii. Nuclear Tests: Testing of nuclear weapons underground or under oceans is

major source of nuclear pollution, especially when the nuclear weapons are
tested in the atmosphere. During these explosion tests, a number of radio
nuclides are released into the atmosphere known as radioactive fallout or
radioactive dust. This radioactive dust rises in the atmosphere up to about 7
km and is dispersed over long distances by winds from the testing site. These
radio nuclides settle down by the rain and pollute the soil and water, and then
may enter the food chain and finally get deposited in human body resulting in
serious health hazards.
19
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, iii. Nuclear explosions: The nuclear explosions are veryhazardous to living beings
Electronic Waste Pollution and critical sources of nuclear radiations, e.g., effects of atomic bomb explosions
in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan during II world war.
iv. Nuclear wastes: Nuclear reactors used for producing electricity require large
amount of water to act as coolant medium. Once used, this coolant water
containing small amount of radioactive substances (nuclear waste) is released
into river or sea, thus polluting the water bodies.
v. Nuclear material processing: Reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels produces
pollution in the environment.
vi. Nuclear power plants: Radiations mayleak from nuclear power plants/nuclear
reactors. It is often feared that even with the best design and techniques, and
proper handling, some radiations are routinely released into the air and water.
There are also dangers of radiation leakage from accidents occurring in nuclear
reactors which cause release of radioactive materials and radioactive (ionizing)
radiations. Such accidents result in release of large clouds of radioactive materials in
the atmosphere causing death and injury to thousands of people of the surrounding
area. The hazardous effect of nuclear accidents on humans continues for longer
times depending upon the radionuclides. For example, accidents took place at the
‘Chernobyl nuclear power plant’ in USSR in 1986 (Fig. 1) and at the ‘Three Mile
Island Power Plant’ in USA in 1979, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in
2011 (Fig. 2). The list of other major nuclear incidents along with their level of
risk is given in Table 1. India conducted nuclear bomb test in the Thar Desert
near Pokharan in May 1974 and again in May, 1998The Fukushima nuclear
accident initiated primarily by the tsunami following the TMhoku earthquake on
March 11, 2011.
Table 2.1: The lJist of major nuclear incidents along with their level of risk according
to the scale of InternationalAtomic EnergyAgency (IAEA) is given as:
Level Nuclear incident
7 i. Chernobyl, 1986 (The Chernobyl nuclear accident took place on

26th April, 1986 in USSR. The reactor caught fire causing a very high
temperature and emission of radioactive nuclides which dispersed
over large areas in central and south Europe thousand kilometers
awayfrom Chernobyl causing nuclear pollution).
ii. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, 2011 (The accident took place
on 11th March, 2011 due to major earthquake followed by tsunami
which disabled the power supply and cooling of three units of
Fukushima Daiichi reactors. High radioactive materials about 940
PBq were released, particularly in contaminated water leaked from
the nuclear reactor. Over 100,000 people were evacuated from their
homes for safety purposes.
6 Ural mountains, waste explosion, 1957 (Soviet nuclear facilitycalled the

Mayak Chemical Combine near the Southern Ural Mountains, in
Chelyabinsk province of the Russian).
20
Radiation and Pollution
5 Fire at Windscale, 1957 (It was most serious nuclear power accident at
the Windscale nuclear reactor and plutonium-production plant in the
county of Cumberland, now part of Cumbria, in northwestern England.
The accident occurred on 8th October, 1957 when a routine heating of
one of the reactor got out of control, and resulted in fire that burned for
16 hours before it was put out. The fire left about 10 tonnes of radioactive
fuel melted in the reactor core. The Windscale fire also caused the release
of sizable amounts of radioactive iodine into the atmosphere.
4 Fatal accidents at a nuclear reactor, Los Alamos, New Mexico, in the
United States, 1958 (It occurred on December 30, 1958, at the Los
Alamos National Laboratory in LosAlamos, New Mexico, in the United
States. The accident involved plutonium compounds dissolved in
liquid chemical reagents, and caused severe radiation poisoning).
3 Fire at Vandellos Nuclear Power Plant in Catalonia, Spain 1989 (It was
shut down on July 31, 1990, following a fire in one of its two turbo-
generators in October 1989).
2 Incidents at UK Magnox stations, 1968, 1983 and 1989
1 Management deficiencies in waste reprocessing, Windscale, 1986
Nuclear fission converts radioactive fuel (235U92) in the reactors to other radioactive
fragments (141Ba56 and 92Kr36). These reactions produce a lot of heat along with
three neutrons.
Nuclear fission: It is a reaction in which two (say two radioisotopes of hydrogen
atoms i.e., Deuterium and tritium) or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form
one (sayhelium) or more different atomic nucleiand huge amountof energyisreleased
during nuclear fusion due to difference in mass between the products and reactants.
a) Give natural sources of radioactive radiations.
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b) Enlist three man-made sources of radioactive pollution.
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c) Which nuclear radiations can penetrate through the human body?
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Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, d) Name two nuclear accidents which caused highest level nuclear pollution?
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2.4 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR

RADIATIONS
Improper disposal of radioactive materials cause hazardous effect on living beings.
Exposure to radiations mayresult miscarriages, eye cataract, skin and breast cancer.
Mutation: alterations The nuclear radiations emitted from the radioactive substances present in soils or
or breaks in DNA due
rocks contaminate the water bodies and groundwater and thus affect the aquatic life
to radiation exposure
directly and to human beings indirectly by entering into the food chain. A major
concern regarding nuclear power is exposure of low level radiations to huge number
of population surrounding the nuclear power plant which increases the risk of cancer
and other disorders. The radioactive radiations can penetrate the biological tissues
depending upon their energy and charge, their ability to do damage is measured in
sieverts, Sv. If the whole body is exposed to radiations having damage over 1Sv,
radiations may cause enough damage to cell division that prevents the repair of
blood, skin and other tissues of the body, and may leads to death a few days or
months after exposure. However, exposure to low doses maydamage DNAcausing
mutation, forming malignant tumors, etc. The effects of radiations exposure maybe
seen 10 to 40 years after the event.It was observed that workers using
phosphorescent radium paint on the dials of watches suffered from bone tumors in
1920s.The harmful effects of exposure to any type of ionizing radiation (±, ², ³ and
X) are also categorized as:
i. Genetic damage
ii. Non-genetic damage
In genetic damage, genes and chromosomes get affected and altered. It may become
visible asdeformationsinthe offspring(childrenorgrandchildren). Whenever exposure
of radiations causes alterations or breaks in the genetic material, that is DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)- the molecule containing genetic information, is called
mutation. In non-genetic effects, the harmful effects are visible in the form of birth
defects, burns, some type of leukemia, miscarriages, tumors, cancer of one or more
organs and fertility problems. Further, depending upon frequency and duration of
exposure to radiations, radioactive pollution may be:
Mutation: alterations i. Continuous pollution: The uranium mines, nuclear reactors, test laboratories,
or breaks in DNA due etc. are sources of continuous pollution.
to radiation exposure ii. Accidental pollution: The radioactive radiations produced during accidents due
to nuclear equipment failure, leakage from nuclear plants, etc.
iii. Occasional pollution: This is mainly due to testing of nuclear weapons.
2.5 CONTROLOFRADIATION POLLUTION

The suitable following measures should be adopted to control radiation pollution:
i. Nuclear power plants should be setup carefully after studying long term and
short term effects of radiations. The leakage from radioactive materials from
nuclear reactors should be prevented.
22
ii. The persons working in nuclear power plants must follow the safetymeasures, Radiation and Pollution
wear radiations protection clothes, aware about permissible limits of radiations,
etc.
iii. Materials related to radioisotopes should be disposed of safely, sealed in double-
walled tanks to avoid any leakage, stored in safe places.iv.
It is essential to create more awareness about the harmful effects of radioactive
pollution.
v. Judicious production and use of radioisotopes as once produced, radioisotopes
cannot be destroyed.
vi. In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be used and tailings properly sealed and
protected for radiation leakage.
vii. Radon concentrations must be monitored and appropriate protective measures
should be implemented in buildings and homes in the areas having risk of radon The nuclear waste policy
leakage from underground. Act of 1982 initiated a
viii. Generallythe by-products of nuclear reactors and tailings from uranium mines high level nuclear waste
are known as radioactive wastes. These may be grouped into three broad disposal program
categories (low-level waste, transuranic waste and high level waste) for their
proper management. Low- level radioactive waste consisting of sufficiently
low quantities of radioactive substances does not pose serious threat to the
environment if disposed of properlyand safely. The low-level radioactive waste
includes mainly equipments, specific manufacturing units, etc. These wastes
are disposed of in near surface burial areas having hydrologic and geologic
conditions which limit the migration of radioactivity. Transuranic waste: The
transuranic waste is composed of human made radioactive elements heavier
than uranium. Most transuranic waste is produced from industrial waste such
as equipments, production of nuclear weapons and more recently from cleanup
of nuclear weapon facilities. The waste is low-level in terms of intensity of
radioactivitybut presence of uraniumhas longlasting effects on the environment.
High- level radioactive waste: It consists of commercial and military spent
nuclear fuel, uranium and plutonium derived from military reprocessing and
radioactive materials fromnuclear weapons, etc. It isextremelytoxic and requires
safe and specific comprehensive geological disposal development program.
The Energy Power Act of 1992, specified that high – level waste was to be
disposed of underground in a deep, geological repository. The nuclear waste
policyAct of 1982 initiated a high level nuclear waste disposal program.
2.6 REGULATIONS REGARDING SAFETY

MEASURES
The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), an autonomous body of Atomic Stochastic effects:
Energy Commission, carries out all regulatory and safety functions as envisaged probability of effect of
under the Atomic EnergyAct, 1962 covering all establishments of Department of radiations increases with
dose, without a threshold
Atomic Energy (DAE). The DAE was established in 1954. The AERB is also
dose.
empowered to take decision with regard to site selection, design, construction and
commissioning, operation, installation of physical barriers to have check on any
significant escape of radiation from the reactor, etc. of all nuclear installations. The
radiation dosages received byworkers are monitored on a monthlybasis. TheAERB
has fixed the dose limit to 30 millisievert (mSv) for workers as per limit set up by
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). 23
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, 2.6.1 ICRP Recommendations
The ICRP constituted in 1928 has been working to set common basis for radiological
protection standards, legislation, guidelines, programmes, and practice, etc. The
\Non-stochastic effects: ICRP has made recommendations three times in the last 30 years. The first is 1977
incidence and severity of Recommendations in Publication 26. Further development in protection policy led
effects of radiations to the 1990 Recommendations in Publication 60. Next, the changes in the scientific
depends on dose for a
understanding and the evolution of protection policy resulted in 2007
given threshold
Recommendations in Publication 103.In the 1977 Recommendations, the ICRP
introduced the distinction between stochastic and non-stochastic effects of radiation
exposure. The Commission derived cancer risk factors for: red bone marrow, bone,
bone surfaces, lung, thyroid, breast and “all other tissues”. The whole bodymortality
risk factor for radiation induced cancer was concluded to be 10-2Sv-1, as an average
Stochastic effects: for both sexes and all ages. The average risk factor for hereditary effects was taken
probability of effect of as 0.4 10-2Sv-1as expressed in the first two generations. It was recognized that the
radiations increases with
estimates would vary between workers and a population of all ages, but the
dose, without a threshold
dose. Commission felt the difference was not large enough to warrant the use of separate
values for protection. In the 1990 Recommendations there was a review of non-
Non-stochastic effects: stochastic, now renamed “deterministic” effects in organs and tissues and estimates
incidence and severity of
effects of radiations
were given for the thresholds of these effects. There was also a rigorous review of
depends on dose for a the stochastic effects in exposed individuals. There was a longer list than in 1977 of
given threshold value. organs and tissues for which risks were quantified, some 13 organs plus gonads.
Now the Commission gave nominal probability coefficients for stochastic effects;
for fatal cancer the risk was 5.0 10-2Sv-1 for a population of all ages and the risk of
severe hereditary effects was 1.0 10-2Sv-1. The Commission now gave separate risk
factors for workers; a fatal cancer risk of 4.0 10-2Sv-1 and a hereditary risk of 0.6
10-2Sv-1.
a) What is full form of ICRP?
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b) What is radiation dose limit for workers exposed to nuclear radiations as per
ICRP?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

You have learned from this unit that nuclear radiations are among the environment
pollutants. These radioactive radiations are emitted from radioactive substances
mainly from man-made sources. The major sources of these energetic nuclear
radiations are use of radioactive substances in medical science for diagnostic and
24 therapeutic purposes, testing of nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors used for
producing electricity, etc. Though, electricity produced from nuclear power plants Radiation and Pollution
contributes an important role in energy sector for industrial and domestic use, but
the nuclear waste from these nuclear power plants is also a major concern due to
hazardous effects of nuclear radiations on human health. These facts suggest that
there should more awareness about the harmful effects of nuclear radiations, proper
disposal of nuclear wastes and use of radioactive materials as per guidelines and
safety rules set by International Commission on Radiological Protection.

READINGS
i. Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E. A. 2005. Environmental Science: Earth as a
Living Planet, John Wiley & Sons, INC.
ii. Mirsal, I.A. 2004. Soil Pollution-Origin, Monitoring Remediation, Springer,
Germany.
iii. Misra, S.G. 1992. Environmental Pollution-Radiation, Environmental
Pollution and Hazards, edited by Prasad, D. and Choudhary, M.L.
(Series:002), Venus Publishing House, New Delhi, 1992.
iv. Nebel, B. J. and Wright, R.T. 2000. Environment Science, Prentice Hall Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
v. Sharma, D. K. 2014. Current Researches in Environmental Sciences, Daya
Publishing House, A division of Astral International Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-
110002.

a) The radioactive isotopes are those unstable isotopes of the radioactive
substances/element whichdisintegrate until stable isotopes are formed byemitting
energetic radiations. The examples of radioactive isotopes are: Uranium 233,
Uranium 235, Thorium 232, etc.
b) It is phenomenon of emission of energetic radiations from radioactive substance.
c) The alpha particles are energetic positively charged (He+2) particles emitted
during the radioactive decay.
a) The natural sources of radioactivityare mainlyhigh energyionizing cosmic rays
from outer space, radioactive elements like Uranium, Radium, Thorium,
Strontium, Iodine, Carbon, etc. found in rocks, soils and water, and naturally
occurring radioisotope in soil such as Radon-222.
b) Three man-made sources of radioactive pollution are:
i. The nuclear radiations are used for medical application for diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes.
ii. Testing of nuclear weapons underground or under oceans is major source of
nuclear pollution, especially when the nuclear weapons are tested in the
25
atmosphere.
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, iii. Nuclear reactors used for producing electricity require large amount of water
to act as coolant medium. Once used, this coolant water containing small amount
of radioactive substances (nuclear waste) is released into river or sea, thus
polluting the water bodies.
c) The -radiations can easily penetrate through the body and can cause damage
to cell structure due to having high penetration power.
d) Two nuclear accidents which caused highest level nuclear pollution are:
i. Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 in USSR.
ii. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 in Japan
a) International Commission on Radiological Protection
b) As per ICRP, the radiation dose limit has been fixed to 30 millisievert (mSv) for
workers exposed to nuclear radiations.
26
UNIT 3 SOLID WASTE POLLUTION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Definition
3.3 Sources and Types of Solid Waste Pollution
3.3.1 Characteristics of Solid Wastes
3.3.2 Sources of Solid Wastes
3.3.3 Types of Solid Wastes
3.4 Effects of Solid Waste Pollution

3.5 Prevention of Solid Waste Pollution
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progess
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The urban growth in India is faster than the average for the countryand far higher for
urban areas over rural. The proportion of population residing in urban areas has
increased from 27.8 % in 2001 to 31.80 % in 2011 and likely to reach 50% by
2030. The number of towns has increased from 5,161 in 2001 to 7,935 in 2011.
The rapid growth in urban areas has not been backed adequately with provisioning
ofbasic sanitation infrastructure andthusleavingmanyIndiancitiesdeficient inservices
as water supply, sewerage, storm water drainage, and solid waste management. It is
estimated that Urban India generates about 1.5 Lakhs Tonnes per day. The per
capita waste generation in major cities ranges from 0.20 Kg to 0.6 Kg. Generally
the collection efficiency ranges between 70 to 90% in major metro cities whereas in
several smaller cities the collection efficiency is below 50%. The collection and
disposal of municipal solid waste is one of the pressing problems of city life, which
has assumed great importance in the recent past. Treatment of waste and scientific
disposal of urban waste is not only absolutely necessary for the preservation and
improvement of public health but it has an immense potential for resource recovery.
The composition of MSW at generation sources and collection points in India is
observed to mainly consist of a large organic fraction (40–60%), ash and fine earth
(30–40%), paper (3–6%) and plastic, glass and metals (each less than 1%). It is
also estimated that the Urban Local Bodies spend about Rs. 500 to Rs. 1500 per
tonne on solid waste for collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. About
60-70% of this amount is spent on street sweeping of waste collection, 20 to 30%
on transportation and less than 5% on final disposal of waste, which shows that
hardly any attention is given to scientific and safe disposal of waste. Landfill sites
have not yet been identified bymanymunicipalities and in several municipalities, the
landfill sites have been exhausted and the respective local bodies do not have resources
to acquire new land. The lack of disposal sites has affected the collection efficiency.
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) has estimated that by 2047, waste 27
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, generation in Indian cities will increase five-fold to touch 260 million tonne per year
Electronic Waste Pollution (Asnani, 2006). A study by the World Bank (2006) puts India’s annual generation
of municipal solid waste to be somewhat lower, i.e., in the range of 35 to 45 million
tonne, amounting to about 100,000 to 120,000 metric tonne every day. It is also
estimated that the annual increase in overall quantity of solid waste in India’s cities
will be at a rate of 5 % per annum. The fact that a large part (over 60%) of India’s
waste is biodegradable provides an opportunity for composting. While lifestyle
changes, especially in the larger cities, are leading to increased use of packaging
material, and per capita waste generation is increasing at about 1.3% per annum,
the biodegradable component is still expected to be much higher than in industrialized
countries.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
 define and describe the sources of solid waste pollution;
 explain the impacts of solid waste pollution; and
 describe the management and preventive measures to reduce solid waste
pollution.
3.2 DEFINITION
Solid wastes are wastes coming from human, plant and animal activities that are
normallysolid and are discarded. Trash/ garbage are commonlyknown as Municipal
Solid Waste (MSW). MSW is defined as wastes including durable goods, non-
durable goods, containers and packaging, food wastes, yard wastes, miscellaneous
inorganic wastes from residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial
sources. Solid waste consists of highly heterogeneous mass of discarded materials
from the urban community as well as the more homogeneous accumulation of
agricultural, industrial and mining wastes. The Municipal SolidWastes (Management
and Handling) Rules 2000, prescribed under the Environment ProtectionAct 1986
by the Government of India define municipal waste as “commercial and residential
wastes generated in a municipal or notified areas in either solid or semi-solid form
excluding industrial hazardous wastes but including treated bio-medical wastes”.
The Environment Ministry has revised Solid Waste Management Rules after 16
years in 2016. Examples include: appliances, newspapers, clothing, food scrapes,
boxes, disposable tableware, paper, wood pieces, rubber tyres, product packaging,
grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, appliances, paint, and batteries etc. The
solid wastes can also be hazardous, and are termed as hazardous waste. In India,
25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected and 70% of the Indian cities lack
facilities to transport it and there are few or no sanitary landfills to dispose of the
waste. The existing landfills are neither well equipped nor lined properly to protect
against soil and groundwater contamination. This places an enormous pressure on
natural resources and to sustainable development.
The term ‘’solid waste’’means anygarbage, refuse, or sludge from a waste treatment
plant, water supplytreatment plant, or air pollution control facilityand other discarded
material, including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material resulting
fromindustrial, commercial, mining, andagricultural operations (USLaw-SolidWaste
Act 2, 1999). ‘Garbage’ refers to the putrescible solid waste constituents produced
during the preparation or storage of vegetables, meat etc. These wastes have a
28
moisture content of approximately 70% and have a heating value of approximately Solid Waste Pollution
6 x 106 J/Kg. ‘Rubbish’ is the nonputrescible solid waste constituent, which can be
combustible or noncombustible. The combustible wastes include paper, wood, rubber,
scrap, leather etc. The noncombustible waste includes metals, glass, ceramics, etc.
These wastes have a moisture content of approximately 25% and a heating value of
approximately 15 x 106 J/Kg. The term ‘’disposal’’ means the discharge, deposit,
injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of anysolid waste or hazardous waste
into or on any land or water so that such solid wastes, hazardous wastes, or any
constituent thereof mayenter the environment or be emitted into the air or discharged
into any waters, including ground waters, from communityactivities (US Law-Solid
Waste Act 2, 1999).
Case Study: The Love Canal Tragedy

At a place near the Niagara Falls, New York, USA, in 1892 a canal was
designed as a route for transportation and production of hydroelectric
power called the love canal (named after William T. love). The canal
was left incomplete and became a site for waste disposal. During the
years 1940 to 50, a plastic manufacturing chemical company disposed
off its wastes containing 80 different chemicals in sealed steel drums
into this canal. Later, in 1953, the company sold the land to the city of
Niagara Falls where residences and an elementary school were built.
The tragedy started after twenty years when the sealed plastic wastes
corroded the drums and started leaking into the soil, buildings, water
etc. Children suffered burns and shoe soles disintegrated. This made the
authorities look into the matter and it was found that the wastes contained
lot of carcinogens and toxic organic compounds like benzene, chloroform,
dichloroethylene etc. The Clean-up of the Love canal totally amounted
to about 275 million US dollars. The schools and homes were destroyed,
the families relocated, the soil was completely covered with compacted
clay, the wastes were diverted to a treatment plant, the water pipes were
blocked with barriers, etc. This is a classic example of solid waste
mismanagement.
3.3 SOURCES AND TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

3.3.1 Characteristics of Solid Wastes
Characterizing wastes are important to explore them for proper waste management,
to re-use certain wastes for manufacturing new products or extracting energy or
fertilizers from the wastes.
 Corrosiveness: These wastes include acids or bases that are capable of
corroding mental containers, e.g. tanks
 Ignitability: These wastes include waste oils and solvents that can ignite or
cause fires under certain conditions.
 Reactive: These wastes are unstable in nature and cause explosions, toxic
fumes when heated.
 Toxicity: Wastes can be toxic and are harmful or fatal when ingested or
29
absorbed.
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste,  Waste characteristicsalso include viscosity, bulkdensity, acidity, moisture, volatile
matter, ash content, fixed carbon content, compaction behavior, calorific value.
Solid waste can be organic and inorganic wastes. They can further be classified into
different types depending on their source: (a) Residential wastes, (b) Industrial waste
or hazardous waste, (c) Hospital and Biomedical waste, (d) Commercial waste,
and (e) Agricultural waste.
3.3.2 Source of Solid Wastes
The principal sources of solid wastes are from domestic, commercial, industrial and
agricultural sources. The domestic and commercial wastes are considered together
as the urban wastes. The constituents of urban wastes are similar all over the globe
but differ in the amount generated, the densityetc. from each country in accordance
with the economic development, geographic location, weather and social aspects.
In India, the solid waste generated in urban areas contains vegetable peelings, paper,
cardboard cartons, glass, cloth, animal wastes etc.
a) Residential Waste: Municipal solid waste is generated mainly from residential
and commercial complexes. It consists of household waste, construction and
demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets.
Table 3.1 Domestic wastes and their degeneration time
Common domestic wastes Approximate time taken for degeneration
Organic kitchen waste – 1 – 2 weeks

vegetables, fruits
Paper 15 day
Cardboard 1 month
Cotton clothes 2 – 5 months
Woolen clothes ~ 1 year
Metal cans, tin, aluminium 100 – 500 years
Plastics 1 million years
b) Industrial Waste: Industries manufacturing different products produce solid,

semi-solid wastes which can be explosive, radioactive or pyrophoric (self-
igniting). These wastes are hazardous wastes that are highly toxic to humans,
animals, and plants. Theyare corrosive, highlyinflammable, and explosive and
react when exposed to gases. Hazardous wastes include batteries, acids,
explosive materials, shoe polish, paint tins, medicines, formaldehyde, phenols,
etc. India generates 7 million tons of hazardous wastes every year. Food
processing industries, metallurgical chemical and pharmaceutical unit’s
breweries, sugar mills, paper and pulp industries, fertilizer and pesticide industries
are major ones which discharge toxic wastes. Chemical processing industries
generate a number of organic and inorganic wastes. The toxic, hazardous and
radioactive wastes need special consideration before their disposal.
c) Hospital and Bio-Medical Waste: These include waste generated during
surgical / diagnostic treatments, immunization of human beings and in the
production or testing of biologicals. It may include wastes like soiled waste,
disposables, anatomical waste, disposable syringes, swabs, bandages, body
30 fluids, human excreta, cultures, discarded medicines, chemical wastes, infectious
wastes (blood) etc. Hospital waste is highly infectious and can be a serious
threat if not managed well. Health care establishments in India are slowly Solid Waste Pollution
streamliningthe process of waste segregation, collection, treatment, and disposal
after the notification of the Bio-medical Waste (Handling and Management)
Rules, 1998 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India.
(d) Commercial Waste: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses,
metals, ashes, etc., generated from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels,
auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.
(e) Agricultural Waste: The waste generated by agriculture includes waste from
crops and live stock. In developing countries, this waste does not pose a serious
problem as most of it is used e.g., dung is used for manure, straw is used as
fodder. Some agro-based industries produce waste e.g., rice milling, production
of tea, tobacco etc. Agricultural wastes are rice husk, degasses, ground nut
shell, maize cobs, straw of cereals etc. They can also include waste generated
fromfields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.Animal and vegetable wastes contain
important nutrients and minerals. Humus from agricultural wastes contains
nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, and some trace elements that are important for
soil fertilityand plant growth.
(f) Mining: The wastes generated by mining activities include the overburden
material, mine tailings (the waste left after ore has been extracted from the
rocks), toxic gases released by blasting etc.
(g) Radioactive Substances:Although everyprecaution is taken in the functioning
and maintenance of nuclear reactors, yet it has been observed that measurable
amount of radioactive waste material escapes into the environment. Other
sources of radioactive wastes are from mining of radioactive substances and
atomic explosion etc.
Table 3.2: Different Sources of Solid Waste
Sources Types of Waste Generated

Domestic / Residential Food wastes, broken glassware, newspapers,
pens, pencils, plastics, rubber-bands, cloths,
diapers, paper, cardboard, textiles, leather, yard
wastes, wood, metals, ashes, batteries, oil, tyres,
grass cuttings, stems, twigs, branches, vegetable and
fruits, etc.
Industrial Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, tailings,
acids, paper pulp wastes, rubber, electrical parts,
packaging materials, boxes, batteries, inorganics,
organics, liquid wastes, metals, dyes, asbestos,
paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, etc.
Hospitals /Clinics Disposable syringes, cotton, gauze, infectious
materials, medicine strips, drip bottles, old
medicines, files, papers, liquid wastes, cloth soiled
with blood and other body fluids etc.
Construction Sites Wood, tiles, steel, cement blocks, stones, concrete,
bricks, nails, etc.
Commercial Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes,
glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes.
31
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, Biodegradable waste can be degraded from complex to simpler forms by microbial
activitywhereas non-biodegradable wastes cannot be degraded bymicrobial activity.
So non-biodegradable wastes remain in the environment for many years and cause
damage to the environment and living forms.
3.3.3 Types of Solid Wastes

Theycan also be classified based on types and characteristics like: physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics of wastes (Phelps, et al., 1995):
 Garbage: This includes animal waste, vegetable wastes and organic matter.
 Ashes and Residues: This includes substances that remain after burning of
wood, coal, charcoal, coke and other combustible materials used for cooking
and heating. Ashes consist of fine powdery residues, cinders, clinker, metal
and glass.
 Combustible and Non-Combustible Wastes: This includes wastes generated
fromhouseholds, institutions, commercial activities, Combustible waste consists
of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden trimmings, etc., non-combustible
waste consists of glass, crockery, tin, aluminium cans, ferrous and non-ferrous
material.
 Bulky Wastes: This includes large household appliances i.e. refrigerators,
washing machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and
branches.
 Street Wastes: This includes paper, cardboard, plastics, leaves, fecal matter,
animal waste, engine oils and vegetable wastes.
 Biodegradable Wastes: These wastes are natural organic compounds which
are degraded or decomposed by biological or microbial action. Biodegradable
wastes are generated in food processing units, cotton mills, paper mills, sugar
mills, textile factories and also most of the wastes from these industries are
reused. When these wastes are in excess they act as pollutants and are not
easily decomposed and they take much time for their decomposition.
Biodegradable waste refers to substances consisting of organic matter such as
leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc., generated
from household/ industrial activities.
 Non-Biodegradable Wastes: These wastes are not decomposed by microbes.
Coal stone, metal scraps, sludge are generated from colliery operations
Refineries produce inert drysolids and varieties of sludge containing oil. Flyash
is the major solid waste from thermal power plants. Generally, these wastes
are not reused and accumulate in the ecosystem and some of it move through
biogeochemical cycles. Non-biodegradable wastes also include DDT,
pesticides, lead, plastics, mercuric salts etc.
 Construction and Demolition Wastes: This includes earth, stones, concrete,
bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating systems and electrical
wires.
 Farm Wastes: This includes wastes from agricultural activities such as planting,
harvesting, production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter and the operation
of feedlots.
32
 Hazardous Wastes: Hazardous wastes refer to wastes of industrial, institutional Solid Waste Pollution
or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either immediately or over a
period of time to human beings and the environment. This includes solvents,
paints and pesticides, pharmaceutical wastes etc. Hazardous wastes, when
improperly handled, can cause substantial harm to human health and to the
environment. Hazardous wastes may be in the form of solids, liquids, sludge’s
or gases. They are generated primarilyby chemical production, manufacturing
and other industrial activities.The important hazardous wastes are lead, mercury,
cadmium, chromium, many drugs leather, pesticides, dye, rubber and effluents
from different industries. They may cause danger during inadequate storage,
transportation, treatment or disposal operations. The hazardous waste materials
maybe toxic, reactive, ignitable, explosive, corrosive, infectious or radioactive.
1. Define solid waste pollution.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Describe the different sources of solid waste pollution.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.4 EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTE POLLUTION

Industrialization has resulted in the production of large amount of wastes. The
improper waste disposal creates manyecological and social problems, for instance,
accumulation of wastes in the densely populated areas, disposal of urban sewage
and industrial wastes discharged into rivers etc. affect soil, air and water ecosystems.
Chemical, biological and explosive wastes pose immediate or long term danger to
humans, plants and animals. The dumpingof solid wastes can be extremelyhazardous
to human health. Dumping wastes has resulted in the increase of the number of rats
and flies which are the carriers of infectious diseases like plague, dysentery, diarrhoea
etc. Dumping of solid wastes affects all the components of an ecosystem. Waste
that is not properly managed, especially solid waste from households and the
community, are a serious health hazard and lead to the spread of infectious diseases.
This leads to unhygienic conditions and thereby to a rise in the health problems.
Some effects of solid waste pollution are described below:
(a) Effect on Landscape: We often find plastic bags, containers, vegetables, fruit
peels, cans etc. being dumped in the open area. This spoils the landscape and
has serious environmental impacts. Most of the wastes contain organic
compounds, inorganic minerals and other toxic elements which can lead to the
degradation of land, pollution of drinking water, destruction of aquatic life, 33
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, degradation of ground and surface water used for irrigation and industries, and
pollution of the air, water and soil.
(b) Effects on Aquatic Life: Wastes can disturb and destroy the aquatic life.
Most sewage of cities are drained into the rivers and nearby water bodies,
which is dangerous to the aquatic flora and fauna. The dissolved oxygen
concentration in water bodies is reduced considerably thereby affecting the
aquatic life. Pollutants such as heavy metals, cyanides and several other organic
and inorganic compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms. Further, the non--
biodegradable wastes can accumulate in the body of organisms and cause
long-termeffects. Biodiversityalso decreases in highlypolluted aquatic habitats.
(c) Effects on Marine Life: The sea is being used as an enormous dumpsite.
Industrialization and developments alongwith increase in global population have
resulted in the generation of large amount wastes which are ending up in the
sea/oceans. Wastes ranging from sewage of urban areas, plastics, automobiles
etc. have heavily polluted the sea shores. The effects of wastes on marine life
are as follows: (i) The growth of marine algae is affected; (ii) breeding activity
of fishes is disturbed; (iii) massive oil spills cause damage to marine life; (iii)
pesticides contaminate marine water and are toxic to sea life; (iv) thermal and
radioactive wastes disturb fishes in estuaries and coastal ecosystems.
(d) Effects on Human Health: The effects of solid waste to the environment
and human health are numerous and arise due to improper handling of solid
wastes. The direct health risks are mainlythe workers in this field, who need to
be protected, from contact with wastes. There are also health risks in handling
wastes from hospitals. A common transmission route for bacillary dysentery,
amoebic dysentery and diarrhea is human faeces carried byflies and transmitted
to food and water thereby causing infections. The refuse dumps serve as food
for rodents which spread various diseases like typhus, salmonellosis, trichinosis,
etc. For the general public, risks are indirect and arise from the breeding of
disease vectors, primarilyflies and rats. Hazardous wastes from industries mixing
up with municipal wastes create potential risks to human health. The
concentration of heavy metals in the food chain causes serious health effects
like the mercury poisoning and the Minamata disease that took place in Japan.
Some health effects include: (i) Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation;
(ii) low birth weight; (iii) cancer; (iv) congenital malformations; (v) neurological
disease; (vi) nausea and vomiting; (vii) biomagnification in the food chains; (viii)
degrades water and soil quality.
3.5 PREVENTION OF SOLID WASTE POLLUTION

Solid waste management is associated with the control, storage, collection, transfer
and transport, processing and disposal of waste generation in a manner that is in
accordance with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics, public attitude and other environmental considerations. Solid
waste management has socio-economic and environmental dimensions. The socio-
economic dimensions include various phases such as waste storage, collection,
transport and disposal, and the management of these phases has to be integrated.
The environmental dimensions include proper management of wastes on the user
side i.e. waste disposal on streets, rivers and lakes so that the environment is not
degraded and control vector-borne diseases.
34
In the last decade, the Indian consumer market has grown rapidlyleading to products Solid Waste Pollution
packed in cans, plastic bottles, tins, aluminium foils, plastic bags / boxes and other
innumerable non-biodegradable items that persist in the environment. Some villages
and towns have banned the use of plastics and they have achieved tremendous
success. An exquisite example is the entire district of Ladakh. The local authorities
imposed a ban on plastics in 1998 and not a single piece of plastic is seen there
today. The first state in India to ban polythene and plastic bags/ covers was Himachal
Pradesh. Other cities and states should follow the example of Ladakh, Himachal
Pradesh and ban the use of non-biodegradable items.
Proper waste characterization is important for waste management and prevention of
solid waste pollution. Waste management includes:Waste generation, waste storage,
waste collection, transfer and transport, processing, recovery and recycling and
recycling. Source reduction, recycling, reusing and composting, prevent or divert
materials from the waste stream are the normal proper waste management practices.
Some steps involved in waste management include analysis of waste generated,
waste separation at source, waste collection, transformation, recycling, re-use of
wastes and disposal mechanisms. Waste production can be minimized by adopting
the 3 R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Reduction involves altering the design,
manufacture, or use of products and materials to reduce the amount and toxicity of
materials that get thrown away. Re-use involves repairing products/ things and use
them again to avoid throwing away. Recycling focuses on diverting paper, glass,
plastic, and metals, from the waste stream and recycle them for further use. These
materials are sorted, collected, and processed and then manufactured, sold, and
bought as new products. The Integrated waste management (IWM) is defined as a
set of management alternatives that include reuse, source reduction, recycling,
composting, landfill and incineration. These are processes that involve integrated
waste management practices (IWM). They can reduce the wastes generated by
approximately 50 %.
Some of these steps may be taken for prevention of impact of solid wastes on health
and environment. Generation of waste should be decreased; promoting the production
of goods which minimize waste generation after use; material recycling and recovery
should be increased; promoting the use of plastic recycling identification codes and
labels in order to make sorting and recycling of plastic packaging easier. So waste
can be a resource and waste would not exist if it is used as a resource again. This
concept is called as the ‘Zero waste movement’. In ‘Zero waste’ our industrial
societywould function more like an ecological system where waste from one part of
the system would be a resource for the other part.
1. List some effects of solid waste pollution on human health.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
35
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, 2. How can solid waste pollution be prevented?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about solid wastes and their pollution. We have seen the
different sources of the pollutants and how human induced activities have led to the
deterioration of human health and environment quality. The unit presents a detailed
account of the definition, sources and types of pollutants, and a brief account of their
adverse effects on the environment, marine life and to human health. The unit also
brings forth an account of prevention of the solid waste pollution. Some of the wastes
can be recovered and recycled. Wastes should be collected efficiently and disposed
off efficiently. Proper waste disposal sites are necessary for smooth function of the
society. The unit is explicitly explained with the help of case studies.
3.7 KEY WORDS

Biodegradable Wastes: Substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover
food, vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc., generated from household/
industrial activities that can be degraded bymicrobial activityfromcomplex to simpler
forms.
Non-Biodegradable Wastes: Inorganic and recyclable materials such as plastic,
glass, cans, metals, etc. that cannot be degraded by microbial activity.
Hazardous Wastes: Wastes of industrial, institutional or consumer origin that are
potentially dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to human beings
and the environment.
Integrated Waste Management (IWM): A set of management alternatives that
include reuse, source reduction, recycling, composting, landfill and incineration.
Ionizing Radiations: These are electromagnetic radiations having high energy(short
,  wavelength UV-radiations, x-rays and gamma rays). The energetic rays produced
in radioactive decay cause ionization of atoms and molecules of/ and the medium
through which they go through converting them into charged ions.

READINGS
Alam, P. andAhmade, K. 2013. Impact of solid waste on health and the environment.
Special Issue of International Journal of Sustainable Development and Green
Economics (IJSDGE), ISSN No.: 2315-4721, Vol 2, (1), 165 – 168.
Botkin, D.B and Keller, E.A. 2000. Environmental Science: Earth as a living planet.
3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons INC, USA, 645p.
Kuts. C. and Twedwell, C. 1980. Cleaning up hazardous landfills. Geotimes, 25,
18-19.
36
Phelps, H.O., Heinke. G. W., Jonker, J.F., Ouano, E.A.R., and Vandecasteele, C. Solid Waste Pollution
1995. Management of Solid Wastes, UNESCO, Paris.
Ramachandra, T. V. 2009. Municipal Solid Waste Management, TERI Press, New
Delhi.
Rana, SVS. (2005). Essentials of ecologyand environmental science, Second Edition.
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, pp 488.
Robert, C.M. 1978. Analysis of Urban Solid Waste Services –
A Systems Approach.

 Solid wastes are wastes coming from human, plant and animal activities
that are normally solid and are discarded.
 Trash/ garbage are commonly known as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW).
 Define MSW
 Municipal waste or Household wastes
 Industrial waste or hazardous waste
 Hospital and Biomedical waste
 Commercial waste
 Agricultural waste
e) Chemical poisoningthrough chemical inhalation
f) Low birth weight
g) Cancer
h) Congenital malformations
i) Neurological disease
j) Nausea and vomiting
k) Biomagnification in the food chains
l) Degrades water and soil quality
 Proper waste characterization is important for waste management and
prevention of solid waste pollution. Waste management includes: Waste
generation, waste storage, waste collection, transfer and transport, 37
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, processing, recovery and recycling and recycling. Source reduction,
recycling, reusing and composting, prevent or divert materials from the
waste stream are the normal proper waste management practices. Some
steps involved in waste management include analysis of waste generated,
waste separation at source, waste collection, transformation, recycling,
re-use of wastes and disposal mechanisms.
 Case study: Ladakh, Himachal
 3 R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
38
UNIT 4 ELECTRONIC WASTE
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 E-waste
4.2.1 Life Cycle of Electronic Product
4.2.2 Definition of E-Waste
4.2.3 Composition of E-Waste
4.3 Sources of E-Waste
4.4 Types of E-waste
4.5 Effects of E-waste
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Industrial revolution along with increasing population has led to great contribution in
the field of technology. Nowadays technology is becoming advance not only in the
fieldofmechanical, architectural, civilianbutalso inthe fieldof informationtechnology.
The changing life style of people is more surrounded with the use of sophisticated
electronic equipment which not only reduces man power but also decreases time
consumption.Along with associated benefits management of electronic equipment
have led to much bigger problem with respect to contamination and pollution. And
this happens in a waythat once the appliance is been used and then discarded which
contributes in the form of “e-waste” and if they are disposed improperly it will lead
to release of different pollutants which are toxic in nature both associated with acute
and chronic effects. This unit deals with types of e-waste, its potential sources and
its effects on human and environment. To begin with, it is important to understand.
the importance of electronic equipment and how it leads to contribution as e-waste.
We will discuss this in the next session.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
 define E-waste and explain its significance;
 identify different types of E-waste;
 understand e-waste related laws been enacted;
 describe sources of E-waste; and
 describe and identify the effects of e-waste in environment.
39
Electronic Waste Pollution 4.2 E-WASTE
In general scenario there is an increase in consumption of resources either being
natural or artificial. For the sake of reduction in the extinction of natural resources,
their alternative are searched and used ubiquitously. Though information technology
has revolutionized the way we live, work and communicates with people bringing
along countless wealth still with a positive side but it had a negative side too. Though
new electronic products are more efficient, fast; provided with latest technology
which have more sense of security, easy and faster acquisitionof operation. But as
the life of various products once used lasts it is dumped as trash. This maycontribute
in the form of a biodegradable or a non-biodegradable waste. But one with
biodegradable nature can be cured and managed easily in comparison to that which
is non-biodegradable in nature. This waste when dumped haphazardly lead to its ill
effects on the environment which include animals, human beings, the associated
micro life and even properties.
4.2.1 Life Cycle of Electronic Product
Life Cycle assessment is a method to assess the human health and environmental
impact associated with all the stages of product’s life starting from its production to
distribution, use, repair and maintenance. E-waste is ubiquitous and popularly
renowned not only among the concerned authorities but also among users. E-waste
is been considered as dangerous as it contains hazardous constituents depending on
its composition and density. In general e-waste is a term which covers all items of
Electricity and Electronic Equipment also abbreviated as EEE or WEEE i.e.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment. This waste comprises of wide range
of products starting from circuitryor electrical components, power or battery supply
from any household or business item.
Once the E-waste is generated after using the electrical product managing this waste
plays an important role during it’s life cycle. So that managing e-waste it can be
possible through ‘reuse’further Reuse consists of major hree steps (UNEP, 2007):
1. E waste Collection Sorting and Transportation: This system involves producer/
retailer municipal collection system, take back system and also addresses
recycler’s/ dismantler’s collection system. Since E-waste is hazardous in nature,
it is collected, sorted, stored and transported under controlled conditions.
2. E-Waste Treatment System: E-waste treatment techniques are decontamination
step where disassembly or repair followed by shredding of different fractions.
Now, emitted E-waste fractions after shredding go for metal recovery.
3. E-Waste Disposal System: Just after metal recovery, the remaining E-waste
fractions are disposed of either in landfills or directlyincinerated.
Even after proper detoxification and shredding the toxic components associated
with e-waste enters into the environment and pollutes various domains been
described in flowchart shown below in Figure 4.3.
4.2.2 Definition of e-waste
Definition given below for EEE or e-waste:
StEP (2005): E-waste refers to “. . .the reverse supply chain which collects products
no longer desired bya given consumer and refurbishes for other consumers, recycles,
or otherwise processes wastes.”
SINHA (2004): “An electrically powered appliance that no longer satisfies the
40 current owner for its original purpose.”
Basel Action Network (Puckett and Smith, 2002): “E-waste encompasses a Electronic Waste
broad and growing range of electronic devices ranging from large household devices
such as refrigerators, air conditioners, cell phones, personal stereos, and consumer
electronics to computers which have been discarded by their users.”
EU WEEE Directive (EU, 2002a): “Waste electrical and electronic equipment,
including all components, subassemblies and consumables which are part of the
product at the time of discarding”. The Directive 75/442/EEC,Article I (a), defines
as “waste” “any substance or object which the holder discards or is required to
discard in compliance with the national legislative provisions”.
OECD (2001): “Any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its
end-of-Life.”
1. What are the possible commonly used sources of electronic waste?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Enlist different types of e-waste and highlights how one is different from other
type.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.2.3 Composition of E-Waste
E-waste have diverse composition been categorized as ‘hazardous’ and ‘non-
hazardous’ and consists of ferrous, non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood,
plywood, ceramics and rubber components. Among entire waste load, iron and
steel constitute about 50% of the waste, followed by plastics (21%), non-ferrous
metals (13%) and rest represents other constituents. Non-ferrous metals comprises
of metals like copper, aluminum and precious metals like silver, gold, platinum,
palladium and so on. Hazardous nature of e-waste is tagged due to the presence of
elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, hexavalent chromium and
also flame retardants beyond threshold quantities is the reason which makes e-
waste hazardous in nature.
1. Describe briefly what makes e-waste a pollutant in environment.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Elaborate life cycle of e-waste from its generation to end.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................. 41
Electronic Waste Pollution 4.3 SOURCES OF E-WASTE
In today’s scenario there could be various sources of E waste, ranging from domestic
appliances to IT and communication equipment used in offices; from personal product
to industrial machinery.
Toxic substances such as lead oxide and cadmium releases from CRT (Cathode
RayTubes) monitor; cadmium and releases from lead the computer batteries, circuit
boards; mercury from switches and in flat screen monitors; cadmium in;
polychlorinated biphenyls releases from older capacitors and transformers and
brominated flame retardants on printed circuit boards. Plastic casings, cables and
PVC cable insulation also releases highly toxic dioxins and furans when it burn to
retrieve copper from the wires. The detailed source and associated pollutants have
been listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Sources of e-waste
S.
No. Source of e-waste Pollutant
1 Fire retardant Antimony
2 Gallium arsenide used in LED, semiconductor, microwaves,
solar cells Arsenic (As)
3 Front panel and getters in CRTs, electron tubes, plastic and
rubber filters and lubricant additives Barium (Ba)
4 Power supply boxes (which contain silicon controlled
rectifiers), X-ray lenses and in Motherboard Beryillium(Be)
5 Electronic equipment at housing, casing, circuit boards
(plastic) and PVC cables BFR
6 Chip resistors, semiconductors, Rechargeable Ni
Cd-batteries, fluorescent layer, Monitor CRT, printer inks
and toners, photocopying-machines, pigments, solder
and circuit boards, Cadmium (Cd)
7 Cooling unit and Insulation foam CFC
8 Dyes/pigments, switches or in solar panel Chrome
9 Insulators Cobalt (Co)
10 Conductedincables,copperribbons,coils,circuitry,pigments Copper(Cu)
11 To use for Corrosion protection of untreated and Hexavalent
galvanized steel plates, also use in decorator or hardener Chromium
for steel housings, Data tapes and in floppy-disks also. (Cr) VI
12 Used as Solder in printed circuit boards and in glass panels,
gaskets in computer monitors or in CRT screens, Lead
rechargeable batteries, transistors, lasers, printed wiring
boards, circuit boards, or in lithium batteries and in PVC
stabilizers Lead (Pb)
13 Displays Liquid crystal
14 Li-batteries, mobile telephones, photographic equipment
42 and video equipment (batteries) Lithium(Li)
Electronic Waste
15 Relays, switches, printed circuit boards, Fluorescent
lamps used as backlight in LCDs, alkaline batteries,
copper machine components, steam irons, pocket
calculators and mercury wetted switches Mercury (Hg)
16 Rechargeable Ni Cd batteries or Ni-MH batteries,
electron gun used in CRT, alloys or in relays Nickel (Ni)
17 Use in condensers, capacitors, softening agents for paints,
glue and Transformers PCB
18 Insulating cable and computer housing Plastic
includingPVC
19 Medical equipment, fire and in smoke detector Radio-active
substances
20 Fluorescent layer (CRT-screen) Rare Earth
elements
21 Photoelectric cells, Old photocopy machines (photo drums)
and in fax machines Selenium (Se)
22 Capacitors, switches (contacts), batteries and in resistors Silver (Ag)
23 Plastic Fire retardants (thermoplastic components, cable TBBA, PBB,
insulation) PBDE
24 Solder metal glue or in LCD Tin (Sn)
25 Toner cartridges for laser printers / copiers Toner Dust
26 Steel, brass, alloys, luminous substances and Interior
of CRT screens Zinc sulphide
(Source: Gaidajis* et al., 2010)
* Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR); Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC); Polychlorinated Biphenyl

(PCB); PolyVinyl Chloride (PVC); TetrabromobisphenolA(TBBA); Polybrominated Biphenyls
(PBB);Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDE); Cathode Ray Tube(CRT), Light Emitting
Diodes (LED) and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
4.4 TYPES OF E-WASTE

As per a report by United Nations University (UNU), 2014 named the Global E-
waste monitor, various categories had been classified in the domain of EEE namely:
43
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, The details of equipments in the above mention categories are explained below:
1. Temperature exchange equipment: Commonlyreferred as, cooling/ freezing
equipment. For example: refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners.
2. Screens and Monitors: Categoricallycomprises televisions, computer monitor,
laptops, notebooks and tablets.
3. Lamps: Comprises fluorescent lamps (straight and compact fluorescent lamps),
high intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps.
4. Large equipment: Constitution of washing machines, dryers (clothes), dish
washing machines, electric stoves, large printing and copying equipment and
solar photovoltaic panels.
5. Small equipment: Small equipment comprises vacuum cleaners, microwaves,
ventilation equipment, toasters, electric kettles, electric shavers, calculators,
radio sets, video cameras, electronic toys, and tools, small medical devices,
small monitoring and control instrument.
6. Small IT and telecommunication equipment: Under this categoryequipment
comprises of mobile phones, Global Positioning System (GPS), pocket
calculators, routers, personal computers, printers and telephones.
And in a general scenario e-waste has been divided into two major categories:
 IT and telecommunication equipment: Centralized data processing units
(Central processingunit withinputand output devices); Minicomputers; Personal
computers, Laptop computers, Notebook computers, Notepad computers,
Printers and Copying equipment including cartridges, Electrical and electronic
typewriters, User terminals and systems, Facsimile, Telex, Telephones (Pay
telephones, Cordless telephones, Cellular telephones andAnswering systems)
 Consumer electronics: Television sets (based on Liquid Crystal Display and
Light Emitting Diode technology), Refrigerator, Washing Machine, Air-
Conditioners excluding centralized air conditioning plants.
The fact lies that for each e-waste category, function, weight, size, material and
composition differs.Also the economic values, recycling abilityand generated waste
quantities varies from equipment to equipment. Along with this the potential
environmental and health effect of each e-waste categorydiffers. The environmental
issues associated with e-waste arise due to major three reasons low collection rates,
low or no segregation and improper disposal. The waste ultimately ends up in to the
undesirable channels and destinations.
4.5 EFFECTS OF E-WASTE

The illegal dumping of e-waste is a major problem faced in various regions across
the globe. Uncontrolled fires may arise in improperly monitored landfill and along
with this landfill produces contamination through leachate which, at last ends up into
ground water pollution. The toxicants from wastes such as acids, sludge can further
enter into the freshwater bodies like rivers, ponds, lakes etc. Incinerations of such
waste can reduce toxic fumes and gases which pollutes air. On the other side as e-
waste burns associated plastic also burns with waste and releases various carcinogenic
pollutants like Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), Polybrominated
44 dibenzodioxins (PBDDs) and Polychlorinated dibenzo furans (PCDFs) etc. The
toxic fall outs from burning and open dumping of e-waste not only cause respiratory Electronic Waste
dysfunctions for human beings but also for the animals and birds. Hereby, Table 1.2
summarises the health effects of various e-waste constituents, how they contribute
as pollutant in environment and possess danger to life of human beings
Table 4.2: Health effects of various e-waste released pollutants
S.No. Constituent Health effects
1 Lead (Pb) Damage to central and peripheral nervous
systems, affects reproductive system, neurotoxin
also affects blood systems, kidney damage and
beside this brain development of children.
Mechanical breaking of CRTs and removing
solder from microchips release lead as powder
and fumes.
2 Cadmium (Cd) Carcinogenic and teratogenic in nature, long term
exposure causes Itai-Itai disease. Toxic
irreversible effects on human health (accumulates
in kidney and liver, cases neural damage)
3 Mercury (Hg) Readilybioavailable to fishes: Reason for Chronic
damage to brain and respiratory system and also
causes skin disorders. Affects central nervous
system, kidney and immune system, impair fetus
growth and harms infants through mother’s milk,
when enters in water bodies changes into organic
formi.e.methyl mercurythroughmicrobialactivity
and gets biomagnified, finally enters into human
chain.
4 Hexavalent Chromium Liver and kidneydamage, also causingAsthmatic
(Cr) VI bronchitis, lung cancer and DNA damage.
5 Plastic including PVC Carcinogenic in nature, Burning of the products
produces dioxin. It is immune toxicant and causes
reproductive and developmental problems,
damage immune system, interfere with regulatory
hormones and hormonal disorder.
6 Brominated Flame It Harms reproductive and immune system by
Retardant (BFR) causing hormonal disorder, Disrupts endocrine
system functions
7 Barium (Ba) Reason for damage to heart muscles: Short term
exposure causes muscle weakness, and damage
to heart muscles, liver and spleen disorder.
8 Beryllium(Be) Carcinogenic nature causes lungcancer, Inhalation
of fumes and dust, causes chronic beryllium
disease or beryllicosis, and also skin diseases
such as warts formation.
10 Acid Suphuric and hydrochloric acid are used o
separate metals from circuit boards its fumes
contain chlorine and sulphur dioxide which causes
45
Electronic Waste Pollution respiratory problems and also corrosive to eyes
and skin.
11 Arsenic Affect skin and decreases nerve conduction
velocity, and also chronic exposure may cause
lung cancer and can be fatal in nature.
12 Chlorofluorocarbon Affects ozone layer and causes skin cancer and
(CFC) responsible for genetic damages.
13 Polychlorinated Maycause cancer in animals and affects immune,
Biphenyl (PCB) reproductive, nervous and endocrine system.
Persistentlycontaminate on environment.
14 Polyvinyl Chloride When burnt produces Hydrogen Chloride gas
(PVC) which in turn produces hydrochloric acid and
causes respiratory dangers.
15 Dioxin Leads to fetus malfunctioning, decreases
reproduction and growth rates and affect immune
system.
(Source: Krishna et al., 2011)
4.6 LET US SUM UP

Let us briefly state the significant points about the sources and fates of e-waste as
discussed in this unit.
Although E-waste reduces man power and makes our task easier and quicker but it
is considered as a dangerous and ubiquitouslyfound pollutants with both carcinogenic
and teratogenic in nature. Different composition of e-waste has been alreadyreported
which directly contributes to its toxic nature. E-waste enters into the environment
(hydrosphere, atmosphere or lithosphere) through a complex pathway and is the
reason for various consequences. Based on their sources, e-waste has been broadly
categorized into two groups originated either from large or small scale appliances.
Alreadydiscussed above, various laws have been enacted globallyand so nationally
but still there is a dire need to stringent those laws as per the provided guidelines.
Last but not the least e-waste has hazardous effects on environment and its biota.

READINGS
 https://are.berkeley.edu/~sberto/ewaste.pdf
 http://meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/EWaste_Sep11_892011.pdf
 http://www.jestr.org/downloads/volume3/fulltext342010.pdf
 www.researchgate.net
 http://www.environmentaljournal.org/3-5/ujert-3-5-1.pdf
46  https://rajyasabha.nic.in/rsnew/publication_electronic/E-Waste_in_india.pdf
Electronic Waste
Key to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points
The possible commonly used sources of e-waste are LED, Semiconductor, laptop,
computers, remotes, air conditioner, mobile phones, analog watches, solar cells,
printer, scanner, telephones, washing machines, juicer etc. Broadly there are two
major categories for sources such that IT and telecommunication equipments and
consumer equipments.
Different type of e-waste are enlisted below:
 Temperature exchange equipment: Commonlyreferred as, cooling/freezing

equipment. For example: refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners.
 Screens and Monitors:Categorically comprises televisions, computer

monitor, laptops, notebooks and tablets.
 Lamps:Comprises fluorescent lamps (straight fluorescent lamps and

compact fluorescent lamps), high intensitydischarge lampsand LED lamps.
 Large equipment: Constituting of washing machines, dryers (clothes), dish

washing machines, electric stoves, large printing and copying equipment
and solar photovoltaic panels.
 Small equipment: Small equipment comprises vacuum cleaners,

microwaves, ventilation equipment, toasters, electric kettles, electric
shavers, calculators, radio sets, video cameras, electronic toys, and tools,
small medical devices, small monitoring and control instrument.
 SmallIT and telecommunicationequipment:Under this categoryequipment

comprises of mobile phones, Global Positioning System(GPS), pocket
calculators, routers, personal computers, printers and telephones.
Key to Check Your Progress 2
E-waste is considered as a pollutant which have non-biodegradable nature

that means once been disposed it will not only emit certain harmful elements
into environment but also take a longer duration of time for its degradation.
Such waste once been disposed releases toxic substances such as lead oxide,
mercury, cadmium, polychlorinatedbiphenyls, brominatedflame retardantsalong
with thishighlytoxic dioxins andfurans fromwire burning.All suchtoxic material
leads to one or the other type of toxicity when introduced into the environment.
The life cycle of E-waste starts when the electrical product is manufactured
and end till its been fully used and then disposed. e-waste is a term which
covers all items of Electricity and Electronic Equipment also abbreviated
47
Noise, Radiation, Solid Waste, as EEE or WEEE i.e. waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment. The
Electronic Waste Pollution flowchart of e-waste life cycle is been shown as:
According to UNEP, 2007 there this cycle involves three steps:

E waste Collection Sorting and Transportation: This system involves
producer/ retailer municipal collection system, take back systemand also
addresses recycler’s/ dismantler’s collection system. Since E-waste is hazardous
in nature, it is collected, sorted, stored and transported under controlled
conditions.
E-Waste Treatment System: E-waste treatment techniques are
decontamination step where and disassembly or repair followed by shredding
of different fractions. Emitted E-waste fractions after shredding go for metal
recovery.
E-Waste Disposal System: Just after metal recovery, the remaining E-waste
fractions are disposed of either in landfills or directly incinerated.
48
ignou MEV-001
THE PEOPLE'S
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH MONITORING 4

MEV-001
Introduction to
Indira Gandhi National Open University School
of Interdisciplinary and
Block
4
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH MONITORING
UNIT 1
Environmental Quality Assessment and Monitoring 5
UNIT 2
Water Quality Assessment and Monitoring 31
UNIT 3
Air Quality Assessment and Monitoring 49
UNIT 4
Soil Quality and Noise Assessment and Monitoring 71
1
New Delhi New Delhi

Dr. K Krishnamurthi Dr. Abhay Singh Ms. Priyanka Porwal Dr. Pratibha Yadav
Professor, ACSIR, Senior Principal Department of Community E-waste Awareness Programme Centre for Rural
Scientist, Environmental Impact Medicine, GSVM Medical (Project Management Unit) Technology, Indian
Sustainability Division, CSIR-National College, Kanpur, Ministry of Electronics and Information Institute of Technology,
Environmental Engineering Research Uttar Pradesh Technology (MeitY) CGO Complex, Hauz Khaz, New Delhi
Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Electronics Niketan, Lodhi Road,
Nagpur-440020, India New Delhi
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Indira Gandhi National Open University, University, New Delhi
New Delhi New Delhi

Environmental Studies, School Prof. Ruchika Kuba, School of Health Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies, Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi
University, New Delhi Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies,IGNOU, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITORS
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
February, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-81-4
Copyright holder.
at www.ignou.ac.in
Printed at:
This block has 4 units which deals with environmental health monitoring which
has 4 units.
Unit 1 tries to introduce Environmental Quality Assessment Techniques by
defining environmental quality, by describing the deterioration of environmental
quality with respect to anthropogenic impacts and finally by explaining different
monitoring techniques for environmental parameters. Environmental quality is
an epitome of characters that relates to the natural as well as the artificial
environment. It comprises of the air, water and soil and noise quality. This
unit explains about the tools like environmental impact assessment and envi-
ronmental legislature which are employed to manage the environment and put
a check on it.
Unit 2 deals with the Water Quality Assessment and Monitoring. This unit
emphasizes the availability, usage to meet the demands of mankind. It explains
rational use of available water by identifying the strategies and variables of water
quality monitoring and assessment. This unit concluded by familiarizing various
water treatment techniques.
Unit 3 deals with air quality assessment and monitoring that introduces the
assessment on air quality whereby the effect of air pollution on environment
and human health is assessed. This analysis identifies the sources of pollutants
which help to suggest various means of reducing the pollutants. Ambient air
quality and monitoring and indoor air quality monitoring and testing have been
discussed at length. This unit concluded by discussing the policy space as well
as modeling and data analysis.
Unit 4 deals with the Soil Quality and Noise Assessment and Monitoring. One
of the most important prerequisites to achieve the environmental sustainability
is to maintenance and improvement of soil quality. Soil organic matter is the
key to building and maintaining healthy soils because it has such great positive
influences on essentially all soil properties helping to grow healthier plants.
Monitoring
4
UNIT 1 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
ASSESSMENT AND
MONITORING
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 EnvironmentalQuality
1.2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment
1.2.2 Environmental Legislation
1.3 Qualityof Environment for Life on Earth and Man
1.4 Health Impact of Environmental Quality
1.5 Natural and Living Environment in the Context of Quality of Life
1.6 Deterioration of Environmental Qualitywith Reference to
Anthropogenic Impact
1.6.1 Social Factors
1.6.2 Economic Factors
1.6.3 Institutional Factors
1.7 EnvironmentalMonitoring
1.7.1 Objective of Monitoring
1.7.2 Steps in the Design of a Monitoring Programme
1.7.3 Types of Monitoring
1.7.4 Ambient Air Monitoring
1.7.5 Objectives of Air Quality Monitoring
1.7.6 Environmental Water Monitoring
1.7.7 Source of Monitoring
1.7.8 Location of Sampling Sites
1.7.9 Sediment, Soil and Biological Monitoring
1.8 Man and Environment
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.10 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The word Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounding”. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, plants,
animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc.
Carlyle coined the term environment in the South of Scotland in 1828. Environment
may be defined in the simple terms as the sum total of all external conditions and the
influences that affects the livingorganisms. It includesthe lower part of the atmosphere,
entire hydrosphere, soil and lithosphere to the depth where the evidence of living 5
Environmental Health organisms has been found.Webster defines environment as “The complex of physical,
Monitoring
chemical, and biological factors that actupon an organismor an ecological community
and ultimately determine its form and survival.” The natural environment consist of
four interlinking systems namely, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere
and the biosphere. These four systems are in constant change and such changes are
affected by human activities and vice versa (Kumarasamy et al., 2004). The
environment has been classified into four major components: 1. Hydrosphere, 2.
Lithosphere, 3.Atmosphere, 4.Biosphere. Environment is composed of physical and
biological components. It includes both living and non-living components.
Deterioration of our environment impacts the health and well being and the qualityof
our environment.Assessment and monitoring of the air, water and soil are important
and discussed in this unit.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to;
 define environmental quality;
 describe the deterioration of environmental qualitywith respect to anthropogenic
impacts; and
 explain the different monitoring techniques for environmental parameters.
1.2 ENVIRONMENTALQUALITY
Environmental quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment.
It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the requirements of one
or more species and to any human for its well being. Environmental quality is an
epitome of characters that relates to the natural as well as the artificial environment.
It comprises of the air, water, soil and noise quality. The various standards have
been set by government, private and international agencies to monitor the quality
and also to improve themwhen the limits are exceeded. The tools which are employed
to manage the environment and to put a strict check on it’s quality are:
1. Environmental impact assessment
2. Environmental legislature
1.2.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the formal process used to predict the
environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan, policy, program, or
project prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. Environmental
ImpactAssessment (EIA) is an important management tool for ensuring optimal use
of natural resources for sustainable development. Abeginning in this direction was
made in our country with the impact assessment of river valley projects in 1978-79
and the scope has subsequentlybeen enhanced to cover other developmental sectors
such as industries, thermal power projects, miningschemes etc. To facilitate collection
of environmental data and preparation of management plans, guidelines have been
evolved and circulated to the concerned Central and State Government Departments.
6
EIAhas now been made mandatory under the Environmental (ProtectionAct, 1986 Environmental Quality
Assessment and
for 29 categories of developmental activities involving investments of Rs. 50 crores Monitoring
and above.
EIA 2006 was issued on 14th September 2006, in supersession of EIA 1994, except
in respect of things done or omitted to be done before such supersession. The
Notification is issued under relevant provisions of the Environment (Protection)Act,
1986.
Since EIA 2006, the various developmental projects have been re-categorised into
category ‘A’ and category ‘B’ depending on their threshold capacity and likely
pollution potential, requiring prior Environmental Clearance (EC) respectivelyfrom
MoEFCC or the concerned State Environmental Impact Assessment Authorities
(SEIAAs). Where state level authorities have not been constituted, the clearance
would be provided by the MoEFCC. Further, the notification provides for screening
(determining whether or not the project or activity requires further environmental
studies for preparation of EIA), scoping (determining the detailed and comprehensive
Terms of Reference (TOR), addressingall relevant environmental concerns /questions
for the preparation of an EIA Report), public consultation (ascertaining concerns of
affected persons) and appraisal of project proposals (based on the public
consultations and final EIA report).
Environmental clearance is required in respect of all new projects or activities listed
in the Schedule to the 2006 notification and their expansion and modernization,
including any change in product – mix.
Phases involve in the EIA Process: Some important as well as integral phases of
EIA are discussed below:
1. Screening: Project screening is the 1st stage of EIA. In this stage list of all
projects are made and tried to identify those projects which have considerable
environmental impacts and hence required EIA. Guidelines for whether or not
an EIA is required are country specific depending on the laws or norms in
operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full EIA.
2. Scoping: Consideration of issues and impacts for EIA can be defined as a
scoping stage. This stage is very wide and extensive because consultations,
discussions, experts’ opinions etc. are very important, useful and essential at
this stage. It should involve all interested groups such as the proponents and
planning or environmental agencies and members of the public. The results of
scoping will determine the scope, depth and terms and reference to be addressed
within the environmental statement.
Scopinginvolves:
 Identification of concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA.
 Ensure a relevant EIA.
 Enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on
the alternatives and on impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis
 Determine the assessment methods to be used.
 Identify all affected interests. 7
Environmental Health  Providing an opportunity for public involvement in determining the factors to
Monitoring
be assessed, and facilitate early agreement on contentious issues
 Save time and money.
 Establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study.
Checklists, Matrices and Networks are theenvironmental tools can be used in
the scoping exercises.
3. Baseline Data Collection: The term “baseline” refers to the collection of
background information on the biophysical, social and economic settings
proposed project area. Normally, information is obtained from secondary
sources, or the acquisitionof newinformationthroughfield samplings, interviews,
surveys and consultations with the public. The task of collecting baseline data
starts right from the period of project inception; however, a majority of this
task may be undertaken during scoping and actual EIA.
Baseline data is collected for two main purposes
 To provide a description of the current status and trends of environmental factors
(e.g., air pollutant concentrations) of the host area against which predicted
changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of significance, and
 To provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project
has been initiated.
4. ImpactAnalysis and Prediction: Predicting the magnitude of a development
likelyimpactsandevaluatingtheirsignificance iscore ofenvironmentalassessment
process (Morris & Therivel, 1995). Prediction should be based on the available
environmental baseline of the project area. Such predictions are described in
quantitative or qualitative terms.
Considerations that are made in impact prediction are magnitude of impact,
extent of impact, duration of impact and the significance of the impact.
5. Analysis of Alternatives: Analysis of alternative is done to establish the
preferred or most environmentallysound, financiallyfeasible and benign option
for achieving project objectives.
The World Bank directives requires systematic comparison of proposed
investment design in terms of site, technology, processes etc in terms of their
impacts and feasibility of their mitigation, capital, recurrent costs, suitability
under local conditions and institutional, training and monitoring requirements
(World bank 1999). For each alternative, the environmental cost should be
quantified to the extent possible and economic values attached where feasible,
and the basic for selected alternatives stated.
6. Mitigation and Impact Management: Mitigation is done to avoid, minimize
or offset predicted adverse impacts and, where appropriate, to incorporate
these into an environmental management plan or system. For each potential
adverse impact the plan for its mitigation at each stage of the project should be
documented and costed, as this is veryimportant in the selection of the preferred
alternative.
8
The objectives of mitigation therefore are to: Environmental Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
 Find better alternatives and ways of doing things;
 Enhance the environmental and social benefits of a project
 Avoid, minimise or remedy adverse impacts; and
 Ensure that residual adverse impacts are kept within acceptable levels.
7. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) & Environmental Monitoring
Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is a detailed plan and schedule of
measures necessary to minimize, mitigate, etc. any potential environmental
impacts identified bythe EIA(World Bank 1999). Once the significant impacts
have been identified, preparation of an Environmental Management Plan is of
significant importance.
An EMP consists of a set of mitigation, monitoring and institutional measures
which are to be taken during the implementation and operation of the proposed
project to eliminate adverse environmental impacts, offset them or reduce them
to acceptable levels. The EMP should also include the actions needed to
implement these measures, including the following features:
 Mitigation based on the environmental impacts reported in the EIA, the
EMP should describe with technical details each mitigation measure.
 The EMP should then include monitoring objectives that specifies the type
of monitoring activities that will be linked to the mitigation measures.
Specifically, the monitoring section of the EMP provides:
 A specific description, and technical details, of monitoring measures that
includes the parameters to be measured, the methods to be used, sampling
locations, frequencyof measurements, detection limits (where appropriate),
and definition of thresholds that will signal the need for corrective actions;
 Monitoringand reporting procedures to ensure earlydetection of conditions
that necessitate particular mitigation measures and to furnish information
on the progress and results of mitigation.
 The EMP should also provide a specific description of institutional
arrangements i.e. who is responsible for carrying out the mitigating and
monitoring measures (for operation, supervision, enforcement, monitoring
of implementation, remedial action, financing, reporting, and staff training).
 Additionally, the EMP should include an estimate of the costs of the
measures and activities recommended.
 It should consider compensatory measures if mitigation measures are not
feasible or cost effective.
 EMP must be operative throughout the whole Project Cycle.
Environmental Monitoring: Environmental monitoring is the systematic
measurement of key environmental indicators over time within a particular 9
Environmental Health geographic area (World Bank, 1999). Monitoring focuses on the most significant
Monitoring
impacts identified in the EIA. Various types of monitoring activity are currently
in practice. The main types are briefly described below:
Baseline Monitoring: Asurvey should be conducted on basic environmental
parameters in the area surrounding the proposed project before construction
begins. Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those parameters
over time against the baseline.
Impact Monitoring: The biophysical and socio-economical (including public
health) parameters within the project area, must be measured during the project
construction and operational phases in order to detect environmental changes,
which mayhave occurred as a result of project implementation e.g. air emission,
dust, noise, water pollution etc (European Commission, 1999).
Compliance Monitoring: This form ofmonitoringemploysa periodic sampling
method, or continuous recording of specific environmental qualityindicators or
pollution levels to ensure project compliance with recommended environmental
protection standards.
8. Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
The final EIA report is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Most national environmental laws have specified what the content of EIS should
have. Multilateral andbilateralfinancial institutions have alsodefined whatshould
be contained in an EIS. Ideally, the content of an EIS should have the following:
 Executive Summary
 Policy, Legal andAdministrative Framework
 Description of the environment
 Description of the Proposed Project in detail
 Significant Environmental Impacts
 Socio-economic analysis of Project Impacts
 Identification andAnalysis ofAlternatives
 MitigationAction/Mitigation Management Plan
 Environmental Management Plan
 Monitoring Program
 Knowledge gaps
 Public Involvement
 List of References
 Appendices including
 Reference documents, photographs, unpublished data
 Terms of Reference
 Consulting team composition
10  Notes of Public Consultation sessions
9. Decision Making Environmental Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
At each stage of EIA, interim decisions are made. These decisions influence final
decisions made about the EIA.
The EIS is submitted to designate authority for scrutiny before the final decision.
The authority, together with technical review panel determines the qualityof EIS and
gives the public further opportunityto comment. Based on the outcome of the review,
the designated authority or lending institution will accept, reject or make further
modifications to avoid future confrontation. If the EIS is accepted, an EIA license is
issued and if otherwise, additional studies or recommendations are made before
issuance of a license. The decision making process should be autonomous so that
the outcome of the review is seen as fair enough. The duration of this process is
usually set in the EIA legal framework.
1.2.2 Environmental Legislation
Environment Protection Act, 1986
It is an Act of the Parliament of India. In the wake of the Bhopal Tragedy,
the Government of India enacted the Environment Protection Act of 1986 under
Article 253 of the Constitution. Passed in March 1986, it came into force on 19
November 1986. The purpose of theAct is to implement the decisions of the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environments they relate to the protection and
improvement of the human environment and the prevention of hazards to human
beings, other living creatures, plants and property. TheAct is an “umbrella” legislation
designed to provide a framework for central government coordination of the activities
of various central and state authorities established under previous laws, such as the
Water Act and the Air Act.
Case Study 1
A study was done by Gergócs&Hufnagel (2017) to detect the changes in human
impacted habitat several organism communities play vital role as ecological and
environmental indicators. Due to the changes associated with human disturbances
natural variations occurs, resultingin change in composition of indicator communities.
In soil ecosystem, oribatid mite assemblages are represented as a good indicator
model group, when comparison was done with the help of meta analysis these oribatid
group showed natural variation with their diversity which were associated with
disturbances usingthree human disturbances types, diversityand dissimilarityindices.
The Literature data about oribatid mite was collected from natural and disturbed
habitats.Agriculture, heavy-metal pollutionandforest management are all components
of human disturbances. Calculation of dissimilarityindices and biodiversityindices
were done among natural habitats and between control habitats and disturbed habitats
at both the genus and species level. When the methods resulted in separation of
assemblages differences between the control habitats and disturbed habitats from
there varieties among natural habitat, Oribatid mite assemblages were considered
as effective community-level indicators. The studyexamined the correlation between
environmental variables of studysites and these indices. With Bray-Curtis index for
agriculturaldisturbances oribatid mite assemblagesperformed high indication strength,
since dissimilarity values between control habitats and disturbed habitats were as
high as between different natural habitats and higher than among the same types of
11
Environmental Health natural habitats. Species level showed similar results with genus level. To test the
Monitoring
effectiveness of other indicator groups and methods this approach may be useful.
Water Acts
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)Act was enacted in 1974 to provide
for the prevention and control of water pollution, and for the maintaining or restoring
of wholesomeness of water in the country. The Act was amended in 1988.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) CessAct was enacted in 1977, to
provide for the levyand collection of a cess on water consumed bypersons operating
and carrying on certain types of industrial activities. This cess is collected with a
view to augment the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards for the
prevention and control of water pollution constituted under the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Act was last amended in 2003.
Table 1.1: Water Quality Criteria for CPCB
Designated-Best-Use Class of water Criteria
Drinking Water Source A  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/

without conventional 100ml shall be 50 or less
treatment but after  pH between 6.5 and 8.5
disinfection  Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20°C 2mg/l or less
Outdoor bathing B · Total Coliforms Organism MPN/

(Organised) 100ml shall be 500 or less pH
between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved
Oxygen 5mg/l or more
· Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5
days 20°C 3mg/l or less
Drinking water source C · Total Coliforms Organism MPN/

after conventional 100ml shall be 5000 or less pH
treatment and between 6 to 9 Dissolved Oxygen
disinfection 4mg/l or more· Biochemical
Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C
3mg/l or less
Propagation of Wild life D · pH between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved

and Fisheries Oxygen 4mg/l or more· Free
Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less
Irrigation, Industrial E · pH betwwn 6.0 to 8.5·

Cooling, Controlled Electrical Conductivity at 25°C
Waste disposal micro mhos/cm Max.2250·
Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26·
Boron Max. 2mg/l
12 Below E- Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria

Table 1.2 Comparison of a selection of parameters for concentrations Environmental Quality
Assessment and
listed by WHO and the European Union, EPA. Monitoring
Parameter World Health Organization European Union

Acrylamide “ 0.10 ìg/l
Arsenic 10ìg/l 10 ìg/l
Antimony Ns 5.0 ìg/l
Barium 700ìg/l Ns
Benzene 10ìg/l 1.0 ìg/l
Benzo(a)pyrene “ 0.010 ìg/l
Boron 2.4mg/l 1.0 mg/L
Bromate “ 10 ìg/l
Cadmium 3 ìg/l 5 ìg/l
Chromium 50ìg/l 50 ìg/l
Copper “ 2.0 mg/l
Cyanide “ 50 ìg/l
1,2-dichloro-
ethane “ 3.0 ìg/l
Epichlorohydrin “ 0.10 ìg/l
Fluoride 1.5 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Lead “ 10 ìg/l
Mercury 6 ìg/l 1 ìg/l
Nickel “ 20 ìg/l
Nitrate 50 mg/l 50 mg/l
Nitrite “ 0.50 mg/l
Pesticides
(individual) “ 0.10 ìg/ l
Pesticides —
Total “ 0.50 ìg/l
Polycyclic
aromatic
hydrocarbons l “ 0.10 ìg/
Selenium 40 ìg/l 10 ìg/l
Tetrachloro-
ethene and
Trichloroethene 40ìg/l 10 ìg/l
13
Environmental Health Note: indicates that no standard has been identified by editors of this article
Monitoring
and ns indicates that no standard exists. ìg/l -> Micro grams per litre or
0.001 ppm, mg/L -> 1 ppm or 1000 ìg/l
Case Study 2
Crawford et al.,(2017) studied algal bloom in the Murray river ofAustralia.For the
first time in the Murray river and its distributary rivers an unusual bloom of
Chrysosporum ovalisporum occurred in New South Wales, Australia, from mid-
February to early June 2016. At its maximum extent it contaminated a combined
length of ca.2360 km. At most locations sampled, Chrysosporum ovalisporum
usually comprised of >>99% of the total bloom biovolume which at time exceeded
40mm3. With cyanobacterial-infested water released from them contaminating the
river system downstream, the origins of the bloom were most likely reservoirs in the
upper Murray river.
An integrated approach using three analytical methods:
(1) Identification and enumeration by microscopy,
(2) Multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction(qPCR),and
(3) Toxin analysis, was used to obtain data for the assessment of risk to water
users and management of the bloom. qPCR indicated some cyrA and stxA genes
responsible for cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin and biosynthesis respectivelywere
present, but were found mostly below the level of quantification. For microcystin
biosynthesis no mcyE genes were detected. Analysis of toxins revealed
cylindrospermopsin, saxitoxin and microcystin were all below detection. Lack of
measurable toxicity in a species usually considered a cylindrospermopsin producer
elsewhere meant the possibilityof relaxing management guidelines; however, due to
risk to water users from other biohazards potentially produced by the cyanobacteria
such as-contact irritants, high(red) alerts needed to be maintained.
A three-tiered monitoring strategyis suggested for monitoring cyanobacterial blooms
to provide enhanced data for bloom management.
Air Pollution Acts
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1982 was introduces after
United Nations Conference held in Stockholm in 1972. This Act was introduced
due to the increasing problems of air pollution in the advent of industrialization. The
Act lays down guidelines and sets limits and standards for the quality of air. The
current National Ambient Air Quality Standards were notified on 18 November,
2009 by the Central Pollution Control Board has been shown in Table 2.
Some international organizations also sets limits for the well beingof the environment.
The WHO is one of them,
Guideline values prescribed by WHO are:
PM2.5: 10 ìg/m3 annual mean
25 ìg/m3 24-hour mean
PM10 : 20 ìg/m3 annual mean
14 50 ìg/m3 24-hour mean

O3 : 100 ìg/m3 8-hour mean Environmental Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
NO2: 40 ìg/m3 annual mean
200 ìg/m3 1-hour mean
SO2: 20 ìg/m3 24-hour mean
500 ìg/m3 10-minute mean.
Table 1.3 National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The current National
Ambient Air Quality Standards were notified on 18 November, 2009 by
the Central Pollution Control Board.
Concentration in Ambient Air
Pollutant Time
Weighted Industrial, Ecologically
Average Residential, Sensitive Area
Rural and Other (notified by
Areas Central
Government)
Sulphur Dioxide Annual*
(SO2), µg/m3 24 hours** 5080 2080
Nitrogen Dioxide Annual*
(NO2), µg/m3 24 hours** 4080 3080
Particulate Matter Annual*
(size less than 24 hours** 60100 60100
10 µm) or PM10
µg/m3
Particulate Matter Annual*
(size less than 24 hours** 4060 4060
2.5 µm) or PM2.5
µg/m3
Ozone (O3) 8 hours*
µg/m3 1 hour**
24 hours** 10018060 10018060
Lead (Pb) µg/m3 Annual*
24 hours** 0.501.0 0.501.0
Carbon Monoxide 8 hours*
(CO) mg/m3 1 hour** 0204 0204
Ammonia (NH3) Annual*
µg/m3 24 hours** 100400 100400
Benzene (C6H6)
µg/m3 Annual* 5 5
Benzo(a)Pyrene
(BaP)- particulate
phase only, ng/m3 Annual* 1 1
3
Arsenic(As), ng/m Annual* 6 60
Nickel (Ni), ng/m3 Annual* 20 20
* Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site
taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.** 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly
monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time, they may
exceed the limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.Source: National
Ambient Air Quality Standards, Central Pollution Control Board Notification in the
Gazette of India, Extraordinary, New Delhi, 18th November, 2009 15
Environmental Health Case Study 3
Monitoring
The death atrocities in India especially in Delhi have increased manifolds due to the
increasing air pollution. The matter is of graver concern as the deaths occur earlier in
life in Delhi, which means a larger loss in life-years.Cropper, Simon, Alberini, and
Sharma report the results of a time-series study of the impact of particulate air
pollution on daily mortality in Delhi. They found that there is a significant
relationship between particulate pollution and dailynon-traumatic deaths as well as
deaths from certain causes (respiratoryand cardiovascular problems) and for certain
age groups.
In general, these impacts are smaller than those estimated for other countries, where
on average a 100-microgram increase in total suspended particulates (TSP) leads
to a 6-percent increase in non-traumatic mortality. In Delhi, such an increase in TSP
is associated with a 2.3-percent increase in deaths.
Although air pollution seems to have less impact on mortality counts in Delhi, the
number of life-years saved per death avoided is greater in Delhi. In Delhi, particulates
have the greatest impact in the 15-to-44 age group.
The differences in magnitudes of the effects are most likelyexplained bydifferences
in distributions of age at death and cause of death, as most deaths in Delhi occur
before the age of 65 and are not attributed to causes with a strong association with
air pollution.
Large differences in the magnitude of effects do call into question the validity of the
concentration-response transfer procedure. In that procedure, concentration-
response relationships found for industrial countries are applied to cities in developing
countries withlittle or no adjustment, to estimate the effects of pollution on daily
mortality.
Case Study 4
In another study the authors have estimated substantial impacts in terms of health
and economic burdens of exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in
India. This information, often lackingatthe local level, mayjustifyand drive mitigation
interventions. Authors have assessed the health and economic gains resulting from
attainment of WHO guidelines for PM2.5 concentrations – including interim target 2
(IT-2), interim target 3 (IT-3), and the WHO air quality guideline (AQG) – in
Nagpur district to inform policydecision making for mitigation.
A detailed assessment of concentrations of PM2.5 in 9 areas, covering urban, peri-
urban and rural environments, from February 2013 to June 2014. combination of
hazard and survival analyses based on the life table method to calculate
attributed annual number of premature deaths and disability-adjusted life years
(DALYs) for five health outcomes linked to PM2.5 exposure: acute lower respiratory
infection for children b5 years, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, stroke and lung cancer in adults e”25 years, GBD 2013 data on deaths and
DALYs for these diseases were used. Calculated averted deaths, DALYs and
economic loss resulting from planned reductions in average PM2.5 concentration
from current level to IT-2, IT-3 and AQG by the years 2023, 2033 and 2043,
respectively.
16
The economic cost for premature mortalitywas estimated as the product of attributed Environmental Quality
Assessment and
deaths and value of statistical life for India, while morbiditywas assumed to be 10% Monitoring
of the mortality cost. The annual average PM2.5 concentration in Nagpur district is
34 ± 17 ìg m” 3 and results in 3.3 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.6, 4.2) thousand
premature deaths and 91 (95% CI: 68, 116) thousand DALYs in 2013 with economic
loss of USD 2.2 (95% CI: 1.7, 2.8) billion in that year. It is estimated that interventions
that achieve IT-2, IT-3 andAQG by 2023, 2033 and 2043, would avert, respectively,
15, 30 and 36%, of the attributed health and economic loss in those years, translating
into an impressively large health and economic gain. To achieve this, authors
recommend an exposure-integrated source reduction approach (Tunde et al. 2017).
Noise
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,1982was amended in 1986 to
include noise as one of the potential agents of pollution.The noise levels in any area
/ zone shall not exceed the ambient air qualitystandards in respect of noise as specified
in the Schedule(table 3).The authority is responsible for the enforcement of noise
pollution control measures and the due compliance of the ambient air qualitystandards
in respect of noise. The exceeded level of noise may lead to physiological and
psychological problems in humans and other organisms.
Table 1.4: Ambient Air Quality Standards in respect of Noise, CPCB.
Area Code Category of Area/Zone Limits in dB (A) Leg*
Day Time Night Time
(A) IndustrialArea 75 70
(B) CommercialArea 65 55
(C) ResidentialArea 55 45
(D) SilenceArea 50 40
Note:- 1. Day time shall mean from 6.00 a.m. to 10.00 p.m.
1. Night time shall mean from 10.00 p.m. to 6.00 a.m.
2. Silence zone is an area comprising not less than 100 metres around hospitals,
educational institutions, courts, religious places or any other area which is
declared as such by the competent authority
3. Mixed categories of areas maybe declared as one of the four above mentioned
categories by the competent authority.
* dB(A) Leq denotes the time weighted average of the level of sound in decibels
on scaleA which is relatable to human hearing.
A “decibel” is a unit in which noise is measured.
“A”, in dB(A) Leq, denotes the frequency weighting in the measurement of noise
and corresponds to frequency response characteristics of the human ear.
Leq: It is energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.
17
Environmental Health Check Your Progress 1
Monitoring
1. What do you understand by the term environmental quality?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Describe the phases involved in the EIA Process.
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1.3 QUALITY OF ENVIRONMENT FOR LIFE ON

EARTHAND MAN
The environment directly affects health status and plays a major role in quality of
life, years of healthy life lived, and health disparities. Poor air quality is linked to
premature death, cancer, and long-term damage to respiratory and cardiovascular
systems. Secondhand smoke containing toxic and cancer-causing chemicals
contributes to heart disease and lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. Globally,
nearly 25% of all deaths and the total disease burden can be attributed to
environmental factors.
Poor environmental quality has its greatest impact on people whose health status
is already at risk. For example, nearly 1 in 10 children and 1 in 12 adults in the
United States have asthma, which is caused, triggered, and exacerbated by
environmental factors such as air pollution and secondhand smoke. Yet:
 In 2015, approximately 120.5 million people in the United States lived in
counties that exceeded the national air quality standards.
 88 million nonsmokers are exposed to secondhand smoke each year. Safe
air, land, and water are fundamental to a healthy community environment. An
environment free of hazards, such as secondhand smoke, carbon monoxide,
allergens, lead, and toxic chemicals, helps prevent disease and other health
problems. Implementing and enforcing environmental standards and
regulations, monitoring pollution levels and human exposures, building
environments that support healthy lifestyles, and considering the risks of
pollution in decision-making can improve health and quality of life for all
nationals.
Case Study 5
In a study the authors have estimated a substantial impact in terms of health and
economic burdens of exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in
18 India. This information, often lacking at the local level, may justify and drive
mitigation interventions. Authors have assessed the health and economic gains Environmental Quality
Assessment and
resulting from attainment of WHO guidelines for PM2.5 concentrations – including Monitoring
interim target 2 (IT-2), interim target 3 (IT-3), and the WHO air quality guide-
line (AQG) – in Nagpur district to inform policy decision making for mitigation.
A detailed assessment of concentrations of PM2.5 in 9 areas, covering urban,
peri-urban and rural environments, from February 2013 to June 2014.combination
of hazard and survival analyses based on the life table method to calculate attributed
annual number of premature deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for
five health outcomes linked to PM2.5 exposure: acute lower respiratory infection
for children b5 years, ischemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, stroke and lung cancer in adults e”25 years, GBD 2013 data on deaths
and DALYs for these diseases were used. Calculated averted deaths, DALYs
and economic loss resulting from planned reductions in average PM2.5
concentration from current level to IT-2, IT-3 and AQG by the years 2023, 2033
and 2043, respectively.
The economic cost for premature mortality was estimated as the product of
attributed deaths and value of statistical life for India, while morbidity was assumed
to be 10% of the mortality cost. The annual average PM2.5 concentration in
Nagpur district is 34 ± 17 ìg m” 3 and results in 3.3 (95% confidence interval
[CI]: 2.6, 4.2) thousand premature deaths and 91 (95% CI: 68, 116) thousand
DALYs in 2013 with economic loss of USD 2.2 (95% CI: 1.7, 2.8) billion in that
year. It is estimated that interventions that achieve IT-2, IT-3 and AQG by 2023,
2033 and 2043, would avert, respectively, 15, 30 and 36%, of the attributed
health and economic loss in those years, translating into an impressively large
health and economic gain. To achieve this, authors recommend an exposure-
integrated source reduction approach (Tunde et al. 2017).
1.4 HEALTH IMPACT OFENVIRONMENTAL

QUALITY
Poor air quality contributes to cancers, cardiovascular disease, asthma, and other
illnesses. Poor water quality can lead to gastrointestinal illness and a range of other
conditions, includingneurologicalproblemsandcancer. Some chemicalsin and around
homes and workplaces can contribute to acute poisonings and other toxic effects.
The built environment (such as schools, parks, greenways, and transportation
systems) affects both individual health and environmental quality. For example,
supporting bicycling as a primary mode of transportation increases physical activity
and reduces pollution and accidents from motor vehicles
1.5 NATURAL AND LIVING ENVIRONMENT IN

THE CONTEXT OF QUALITY OF LIFE
The environment affects the quality of life people enjoy. Environmental conditions
affect human health and well-being, both directly, for instance through pollution, and
indirectly, for instance through adverse effects on ecosystems, biodiversity or even
natural disasters and industrial accidents. People increasingly value their rights to
have access to environmental resources and services. These range from basics,
such as clean water (alreadydeclared an essential human right bythe United Nations), 19
Environmental Health to more elaborate amenities, such as open-air recreational spaces and noise-free
Monitoring
space in which to live and work. People take such environmental factors into account
in their choices, for instance, when deciding where to live. They may decide to pay
more for a house in a pleasant environment, or live out of town to enjoy a good
environment, though this involveshigher commutingexpenses. Environmental factors
indirectly affect other quality of life aspects, including economic prosperity and
inequality. For instance, they directly affect the price of housing and other property.
Monitoring the environment is important, so there is already an abundance of
environmental indicators. However, since these indicators are often designed to
provide either aggregate measurements of specific factors (such as total emissions
of pollutants over time periods) or quantitative measures of their direct impact on
the natural environment itself, their usefulness from a quality of life perspective is
rather limited. What we need is, for instance, measures of people’s exposure to
various adverse environmental factors, such as pollution (for example particulate
matter in the case of city dwellers). Quality of life is predominantly affected by
inherentlylocal environmental factors, so self-reporting of the subjectivelyperceived
qualityof the environment providesmore insightthan aggregate overall measurements
of pollutants or emissions.
Below we analyse measures of self-reported exposure to pollution, grime and other
environmental problems; and noise as well as exposure of urban populations to air
pollution by particulate matter (as technically measured by the European
EnvironmentalAgency). The qualityof the immediate living environment, especially
in urban settings, often depends on economic factors (such as housing conditions
and property prices) and vice versa. So this indicator may also be a proxy to measure
inequality and risk of poverty. That is why we also examine this interdependence.
1.6 DETERIORATION OFENVIRONMENTAL

QUALITY WITH REFERENCE TO
ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT
Environmental degradation is a result of the dynamic inter play of socio-economic,
institutional and technological activities. Environmental changes may be driven by
many factors including economic growth, population growth, urbanization,
intensification of agriculture, risingenergyuse and transportation. Povertystillremains
a problem at the root of several environmental problems.
1.6.1 Social Factors

 Population: Population is an important source of development, yet it is a major
source of environmental degradation when it exceeds the threshold limits of the
support systems. Unless the relationship between the multiplying population
and the life support system can be stabilized, development programmes,
howsoever, innovative are not likelyto yield desired results. Population impacts
on the environment primarilythrough the use of natural resources and production
of wastes and is associated with environmental stresses like loss of biodiversity,
air and water pollution and increased pressure on arable land. 39. India supports
17 per cent of the world population on just 2.4 per cent of world land area. Its
current rate of population growth at 1.85 per cent continues to pose a persistent
20
population challenge. In view of the linkages between population and Environmental Quality
Assessment and
environment, a vigorous drive for population control need hardly be over Monitoring
emphasised. Poverty is said to be both cause and effect of environmental
degradation. The circular link between povertyand environment is an extremely
complex phenomenon. Inequalitymayfoster unsustainabilitybecause the poor,
who rely on natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources
faster as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other types of
resources.An acceleration in povertyalleviation is imperative to break this link
between poverty and the environment
 Urbanisation: Lack of opportunities for gainful employment in villages and

the ecological stresses is leadingto an ever increasingmovement of poor families
to towns. Mega cities are emerging and urban slums are expanding. Such rapid
and unplanned expansion of cities has resulted in degradation of urban
environment. It has widened the gap between demand and supply of
infrastructural services such as energy, housing, transport, communication,
education, water supplyand sewerage and recreational amenities, thus depleting
the precious environmental resource base of the cities. The result is the growing
trend in deterioration of air and water quality, generation of wastes, the
proliferation of slums and undesirable land use changes, all of which contribute
to urban poverty.
1.6.2 Economic Factors

 To a large extent, environmental degradation is the result of market failure, that
is, the nonexistent or poorly functioning markets for environmental goods and
services. In this context, environmental degradation is a particular case of
consumption or production externalities reflected bydivergence between private
and social costs (or benefits). Lack of well defined property rights may be one
of the reasons for such market failure. On the other hand, Market distortions
created by price controls and subsidies may aggravate the achievement of
environmental objectives. The level and pattern of economic development also
affect the nature of environmental problems. India’s development objectives
have consistently emphasised the promotion of policies and programmes for
economic growth and social welfare. The manufacturing technology adopted
by most of the industries has placed a heavy load on environment especially
through intensive resource and energy use, as is evident in natural resource
depletion (fossil fuel, minerals, timber), water, air and land contamination, health
hazards and degradation of natural eco-systems. With high proportion fossil
fuel as the main source of industrial energy and major air polluting industries
such as iron and steel, fertilizers and cement growing, industrial sources have
contributed to a relativelyhigh share in air pollution. Large quantities of industrial
and hazardous wastes brought about by expansion of chemical based industry
has complicated the wastes management problem with serious environmental
health implications.
Transport activities have a wide variety of effects on the environment such as air
pollution, noise from road traffic and oil spills from marine shipping. Transport
infrastructure in India has expanded considerably in terms of network and services.
Thus, road transport accounts for a major share of air pollution load in cities such as
21
Environmental Health Delhi. Port and harbor projects mainly impact on sensitive coastal eco systems.
Monitoring
Their construction affects hydrology, surface water quality, fisheries, coral reefs and
mangroves to varying degrees.
Direct impacts of agricultural development on the environment arise from farming

activities which contribute to soil erosion, land salination and loss of nutrients. The
spread of green revolution has been accompanied by over exploitation of land and
water resources, and use of fertilizers and pesticides have increased many fold.
Shifting cultivation has also been an important cause of land degradation. Leaching
fromextensive use of pesticides and fertilizers is an important source of contamination
of waterbodies. Intensive agriculture and irrigation contribute to land degradation
particularlysalination, alkalization and water logging.
1.6.3 Institutional Factors
 The Ministry of Environment Forests and climate change (MoEFCC) in the
Government is responsible for protection, conservation and development of
environment. The Ministry works in close collaboration with other Ministries,
State Governments, Pollution Control Boards and a number of scientific and
technical institutions , universities, non-Governmental organisations etc.
Environment (Protection)Act, 1986 is the keylegislation governingenvironment
management. Other important legislations in the area include the Forest
(Conservation)Act, 1980 and the Wildlife (Protection)Act, 1972. The weakness
of the existing system lies in the enforcement capabilities of environmental
institutions, both at the centre and the state. There is no effective coordination
amongst various Ministries/Institutions regarding integration of environmental
concerns at the inception/planning stage of the project. Current policies are
also fragmented across several Government agencies with differing policy
mandates. Lack of trained personnel and comprehensive database delay many
projects. Most of the State Government institutions are relativelysmall suffering
from inadequacy of technical staff and resources. Although overall quality of
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment (EIA) studiesandthe effective implementation
of the EIA process have improved over the years, institutional strengthening
measures such as training of keyprofessionals and staffing with proper technical
persons are needed to make the EIA procedure a more effective instrument for
environment protection and sustainable development.
1.7 ENVIRONMENTALMONITORING
Environmental monitoring is the continuous, automated observation of changes in
the environment. Environmental monitoring comprises of the processes and steps
taken to characterise and monitor the quality of the environment.
1.7.1 Objective of Monitoring
Monitoring of the environment maybe undertaken for a number of reasons. In general
monitoring is done in order to gain information about the present levels of harmful or
potentiallyharmful pollutants in discharges to the environment, within the environment
itself or in living creatures that may be affected by these pollutants.
This definition can be expanded as follows:
22
 Monitoring may be carried out to assess pollution effects on man and his Environmental Quality
Assessment and
environment in order to identify any possible cause and effect relationship Monitoring
between pollutant concentration and health effects, climatic changes etc.
 To evaluate pollution interactions and patterns e.g. apportionment and pollution
patchilystudies usuallyrelyon environmental monitoring
 To assess the need for legislative controls and emissions of pollutants and to
ensure compliance with emission standards.
1.7.2 Steps in the Design of a Monitoring Programme
Objectives
 Site selection & number measured parameters to be duration of survey
 Measured
 Sampling methods
 Equipment Selection
 Analytical techniques
 Calibration methods
 Data recording
 DataAnalysis
 Data presentation
 Information Dissemination
In areas prone to acute pollution, episodes monitoring may be carried out in order
to activate emergency produced. - In order to obtain a historical record of
environmental qualityand so provide a data base for future use e.g. epidemiological
studies. - To ensure the suitability of water supply for a proposed use (industrial or
domestic) or to ensure the suitability of and for a proposed use (e.g. housing).
1.7.3 Types of Monitoring
Pollutant sources may be classified by their spatial distribution as point sources,

(e.g. industrial chimneys, liquid waste discharge pipes); line sources or area sources
(e.g. high ways, airline routes and run-off from agricultural land. Sources may also
be classified as either statutory or mobile or on the basis of height of discharge for
air pollutants i.e. at street level, building level, stack level or above the atmospheric
boundarylayer level.An important distinction maybe made between planned, fugitive
and accidental emissions to the environment. - Planned emission arises when (as is
invariablythe case) it is economicallyor technicallyimpossible to completelyremove
all the contaminants in a discharge and hence the process operation allows pollutants
to be discharged to the environment at known and controlled rates. E.g. SO2 from
power generation plants and low level radioactive effluent during nuclear fuel
reprocessing. - Fugitive emission: - arises when pollutants are released in an unplanned
way normally without first passing through the entire process. They therefore occur
at a point sooner in the process that the stack or duct designed for planned emissions. 23
Environmental Health They generally originate from operations which are uneconomic or impractical to
Monitoring
control, have poor physical arrangements for effluent control or are poorlymaintained
or managed e.g. escape of heavy metal contaminated dust from a lead works on
vehicle tires arising from poor dust control and wheel washing arrangement -
Accidental emissions results from plant failure, such as burst filter bag or faultyvalue,
or from an accident involving either equipment or operator error or (e.g. the
Chernobyl reactor accident). Accidental emissions can give rise to very high
concentration but they normally occur infrequently. Based on this classification,
monitoring can be done in two ways:
(i) Sampling taken from the effluent before discharge to the environment without
consideration of source strengths and rates and
(ii) Samplingfromthe ambient environmentwithout consideration of source strength
and rates. Since either method may not prove satisfactory as regards provision
of necessary data required to resolve a problem it is often desirable to
complement one with the other.
This may be carried out for a number of reasons
- Determination of the mass emission rates of pollutants from a particular source
and assessment of how these are affected by process variations
- Evaluation of the effectiveness of control devices for pollution abatement
- Evaluation of compliance with statutorylimitations on emissions fromindividual
sources.
1.7.4 Ambient Air Monitoring
Ambient air quality monitoring is required to determine the existing quality of air,
evaluation of the effectiveness of control programme and to identifyareas in need of
restoration and their prioritization.
Guidelines for monitoring are made for carrying out ambient air qualitymonitoring
under NAMP(NationalAir MonitoringProgramme) and description of the programme
is essential as the monitoring is carried out to meet the objectives of NAMP.
1.7.5 Objectives of Air Quality Monitoring
The major objectives for air quality monitoring are as below:
(i) Background Data In order to generate background data, air quality monitoring
is conducted to assess existing level of contamination and to asses possible
effects of air contamination occurring in future.
(ii) Status and Trend Evaluation The objective is to determine air pollution status
and trend information from anycontinuous air quality monitoring programme.
The information is used to determine, whether pollution control strategies as
advised byimplementing authorityare giving acceptable values that is lowering
of pollution levels or new or additional control are required to achieve acceptable
levels.
(iii) Environment Exposure Level Determination The air quality monitoring and
survey concern itself with systematic study of considerable segment of
24
environment to define inter-relationship of source of pollution, atmospheric Environmental Quality
Assessment and
parameter and measurable manifestations in order to evaluate the character Monitoring
and magnitude of existing problem.
(iv) Scavenging Behaviour of Environment To understand natural scavenging or

cleansing process undergoing in the environment through pollution dilution,
dispersion, wind movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical
transformation of pollutants generated.
(v) Air Quality Management To assess the present status to judge effectiveness of
air pollution control strategies and long term management of air quality.
1.7.6 Environmental Water Monitoring

Pollutants enter the aquatic environment from the air (by dry deposition or in
precipitation occurring either directlyonto the water surface or elsewhere within the
catchments area) from the land (either in surface run-off or via sub-surface waters)
and directly through effluent discharges (either domestic industrial or agricultural).
The undesirable effects of pollutants in natural water may be due to stimulation of
water plant growth (eutrophication) which ultimately leads to deoxygenating of the
water and major ecological change.
(a) Their direct or indirect toxic effects on aquatic life (b) The loss of amenity and
practical value of water body particularly as a source of water for public supply.
1.7.7 Source of Monitoring

Apart from the monitoring of pollutants in liquid effluents, sampling may be carried
out.
(a) In rivers, lakes, estuaries and the sea in order to obtain an overall indication of
water quality
(b) For rain water, groundwater and run-off water particularly in the urban
environment) to assess the influence of pollutant sources
(c) At points where water is taken for supply, to cheek its suitabilityfor a particular
use
(d) Using sediments and biological samples in order to assess the accumulation of
pollutants and asindicators of pollution.Apart fromthe measurement of chemical
and physical parameters the quantitative or qualitative assessment of aquatic
flora and fauna is often used to give a hesitation of the presence or absence of
pollution, and well recognized relationships exist between the abundance and
diversity of species and the degree of pollution. This is often used to assess the
cleanliness of natural fresh waters (biological monitoring)
1.7.8 Location of Sampling Sites

There are two main causes of heterogeneous distribution of quality in a water body.
- If the system is composed of two or more waters which are not fully mixed (such
as in thermally stratified lakes or just below an effluent discharge in a river if the
pollutant distributes non – informallyin a homogeneous water. 25
Environmental Health 1.7.9 Sediment, Soil and Biological Monitoring
Monitoring
Soil and sediments maybecome polluted in a number of ways (disposal of industrial
and domestic solid wastes, wet and drydeposition fromthe atmosphere and infiltration
by contaminated waters) and the main pollution hazards on land from such
contamination includes:
 Harmful substances in soil or plants and subsequently into food supply
 Substance washed from land and as such pollute water supplies
 Contaminants may be resuspended and subsequently inhaled
 Land may be potentiallydangerous or unsuitable for future use (e.g. housing or
agriculture)
 Ecological system may be damaged with consequent loss to conservation and
amenity. Some potentially harmful substances such as mercury or lead are
naturallypresent in soils but at concentration which are not normallydeleterious.
Some activities however can cause elevated levels of these compounds e.g.
mining may cause soils to be contaminated bymetals and the dumping of solid
wastes in land will invariably introduce a wide variety of pollutants to the soil.
On the other hand there are compounds which do not occur naturally, and their
presence in soils and sediments is due entirely to man’s activities. These
substances include pesticides (particularlythe organo-chlorine compounds such
as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin) and artificial audio nuclides (137Cs, 106Rm). It is
also usual to monitor background levels in soil, sediment and vegetation e.g. is
the geochemical survey of stream bed sediments as stream sediments are
considered to represent a close approximation to a composite sample of the
weathering and erosion products of rock and soil upstream of the sampling
point and in the absence of pollution provide information on the regional
distribution of the elements.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1. Explain the steps in the design of a monitoring programme.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Describe environmental water monitoring.
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26
Environmental Quality
1.8 MANAND ENVIRONMENT Assessment and
Monitoring
Man and environment are inter-related. The environment influences the life of human
beings and also human beings modify their environment as a result of their growth,
dispersal, activities, death and decay etc. Thus all living beings including man and
their environment are mutuallyreactive affecting each other in a number of ways and
a dynamic equilibrium is possible in between the two, i.e. human beings (society)
and environment are interdependent. The different social structures like industrial,
agricultural, religious, aesthetic etc. have developed during various stages of human
civilization and these structures represent human being’s accumulated cultural
resources based on natural environment.
If the natural environment helped in the development of different structures of the
society on the one hand, the existence and quality of environment now rests on the
responses of these social structures to the environment on the other hand.The burning
issues like quality of environment, disruption of earth’s natural ecosystem,
environmentaldegradationand pollution, ecologicalimbalances, depletion ofresources
etc. can be approached and solved only after considering the value judgments which
may be determined by taking into account the consequences of ‘environmental
improvement programme’on the entire society and society’s response towards the
improvement programme.Actually all these depend on the interest and desire of the
societyin improving the quality of environment.
The interaction between environment and society depends largely on the social and
political system. Even the capitalistic and socialistic systems perceptions and reactions
to the environment are quite different. The differential interactions are due to uneven
distribution of natural resources, uneven economic and social development,
dissimilarity of demographic factors, varying view points of the governments and
individuals towards environment etc.
Continuous and exceedingly increasing rate of rapacious exploitation of natural
resources, industrialisation, technological growth, unplanned urbanisation and profit
oriented capitalism by the developed western world are responsible for grave
environmental crisis and ecological imbalance not confined to their own countries
but to the whole world.
The socialistic system of government gives more emphasis on the social importance
of natural resources and environmental problems and the urgent need to tackle,
these problems. Marxism preaches to organise society’s control over the rapacious
exploitation of natural resources and to develop harmony between man and nature.
The emphasis on rational exploitation of natural resources and ecological balance
was in the constitution of USSR.
The changes in the relationship between man and environment depend upon the
change in organisation and attitude of society. To improve environmental standard
and to maintain ecological balance, the followings are some issues before the present
civilized society.
1.9 LET US SUM UP

Monitoring is thus one of the key criteria for studying and analyzing the environment.
The understanding of the factors of the environment and assigning parametric values 27
Environmental Health to it play a pivotal role in the analysis of the environment and thus its conservation.
Monitoring
Monitoring technology is advancing rapidly. It is becoming significantlycheaper and
easier to use while also improving in quality. These factors are leading to short term
challenges for EPA and State programs. However, these challenges are likely to be
more than offset by the promise of better environmental data leading to improved
environmental protection.
1.10 KEYWORDS
Environment: It may be defined in the simple terms as the sum total of all
external conditions and the influences that affects the living organisms.
Environmental quality: It is a set of properties and characteristics of the
environment. It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the
requirements of one or more species and to any human for its well being.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): This refers to the formal process
used to predict the environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan,
policy, program, or project prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed
action.

READINGS
Crawford, A., Holliday, Jon., Merrick, C., Brayan, J., Asten, M., and Bowling,
L.,(2017). Use of three monitoring approaches to manage a major Chrysosporum
ovalisporum bloom in the Murray River,Australia, 2016, Environ Monit Assess,
189:202.
Gergócs, V., Hufnagel, L., (2017).Comparing the natural variation of oribatid mite
communities with their changes associated with anthropogenic disturbance. Environ
Monit Assess.189:203.
Cropper, M., Simon, N, B., Alberini, A., and Sharma, P.K.(1997). The Health
Effects ofAir Pollution in Delhi, India. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper
No. 1860.
Ogola, P. F. A.,(2007).Environmental Impact Assessment General Procedures.
Geothermal Training Programme, Ken Gen.
Kumaraswamy et al (2004). Constructional industry development: journal of
sustainableenvironment- chapter one.
Singh, S. K., EIA process in India, Centre for Science and Environment.
The underlying causes of Environmental Degradation.http://indiabudget.nic.in/es98-
99/chap1104.pdf
Tunde O. Etchie, Saravanadevi Sivanesan, Gregory O. Adewuyi, Kannan
Krishnamurthi, Padma S. Rao, Ayotunde T. Etchie, Ajay Pillarisetti, Narendra K.
Arora, Kirk R. Smith. The health burden and economic costs averted by ambient
PM2.5 pollution reductions in Nagpur, India. Environment International 102 (2017)
145–156.
28
Environmental Quality
1.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Assessment and
Monitoring
1. Your answer should include the following points.
Environmentalquality is a setof properties andcharacteristics of the environment.
It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the requirements
of one or more species and to any human for its well being. Environmental
qualityis an epitome of characters that relates to the natural as well as the artificial
environment. It comprises of the air, water, soil and noise quality. The various
standards have been set by government, private and international agencies to
monitor the quality and also to improve them when the limits are exceeded.
The tools which are employed to manage the environment and to put a strict
check on it’s qualityare: Environmental impact assessment and Environmental
legislature.
 Screening
 Scoping
 Baseline Data Collection
 ImpactAnalysis and Prediction:
 Analysis ofAlternatives
 Mitigation and Impact Management:
 Environmental Management Plan (EMP) & Environmental Monitoring
 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
 Site selection & number measured parameters to be duration of survey
 Measured
 Sampling methods
 Equipment Selection
 Analytical techniques
 Calibration methods
 Data recording
 DataAnalysis
 Data presentation
 Information Dissemination
29
Environmental Health 2. Your answer should include the following points.
Monitoring
 Pollutants enter the aquatic environment from the air (by dry deposition
or in precipitation occurring either directly onto the water surface or
elsewhere within the catchments area) from the land (either in surface
run-off or via sub-surface waters) and directly through effluent discharges
(either domestic industrial or agricultural). The undesirable effects of
pollutants in natural water maybe due to stimulation of water plant growth
(eutrophication) which ultimately leads to deoxygenating of the water and
major ecological change.
 Their direct or indirect toxic effects on aquatic life (b) The loss of amenity
and practical value of water body particularly as a source of water for
public supply.
 Source of monitoring
30
UNIT 2 WATER QUALITY
ASSESSMENT AND
MONITORING
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2. Definition of Safe and Wholesome Water
2.3. Water Quality
2.4 Water Monitoring
2.4.1 Real-time Monitoring
2.5 Drinking Water Indicators

2.5.1 Environmental Indicators
2.6 Environmental Indicators

2.7 AcceptabilityAspects
2.7.1 Physical and Chemical Aspects
2.7.2 Microbial Aspects
2.8 Tables of Health Related Chemical Constituents

2.9 Environmental Water Quality
2.10. Water Treatment Methods
2.10.1 Primary Treatment
2.10.2 Secondary Treatment
2.10.3 Complete Treatment
2.11 Let Us Sum Up

2.12 Keywords
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important and basic natural resources. Water is not only
one of the most essential commodities of our day-to-day life, but the development
of this natural resource also plays a crucial role in economic and social development
processes. While the total amount of water available in the world is constant and is
generally said to be adequate to meet all the demands of mankind, its quality and
distribution over different regions of the world is uneven and causes problems of
scarcityand suitability. It is therefore imperative that man develops, uses and manages
this scarce commodity as rationally and efficiently as possible. In order to execute
this task, accurate and adequate information must be available about the quality of
the this natural resource under constantly changing human pressures and natural
31
forces.
Environmental Health Water qualitymanagement is for a great deal controlled byauthorization of discharges
Monitoring
of dangerous substances for which monitoring of discharges, effluents and influenced
surface water is essential. Water quality monitoring is one of the first steps required
in the rational development and management of water resources. In the field of
water quality management, there has been a steady evolution in procedures for
designing system to obtain information on the changes of water quality. The
‘monitoring’ comprise all activities to obtain ‘information’ with respect to the water
system.
Water quality monitoring is a complex subject, and the scope of it is both deep and
wide. Water qualitymonitoring has a direct relation with chemistry, biology, statistics
and also economics. Its scope is also related to the types of water uses and functions
which are manifold and the nature of the sources of water such as surface water
(rivers and lakes), sea water groundwater.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is an apex body in the field of water
qualitymanagement in India. For rational planning of anywater qualitymanagement
programme, CPCB needs to know the nature and extent of water qualitydegradation.
Therefore, a sound scientific water quality monitoring programme is prerequisite.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to;
 Understand the principle of water monitoring;
 Explain the sources of water pollution and its effect on the water quality;
 Describe the basic hydrology and related concepts which affect assessment of
water qualitymonitoring;
 identifythe strategies and variables of water qualitymonitoring and assessment;
and
 familiarize with the water qualitytesting methods and reportingof the assessment
data.
2.2 DEFINITION OF SAFEAND WHOLESOME

WATER
Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main
constituent of Earth’s streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most
living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O. It also occurs in nature as snow,
glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, and atmospheric
humidity.Water that is easilyaccessible, adequate in quantity, free fromcontamination,
safe and readily available throughout the year. There can be no state of positive
health and wellbeing without safe water. Water is not only a vital environmental
factor to all forms of life, but it has also a great role to play in socio-economic
development of human population. Water intended for human consumption should
be both safe and wholesome. This has been defined as water that is:
1) Free from pathogenic agents.
2) Free from harmful chemical substances.
3) Pleasant to taste, i.e., free from colour and odour and
32
4) Usable for domestic purposes. Water Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
Water is said to be polluted or contaminated when it does not fulfill the above criteria.
Without ample and safe drinking water, we cannot provide health care to the
community. Our local, state and national governments use monitoring information to
help control pollution levels. We can use this information to understand exactlyhow
we impact our water supply and to help us understand the important role we all play
in water conservation.
2.3 WATER QUALITY

Water quality is a complex subject, which involves physical, chemical, hydrological
and biological characteristics of water and their complex and delicate relations. From
the user’s point of view, the term“water quality” isdefinedas“those physical, chemical
or Biological characteristics of water by which the user evaluates the acceptability
of water”. For example for drinking water should be pure, wholesome, and potable.
Similarly, for irrigation dissolved solids and toxicants are important, for outdoor
bathing pathogens are important and water qualityis controlled accordingly. Textiles,
paper, brewing, and dozens of other industries using water, have their specific water
qualityneeds.
2.4 WATER MONITORING

Webster’s dictionarydefines monitoring as
1) to check and sometimes to adjust for quality or fidelity,
2) to watch, observe or check, especially for a special purpose,
3) to keep track of, regulate or control (as a process for the operation of a
machine). Note that both (1) and (3) involve adjustment, regulation, or control,
which fit well with the various types of monitoring information.
A distinction can be made between different monitoring activities:
Survey: It is a short term observation(s) on water qualityto fulfill definite objectives.
Surveillance: it is a continued programme of surveys systematically undertaken to
provide a series of observations in definite time period.
Monitoring: It is a continuous surveillance undertaken to fulfil set of objectives.
2.4.1 Real-time Monitoring
Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, nowadays,
citizens demand real-time information about the water they are drinking. During the
last years, several companies are deploying worldwide real-time remote monitoring
systems for measuring water pH, turbidity or dissolved oxygen levels.
2.5 DRINKINGWATER INDICATORS

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
 Alkalinity
 Color of water
 pH 33
Environmental Health  Taste and odor.
Monitoring
 Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese,
magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia
coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia.
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved
organic carbon (DOC)
 Radon
 Heavymetals
 Pharmaceuticals
 Hormone analogs
2.5.1 Environmental Indicators
Physical indicators
 Water temperature·  Total dissolved solids (TDS)
 Speciic conductance or  Odour of water·
electrical conductance  Color of water
(EC) or conductivity·  Taste of water
 Total suspended solids (TSS)
 Transparency or turbidity
Chemical indicators
 pH·  Heavymetals
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)·  Nitrate
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)·  Orthophosphates·
 Dissolved oxygen (DO)·  Pesticides
 Total hardness (TH)  Surfactants
Biological indicators
 Ephemeroptera·  Escherichia coli (E. coli)
 Plecoptera·  Coliform bacteria
 Mollusca·
 Trichoptera
Diseases are usually classified by pathogen class in medical texts. However, for
public health purposes it is more useful to follow the Bradley classification (White et
al., 1972), based on transmission routes in the environment. The advantage of this
classification system is that it is easy to see what interventions are likely to reduce
34 the incidence of different water-related diseases.
Table 2.1: Bradley classification system for water- related diseases* Water Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
Category Example Intervention
Water- borne Diarrhoeal disease, Improve drinkingwater quality,
cholera, dysentery, prevent casural use of
typhoid, infectious unprotected sources
hepatitis
Water-washed Diarrhoeal disease, Increase water quantity
cholera, dysentery, used Improve hygiene
trachoma, scabies,
skin and eye infections,
ARI (acute respiratory
infections)
Water-based Schistosomiasis, Reduce need for contact
guinea worm with contaminated water,
reduce surface water
contamination
Water-related Malaria, onchocerciasis, Improve surface water
(insect vector) dengue fever, Gambian management, destroy insect
sleeping sickness breeding sites, use mosquito
netting
The guidelines for drinking water quality recommended by WHO

(1993 and 1996) relates to the following variables:
1) Acceptability aspects
2) Microbiological aspects
3) Chemical aspects
4) Radiological aspects

1. Explain water quality and water monitoring.
..............................................................................................................
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..............................................................................................................
2. List the drinking water standards.
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Monitoring 2.7 ACCEPTABILITYASPECTS
2.7.1 (A) Physical Aspects
Acceptability
Physical Standard
Turbidity Colour Taste & Odour

Figure 2.1: Physical aspects
The ordinary consumer judges the water quality by its physical characteristics. The
provision of drinking water that is not only safe but also pleasing in appearance,
taste and odour is a matter of high quality. The acceptabilityof drinking water can be
influenced by manydifferent constituents. These are:
1) Colour in water may be caused by the presence of minerals such as iron and
manganese or by substances of vegetable origin such as algae and weeds.
Colour tests indicate the efficacy of the water treatment system.
2) Turbidity in water is because of suspended solids and colloidal matter. It may
be due to eroded soil caused by dredging or due to the growth of micro-
organisms. High turbiditymakes filtration expensive. If sewage solids are present,
pathogens may be encased in the particles and escape the action of chlorine
duringdisinfection.
3) Odour and taste are associated with the presence of living microscopic
organisms; or decaying organic matter including weeds, algae; or industrial
wastes containing ammonia, phenols, halogens, hydrocarbons. This taste is
imparted to fish, rendering them unpalatable. While chlorination dilutes odour
and taste caused by some contaminants, it generates a foul odour itself when
added to waters polluted with detergents, algae and some other wastes.
4) Temperature: Cool water is generallymore palatable. Low water temperature
tends to decrease the efficiency of treatment process, including disinfection,
and maythus have a deleterious effect on drinking water quality. However high
water temperature enhances the growth of microorganisms and taste, odour,
colour and corrosion problem may increase.
5) B.O.D.: It denotes the amount of oxygen needed by micro-organisms for
stabilization of decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions. High
B.O.D. means that there is less of oxygen to support life and indicates organic
pollution.
To sum up, we can not judge the qualityof drinking water byphysical characteristics
alone.Adetailed chemical and microbiological examination is also needed for
complete assessment.
2.7.1 B. Chemical Aspects
1) Chlorides: all waters including rain water contain chlorides. Since the chloride
content of water varies from place to place. Any excess over the normal range
should arouse suspicion of water contamination. The standard prescribed for
36 chloride is 200 mg /litre. The maximum permissible level is 600 mg/litre.
2) Ammonia: the term includes both the non-ionized (NH3) and ionized (NH4). Water Quality
Assessment and
Ammonia in water is an indicator of possible bacterial, sewage and animal Monitoring
waste pollution.Ammonia cancompromise disinfectionefficiency, result innitrite
formation in distribution systems, can cause the failure of filters for the removal
of manganese, and cause taste and odour problems.
3) pH: this isone ofthe main objective in controllingthe pH isto minimize corrosion
and incrustration in the distribution system. Ph levels of less than 7 may cause
severe corrosion of metals in the distribution pipes and elevate levels of certain
chemical substances, such as lead, may result. At pH level above 8, there is a
progressive decrease in the efficiency of the chloride disinfection process. An
acceptable Ph of drinking water is between 6.5 and 8.5.
4) Hydrogen Sulphide: the taste and odour threshold of Hydrogen sulphide in

water are estimated to be taken between 0.05 and 0.1 mg/L. Sulphide is oxidized
rapidly to sulphate in well aerated water, and Hydrogen sulphide level in
oxygenated water supplies are normally very low. The presence of Hydrogen
sulphide in drinking water can be easily detected by the consumer and requires
immediate corrective action.
5) Iron: anaerobic ground water may contain ferrous iron at concentrations of

upto several mg/L without discolouration and turbidity in water when directly
pumped from the well. Iron also promotes the growth of “Iron bacteria”, which
derive their energy from the oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric iron, and deposit
a slimy coating of the pipe. At level above 0.3 mg/L, Iron stains laundry and
plumbingfixtures.
6) Sodium: the taste threshold concentration of sodium in water depends on the

associated anions and the temperature of the solution. At room temperature
the average taste threshold for sodium is about 200 mg/L.
7) Total Dissolved Solids: Total dissolved solids(TDS) can have an important

effect on the taste of drinking water. The palatability of water with a TDS level
of less than 600 mg/L, is consider to be good. Drinking water becomes
unpalatable at TDS level more than 1200 mg/L. Water with extremely low
concentration of TDS may also unacceptable because of it’s flat and insipid
taste. The presence of high level of TDS is also objectionable to consumers
owing to excessive scaling in water pipes, heaters, boilers and household
applications. Water with concentrations of TDS below 1000 mg/L is usually
acceptable to the consumers.
8) Dissolved Oxygen: the dissolved oxygen content of water is influenced by

the raw water temperature composition, treatment and anychemical or biological
processes taking place in the distribution system. depletion of dissolved oxygen
in water supplies can encourage microbial reduction of nitrate to nitrite and
sulphate to sulphite giving rise to taste and odour problem.
9) Zinc: zinc impartsanundesirable astringents taste todrinkingwater.The threshold

concentration should be 4 mg/L(as zinc sulphate). Water containing zinc at
concentration in excess of 5 mg/L, or concentration as low as 3 mg/L, may
appear opalescent and develop a greasyfilm on boiling. Drinking water seldom
contains zinc concentrations above 0.1 mg/L levels in tap water can be
considerablyhigher because of the zinc used in plumbing materials.
37
Environmental Health 10) Copper: the presence of copper in water supplymayinterfere with the intended
Monitoring
domestic uses of water. It increases the corrosion of galvanized iron and steel
fittings. Staining of laundaryand sanitary ware occurs at copper concentrations
above 1 mg/L.
11) Manganese: Manganese concentrations below 0.1 mg/L are usuallyacceptable

at consumer level.At level above 0.1 mg/LManganese in water supplies stains
sanitary ware and laundary and causes an undesirable taste in beverages. It
may lead to accumulation of deposits in the distribution system. even a
concentration of 0.02 mg/L Manganese will often form a coating of pipes.
12) Aluminium: the presence of alminium concentrations in excess of 0.2 mg/L
often leads to deposition of aluminium hydroxide floc in distribution system and
the exacerbation of discolouration of water by iron.
2.7.2 (C) Microbiological Aspects

Microbiological aspect
Bacteriological Viral Biological
Coliform Clostridium
perfringes
Faecal
Streptococci
Figure 2.2: Microbiological aspects
a). Bacteriological indicators: natural and treated water vary in microbiological

quality. Ideally drinking water should not contain any microorganisms known
to be pathogenic. The primarybacterial indicator recommended for this purpose
is the coliform group of organisms as a whole. Supplementary indicator
organisms, such as faecal streptococci and clostridia, maysometimes be useful
in determining the origin of faecal pollution as well as in assessing the efficacyof
water treatment process.
Table 2.2: Guideline values for verification of Microbial Quality
Organisms Guidelines value
All water intended for drinking
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform
bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample
Treated water entering the
distribution system
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform Must not be detectable in any 100 ml
bacteria sample
38 Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any
100 ml sample
Water Quality
Treated water in the distribution Assessment and
system Monitoring
E. coli or thermotolerant coliform ust not be detectable in any 100 ml
bacteriaTotal coliform bacteria sampleMust not be detectable in any
100 ml sample. In case of large
supplies, where sufficient samples are
not examined, must not be present in
95% of samples taken throughout any 12
month period.
i) Coliform organisms: these include all aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-
negative, non-sporing, motile and non-motile rod shaped organisms capable of
fermenting lactose at 35 to 37 deg. C in less then 48 hours. The coliform group
includes both faecal and non-faecal organism and the typical examples are E.
coli and Klebsiella aerogens respectively.
ii) Faecal streptococci: these are regularly occur in faeces, but less in numbers
than E.coli. the finding of Faecal streptococci in water is regarded as important
confirmatory evidence of recent faecal pollution of water.
iii) Clostridium perfringens: also occur regularly in faeces, but less in number
than E.coli. the presence of spores of Cl. Perfringens in a natural water suggests
that faecal contamination has occurred. Its presence in filtered supplies may
indicate deficiencyin filteration practices.
b) Virological Aspects: it is recommended drinking water should be free from

anyvirusesinfections for man. Disinfectionwith 0.5mg/Loffree chlorine residual
after contact period of at least 30 minutes at a Ph of 8.0 is sufficient to inactivate
virus. Ozone has been shown to be effective viral disinfectants, preferably for
clean water, if residuals of 0.2 -0.4 mg/L are maintained for 4 minutes, but it is
not possible to maintain an ozone residual in distribution system.
c) Biological Aspects
i) Protozoa: species of protozoa transmitted by the ingestion of contaminated

drinking water include Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia spp. and rarely
Balantidium coli. These organisms can be introduced into water supplythrough
human and animal faecal contamination. Drinking water should be free from
these pathogenic intestinal protozoa.
ii) Helminths: the infective stages of any parasitic roundworms and flatworms
can be transmitted to man through drinking water. A single fertilized egg and
mature larva can cause infection. Drinking water should be free from such an
infective stages. Source protection is the best approach to prevention. The
methods for detection of these parasites are unsuited for routine monitoring.
iii) Free- living Organisms: Free- living organisms that mayoccur in water supplies
include fungi, algae etc. the most common problem with these are their
interference in the operation of water treatment process, colour, turbidity, taste
and odour of water.
39
Environmental Health Check Your Progress 2
Monitoring
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of
the unit.
1. Describe the accessibility aspects in relation to the physical aspects.
..............................................................................................................
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2. Describe the accessibility aspects in relation to the biological aspects.
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2.8 TABLES OF HEALTH RELATED CHEMICAL

CONSTITUENTS
Table 2.3: Inorganic chemicals of health significance in drinking
Constituents Recommended maximum limit
of concentration(mg/L)
Antimony 0.005(P)
Arsenic 0.01(P)
Barium 0.7
Boron 0.3
Cadmium 0.003
Chromium 0.05(P)
Copper 2(P)
Cyanide 0.07
Fluoride 1.5
Lead 0.01
Manganese 0.5(P)
Mercury (total) 0.001
Molybdenum 0.07
Nickel 0.02
Nitrarate(as NO3) 50
NITRATE(as NO2) 3(P)
40 Selenium 0.01
Table 2.4: Guideline values for health related organic constituents Water Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
Organic constituents Upper limit of concentration (ug/L)
Chlorinated alkanes
Carbon tetrachloride 2
Dichloromethane 20
Chlorinated ethanes
Vinyl chloride 55
1.1-dichloroethane 30
1.2- dichloroethane 50
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene 10
Toluene 700
Xylenes 500
Ethylbenzene 300
Styrene 20
Benzolalpyrene 0.7
Table 2.5: Guideline values of certain pesticides

Pesticides Upper limit of concentration(ug/L)
Aldrin/dieldrin 0.03
Chordane 0.2
DDT 2
2,4-D 30
Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide 0.03
Hexachlorobenzene 1
Lindane 2
Methoxychlor 20
Pentachlorophenol 9
(P – Provisional value)
Table 2.6: Substances and parameters in drinking water that may give
rise to complaints from consumers:
Constituents or Levels likely to give Reasons for
charectetistics rise to complaints consumer complaints
Physical parameters:
Colour 15 TCI Appearance
Taste and odour - Should be accepatable
Temperature - Should be accepatable
Turbidity 5NTU Appearance
41
Monitoring Inorganic constituents Depositions, discolouration
Aluminium 0.2mg/L Odour and taste
Ammonia 1.5mg/L Taste and corrosion
Chloride 250mg/L Staining of laundaryand sanitaryware
Copper 1mg/L (health based provisional guideline
Hardness value 2 mg/L)
Hydrogen sulphide 0.05mg/L High hardness: scale deposition, scum

formation; Low hardness: possible
Iron 0.3mg/L corrosion
Manganese 0.1mg/L Odour and taste
Dissolved oxygen - Staining of laundaryand sanitaryware
Ph - Staining of laundaryand sanitaryware
Sodium 200 mg/L (health based provisional guideline
value 0.5 mg/L)
Sulphate 50 mg/L
Indirect effects
Total dissolved oxygen 1000 mg/ L
Low pH: corrosion; high pH: taste,
Zinc 3 mg/L
soapy feel
Taste
Taste, corrosion
Taste
Appearance, taste
2.9 ENVIRONMENTALWATER QUALITY

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters
varysignificantlydue to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended
human uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can
present a health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming,
fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions mayalso affect wildlife,
which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally
specifyprotection of fisheries and recreationaluse andrequire, asa minimum, retention
of current quality standards.
2.10 WATER TREATMENT METHODS

Treatment of raw water to produce water of potable quality can be expensive. It is
advisable todetermine the quantityof water needingtreatment. Sizingof the equipment
is crucial to produce acceptable water at reasonable cost. The main point to remember
is that separate systems and pipelines are required for potable and non-potable
water to avoid cross contamination. Each system must be clearly identified by
contrasting coloured pipelines.
Water used for drinking, cleaning fish and ice-making must be free from pathogenic
bacteria and mayrequire secondarytreatment or even complete treatment depending
on chemical elements that need to be removed. Water for other needs like general
42 cleaning may perhaps need only primary treatment.
2.10.1 Primary Treatment Water Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
There are four methodsof primarytreatment: chlorination; ozone treatment; ultraviolet
treatment; and membrane filtration.
Chlorination:
Chlorination is the one of the greatest advances in water purification. Chlorine kills
pathogenic bacteria, but it has no effect on spores and certain viruses(e.g., polio,
viral hepatitis) except in high doses. Chlorine has several others properties, such as:
it oxidizes Iron, magnese and hydrogen sulphide; it destroys some taste and odour
producing constituents; it controls algae and slime organisms; and acid coagulation.
Action of Chlorine:
H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl
HOCl H + OCl
The main advantages of using chlorine gas are:
 It is the most efficient method of making free chlorine available to raw water.
 It lowers the pH of the water slightly.
 Control is simple; testing simple; and it is not an expensive method.
The main disadvantages are:
 Chlorine gas is toxic and can combine with other chemicals to form combustible
and explosive materials.
 Automatic control systems are expensive.
 Chlorine cylinders may not be readily available at small centres.
 Chlorine expands rapidlyon heating and hence the cylinders must have fusible
plugs set at 70°C. It also reacts with water, releasing heat. Water should not
therefore be sprayed on a leaking cylinder.
Table 2.7: Percentage of Available Chlorine by Weight
Compound Chemical Composition % Chlorine by Weight
Chlorine gas Cl2s 100.0
Monochloramine NH2Cl 138.0
Diochloramine NH4Cl2 165.0
HypochlorousAcid HOCl 135.4
Calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl2) 99.2

Hypochlorites are generally available in two forms - sodium hypochlorite solution
normally available at 10% concentration and calcium hypochlorite available as a
powder.
The main disadvantages of using hypochlorites are:
 Calcium hypochlorite is not stable and must be stored in air-tight drums. 43
Environmental Health  Sodium hypochlorite is quite corrosive and cannot be stored in metal containers
Monitoring
 Sodium hypochlorite must be stored in light proof containers.
 It is difficult to control the rate of addition of hypochlorites in proportion to
water flow.
 Hypochlorites raise the pH in water.
 They are more expensive than chlorine gas.
It is important to understand the manner in which chlorine or chlorine-releasing
substances behave when added to water, depending on other substances present.
 When water contains reducingsubstances like ferroussalts or hydrogen sulphide,
these will reduce part of the added chlorine to chloride ions.
 When water contains ammonia, organic matter, bacteria and other substances
capable of reacting with chlorine, the level of free chlorine will be reduced.
 If the quantity of chlorine added is sufficiently large to ensure that it is not all
reduced or combined, a portion of it will remain free in the water. This is termed
as residual free chlorine or free chlorine.
When chlorine reacts chemically as in the first two cases, it loses its oxidising power
and consequently its disinfecting properties. Some ammoniacal chlorides however
still retain some disinfecting properties. Chlorine present in this form is
termed residual combined chlorine or combined chlorine.
From the standpoint of disinfection, the most important form is free chlorine. Routine
analysis always aims at determining at least the free chlorine level.
Ozone treatment: Though the principle is relativelysimple, thismethod needs special
equipment, supply of pure oxygen and trained operators. Ozone is generated by
passing pure oxygen through an ozone generator. It is then bubbled through a gas
diffuser at the bottom of an absorption column, in a direction opposite to the flow of
raw water. Retention or contact time is critical and the size of the absorption column
depends on the water flow.
The main advantages of ozone treatment are:
 Ozone is a much more powerful germicide than chlorine especially for faecal
bacteria.
 It reduces turbidity of water by breaking down organic constituents.
 The process is easily controlled.
The disadvantages are:
 Pure oxygen may not be readily available locally.
 Ozonized water is corrosive to metal piping.
 Ozone decomposes rapidly into oxygen.
 Water has to be aerated prior to use to remove the ozone.
Ultraviolet irradiation treatment: This method is often used to treat drinking
water. Successful commercial installations have been made to purify sea water in
44 large fish processing plants.
The main advantages of U-V treatment are: Water Quality
Assessment and
 U-V rays in the range of 2500-2600 Angstrom units are lethal to all types of Monitoring
bacteria.
 There is no organoleptic, chemical or physical change to the water quality.
 Overexposure does not have any ill effects.
 Electricity supplyshould be reliable.
 Turbidityreduces efficiency.
 Water may require prior treatment like filtration.
 The unit requires regular inspection and maintenance.
 Thickness of the water film should not exceed 7.5 cm.
Membrane filtration: Osmotic membrane treatment methods are generally
expensive for commercial scale installations. Combinations of membrane treatment
with U-V treatment units are available for domestic use.
2.10.2 Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment of water consists of sedimentation and filtration followed by
chlorination. Sedimentation can be carried out by holding the raw water in ponds or
tanks. The four basic types of filtration are cartridge filtration, rapid sand filtration,
multimedia sand filtration, and up-flow filtration.
Cartridge Filtration: This system is designed to handle waters of low turbidityand
will remove solids in the 5 to 100 micron range.
The main advantages are:
 Low cost and ‘in-line’ installation.
 Change of cartridge is simple.
 Operation is fool-proof. Once the cartridge is clogged, flow simply stops.
 Sudden increase in turbidity overloads the system.
 Cartridges may not be readily available and large stocks may be required.
Rapid sand filtration: This system consists of a layer of gravel with layers of sand
of decreasing coarseness above the gravel.As solids build up on top, flow decreases
until it stops. This is corrected by back-flushing the system to remove the solid build
up on top, Figure 12.
 Cost of filtration media is negligible.
 Operation is simple.
 A holding tank for filtered water is required to provide clear water back flushing.
 Pumping loads increase as sediments build up. 45
Environmental Health Multimedia sand filtration: This systemis similar to the rapid sand filtration method.
Monitoring
 High flow rates are easily attained.
 Water with turbidity up to 1500 ppm can be handled.
 Degree of filtration can be easily adjusted.
 The filter bed can be easily cleaned using the filtered water.
The main disadvantage is:
 Close supervision is necessary to ensure that the filter bed does not rupture.
2.10.3 Complete Treatment

Complete treatment consists of flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation and filtration
followed by disinfection. Flocculation and coagulation will assist in removing
contaminants in the water, causing turbidity, colour odour and taste which cannot be
removed by sedimentation alone. This can be achieved by the addition of lime to
make the water slightly alkaline, followed by the addition of coagulants like Alum
(aluminium sulphate), ferric sulphate or ferric chloride. The resultant precipitate can
be removed by sedimentation and filtration.
Chemical treatment may be required to reduce excessive levels of iron, manganese,
chalk, and organic matter. Such treatment is usually followed by clarification. Iron
may be removed by aeration or chlorination to produce a flocculant which can be
removed by filtration. Manganese may be removed by aeration followed by
adjustment of pH and up-flow filtration. Most colours can be removed by treatment
with ferric sulphate to precipitate the colours.
2.11 LET US SUM UP

This unit details the various aspects related to environmental water quality. It also
describes the physical, chemical and biological aspects of water quality. Water quality
is of concern as human health and environment is affected due to the various
contaminants present. Finallythe unit describes the various water treatment techniques
used for treating the water.
2.12 KEYWORDS
Environmental quality: It is a set of properties and characteristics of the
environment. It is a measure of the condition of an environment relative to the
requirements of one or more species and to any human for its well being.

READINGS
Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (2010). Environmental Science: Earth as a Living
Planet. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Cunningham, W.P., Cooper, T.H., Gorhani, E and Hepworth, M.T. (2001).
Environmental Encyclopaedia, Jaico Publishing House, Mumbai.
46
De, A.K. (2010). Environmental Chemistry. NewAge International Publishers. Water Quality
Assessment and
Monitoring
Kumar, H.D. (1997), Modern Concepts of Ecology, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi.
Miller, G.T. (2012).Livingin the Environment: Principles, Connections, andSolutions.
Brooks Cole.
P.D. Sharma Environmental Science.
Spellman, F.R. and Stoudt, M.L. (2013). Environmental Sciences - Principles and
practices. Scare Crow Press, Maryland.
Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J. (2002).Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable
Future. Prentice Hall.

 Water quality is a complex subject, which involves physical, chemical,
hydrological and biological characteristics of water and their complex and
delicate relations. From the user’s point of view, the term “water quality”
is defined as “those physical, chemical or Biological characteristics of
water by which the user evaluates the acceptabilityof water”. For example
for drinking water should be pure, wholesome, and potable. Similarly, for
irrigation dissolved solids and toxicants are important, for outdoor bathing
pathogens are important andwater qualityis controlled accordingly.Textiles,
paper, brewing, and dozens of other industries using water, have their
specific water quality needs. Webster’s dictionary defines monitoring as
1) to check and sometimes to adjust for quality or fidelity,
2) to watch, observe or check, especially for a special purpose,
3) to keep track of, regulate or control (as a process for the operation
of a machine).Adistinction can be made between different monitoring
activities:
 Survey: It is a short term observation(s) on water qualityto fulfill definite
objectives.
 Surveillance: it is a continued programme of surveys systematically
undertaken to provide a series of observations in definite time period.
 Monitoring: It is a continuous surveillance
The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
 Alkalinity
 Color of water
 pH
 Taste and odor. 47
Environmental Health  Dissolved metals and salts
Monitoring
(sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia
coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia.
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved
organic carbon (DOC)
 Radon
 Heavymetals
 Pharmaceuticals
 Hormone analogs
 The ordinary consumer judges the water quality by its physical
characteristics. The provision of drinking water that is not only safe but
also pleasing in appearance, taste and odour is a matter of high quality.
The acceptability of drinking water can be influenced by many different
constituents. These are:
 Colour
 Turbidity
 Odour and taste
 Temperature
 B.O.D.
 To sum up, we cannot judge the quality of drinking water by physical
characteristics alone.Adetailed chemical and microbiological examination
is also needed for complete assessment.
 Bacteriological indicators: natural and treated water varyin microbiological
quality.1 Ideally drinking water should not contain any microorganisms
known to be pathogenic. The primary bacterial indicator recommended
for this purpose is the coliform group of organisms as a whole.
Supplementary indicator organisms, such as faecal streptococci and
clostridia, may sometimes be useful in determining the origin of faecal
pollution as well as in assessing the efficacy of water treatment process.
 Coliform organisms
 VirologicalAspects
 BiologicalAspects
 Protozoa
 Helminths
 Free- living Organisms
48
UNIT 3 AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT
AND MONITORING
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.1.1 Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10)
3.1.2 Environmental Impact of PM
3.1.3 Health Impact of Fine PM
3.1.4 Health Impact of Coarse PM
3.1.5 Particulate Matter- Air Quality Index (AQI) and Health Concerns
3.1.6 Case Study: Air Pollutants in Delhi
3.1.7 Precautionary Measures for PM
3.2 Sulphur Oxides (SOx)

3.2.1 Environmental Impact of Sox
3.2.2 Health Impact of SOx
3.2.3 Case Study: The Great Smog of 1952 in London
3.3 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

3.3.1 Environmental Impact of NOx
3.3.2 Health Impact of NOx
3.3.3 Case Study: An Outbreak of Nitrogen Dioxide
3.3.4 Precautionary Measures for Nitrogen Oxides
3.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

3.4.1 Environmental Impact of VOCs
3.4.2 Health Impact of VOCs
3.4.3 Precautionary Measures for VOCs
3.5 Carbon monoxide (CO)

3.5.1 Environmental Impact of CO
3.5.2 Health Impact of CO
3.5.3 Case Study: Long Term Effects of Carbon Monoxide
3.5.4 Precautionary Measures for Carbon Monoxide
3.6 Ammonia (NH3)

3.6.1 Environmental Impact of NH3
3.6.2 Health Impact of NH3
3.6.3 Precautionary Measures for NH3
3.7 Ozone (O3)

3.7.1 Environmental Impact of O3
3.7.2 Health Impact of O3
3.7.3 Precautionary Measures for O3
3.8 Air QualityAssessment Tools

3.9 Emission Inventories
3.9.1 Cooperation in Preparing Inventories in East Asia
3.9.2 Emission Sources for air Pollutants in Inventories
3.9.3 Emission Factors
3.9.4 Activity Data
49
3.9.5 Method of Developing iInventories
Environmental Health 3.10 Dispersion Modeling
Monitoring
3.11 Let Us Sum Up
3.12 Keywords
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Air qualitymonitoring and assessment is a process wherebythe effect of air pollution
on environment and human health is assessed and necessary steps are taken to
ensure that the ill-effects can be mitigated. Air Quality Monitoring and analysis can
help to check real time impacts that can be caused to the population at large and
hence dynamic approaches to collect data are reallyimportant. The collected sample
from suitable or representative area is stored in Controlled temperature conditions.
Various tests are done to know the presence of particular parameters. These tests
are performed in an analytical laboratory. The analysis identifies the source of
pollutants, which helps to suggest ways and means for reducing quantityof pollutant.
There are two types of air quality monitoring.
 Ambient air qualityand monitoring
 Indoor air quality monitoring and testing
To know the quality of the air in an industry or site premises, ambient air qualityand
monitoring is carried out whereas in homes, offices, etc., indoor air qualitymonitoring
and testing is carried out. Direction, Velocity and Pollutants are measured in Air
quality monitoring. The quantum of SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide), NOX (Oxides of
Nitrogen), Particulate Matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5), O3 (Ozone), Pb (Lead), CO
(Carbon Monoxide), etc. are measured.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to;
 define atmospheric particulate matter;
 describe the health impacts of fine and coarse particulate matter; and
 explain the various air quality assessment and monitoring parameters.
3.1.1 Particulate Matter (PM 2.5 and PM10)

The atmospheric particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, it
is commonly known as Fine Particulate Matter PM2.5. The particles of PM2.5
can only be detected with an electron microscope. Fine particles (PM2.5) are
generallyproduced from anthropogenic processes which include power plants, motor
vehicles, airplanes, residential wood burning, forest fires, agricultural burning, volcanic
eruptions and dust storms. These can vary in size and shape and are made up of
manydifferent chemicals. Most of these particles are found in the atmosphere because
of the complex reactions of chemicals such as Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
These pollutants emit from power plants, industries and automobiles. But some of
the particulate matter can emit directly from the source such as construction sites,
50 unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires.
Coarse Particulate Matter PM10 has a diameter of less than 10 micrometers. Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Dust and smoke are visible examples of PM10, but more than 90 percent of particulate
matter isn’t visible to the naked eye. These particles cause less severe health effects
mostly in the upper respiratory tract. These consist of smoke, dirt and dust from
factories, farming and roads as well as mold, spores and pollen. They are made
from crushing and grinding rocks and soil which then get blown by the wind. PM10
(big) particles can stay in the air for minutes or hours while PM2.5 (small) particles
can stay in the air for days or weeks. PM10 particles can travel as little as a hundred
yards or as much as 30 miles.
3.1.2 Environmental Impact of PM
Table 3.1: Environmental Impact of PM
S.No. Environmental Material
1 Create acidic water bodies damage stone and other materials, which
damage the important Historical building
including, statues and monuments
2 nutrient imbalance in Acidic waters which lead to impacts on
coastal waters and large flora and fauna residing in water bodies
river basins
3 depletion of the nutrients Settling on top soil which leads to lower
insoil water absorption by soil and loss of
hydration
4 damaging forests and crops
5 affecting the diversityof Acidic content in air reacts with water
ecosystems bodies
6 Acid rain
3.1.3 Health Impact of Fine PM

Due totheir smallsize andlight weight, PM2.5 maystaylonger inthe air in comparison
to heavier particles. Theycan easilybe inhaled byhumans and animals through nose
and throat and then they penetrate deep into the lungs and circulatory system. The
exposure of fine particles leads to the premature deterioration of heart and lungs
which causes chronic disease such as asthma, heart attack, bronchitis and other
respiratory problems. The long exposure may cause blockage and hardening the
arteries, inflammation of vascular system which is responsible for heart attack and
stroke. It is also found in a study that long-term exposure of PM2.5 (every 10
micrograms per cubic meter (¼g/m3) causes air pollution) can cause increase rates
of risk of cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality.
The American Heart Association has also warned about the impact of PM2.5 on
heart health and mortality:
Table 3.2: Impact of PM2.5 on health
Exposure Rate of PM2.5 Impact on Health
few hours to weeks cardiovascular disease-related mortality and
nonfatal events
longer-term exposure risk for cardiovascular mortality to an even
(eg, a few years) greater extent, Children, older adults and those
who are suffering from lung and/or heart
disease are especially vulnerable, Birth defects 51
Environmental Health 3.1.4 Health Impact of Coarse PM
Monitoring
The Air Quality Guideline, published by World Health Organization, the annual
mean concentration recommended for PM10 was 20 ¼g/m3. If the level of PM10
increased, the risk for cardiopulmonary health effects will also increase.
Table 3.3: Health impacts of PM10
Exposure level of PM10 Impact on Health
Up to 20 ¼g/m3 cardiovascular disease-related mortality and
nonfatal events
20 ¼g/m3 breathing and respiratory systems, damage to
lungtissue, cancer and premature death. Elderly
persons, children and people with chronic lung
disease, influenza or asthma are especially
sensitive to the effects of particulate matter.
3.1.5 Particulate Matter - Air Quality Index (AQI) and

Health Concerns
Table 3.4 Particulate Matter - Air Quality Index (AQI) and Health Concerns
AQI Air Quality Health Concerns
Values Descriptor PM2.5 PM10
0-50 Good None None
51-100 Moderate None None
101-150 Unhealthy People with respiratoryor People with respiratory

for sensitive heart, disease, the elderly, disease, such as asthma,
Groups and children should limit should limit outdoor
prolonged exertion exertion.
151-200 Unhealthy People with respiratoryor People with respiratory

heart, disease, the elderly, disease, such as asthma,
and children should avoid should avoid outdoor
prolonged exertion; exertion; everyone else,
everyone else should limit especially the elderly and
prolonged exertion. children, should limit
prolonged outdoor
exertion.
201-300 Very People with respiratoryor People with respiratory

Unhealthy heart, disease, the elderly, disease, such as asthma,
and children should avoid should avoid any outdoor
any outdoor activity; exertion; everyone else,
everyone else should especially the elderly and
avoid prolonged exertion. children, should limit
prolonged outdoor
exertion.
301-500 Hazardous Everyone should avoid Everyone should avoid

any outdoor exertion; any outdoor, exertion;
people with respiratoryor people with respiratory
heart disease, the elderly, disease, such as asthma,
and children should should remain indoors.
52 remain indoors.
3.1.6 Case Study: Air Pollutants in Delhi Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Table 3.5: Case study of air pollutants
Study and Year Variable Findings
Goyal et al., 2011 (6) Indoor air pollution in Vehicle exhaust emissions are
classrooms close to the onlysignificant contributor
heavy traffic roads to indoor concentrations of
PM 2.5 and PM 10
Kumar et al., 2009 (7) Indoor air lead pollution Lead loading for floor and
interior windowsill samples
was 19.7 ¼ g/ft2
Kumar et al., 2001 (8) Outdoor Air Inhalable particulates in the

ambient air increased due to
industrial activities up to 320,
168 and 546% and due to
commercial activities up to 406,
198 and 140% in Ahmedabad,
Mumbai and Delhi, respectively.
There was seasonal variation
also.
Balachandran et. Outdoor Air Coarse PM10 -68.3± 17µg/

al, 2000 (9) m3Fine PM10 71.3± 15µg/
m3Three major sources were
vehicular emissions, industrial
emission and soil re-suspention
The urban air database released by the World Health Organization in

September 2011 reported that Delhi has exceeded the maximum PM10 limit
by almost 10-times at 198 ¼g/m3, trailing in the third position after Ludhiana
and Kanpur. Vehicular emissions and industrial activities were found to be
associated with indoor as well as outdoor air pollution in Delhi.
3.1.7 Precautionary Measures for PM

On a certain level, PM2.5 is unhealthy, the following steps may be taken to reduce
exposure and protect your health:
 All the openings and windows that allow polluted air to enter must be closed
and stay indoor.
 HEPA filter removes the fine particles from air. Equip the place with HEPA
filter air purifier.
 Prefer the air conditioners with HEPAfilters or an air conditioner is still helpful
when fresh air intake is limited as it helps to circulate air and cool down (or
warm up) room temperature.
 Avoid burning candle, incense or operate devices that emit smoke or gas to
prevent harmful particles and gas (such as carbon monoxide) in a closed room.
 While driving on the road, the car should be equipped with air purifier with
HEPA and activated carbon filters. A normal car filter can’t remove traffic
exhaust properly. 53
Environmental Health  If the air pollution is expected to last for many days, consider moving to an
Monitoring unaffected location.
 Boost your body’s resistance against PM2.5 by increasing your intake
of nutrients such as fish oil, vitamin C and E and B Vitamins.
 Wear a N95 or higher face mask, while going outdoors. Try to make it short
and quick.
1) What are the environmental and health impacts of Particulate Matter (PM)
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.2 SULPHUR OXIDES (SOX)

Molecules of Sulphur and Oxygen compounds make Sulphur oxides (SOx). The
major form of SOx is the Sulphur dioxide. It is in colourless gaseous form, which is
found in lower atmosphere. It can be detected by taste and smell in the range of
1000 to 3000 micrograms per cubic meter (¼g/m3). It has a pungent, unpleasant
odor while increasing its concentration. It dissolves in atmospheric water and form
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3). Some part of Sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphate
aerosol (acid aerosol) in the atmosphere which can be removed through wet or dry
deposition processes.Another form of SOx, Sulphur trioxide (SO3) emitted directly
into the atmosphere rapidly converts to Sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Major source of
SOx are as follows:
 Sulphur dioxide is produced bythe following mentioned activities:
 Burning fuels containing Sulphur or byroasting metal sulphide ores
 Burning of high-Sulphur coal or heating oil in Thermal power plants
 Natural sources volcanoes of Sulphur dioxide
 Emission from industrial boilers and nonferrous metal smelters.
 Emission from domestic coal burning
 Vehicles can also contribute to high localambient concentrations of Sulphur
dioxide.
3.2.1 Environmental Impact of SOx
Table 3.6: Impacts of SOx
1 Vegetation, forest, agriculture Secondary pollutant like H2SO4 falls as
and crops acid rain and creates chemical erosion of
historical monuments andworks of art.
2 SO2 exposure results in Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur trioxide
bleached spots, chlorosis whenreact withmoisture mayalsodamage
in leaves paper and leather.
3 Photosynthesis is affected
by O3, SO2, PAN
4 The smoke containing sulphur
oxides emitted by industries,
form sulphuric acid which is
a major cause of acid rain.
54
3.2.2 Health Impact of SOx Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Table 3.7 Impacts of SOx
Exposure level of SOX Impact on Health
SO2: Brief exposure to respiratorydiseases, irritation of the eyes, nose, and

above 1,000 ¼g/m3 throat, and premature mortality, Children, the elderly,
(acute exposures and those already suffering from respiratory
measured over 10 minutes) ailments,such as asthmatics, are especially at risk.
SO2 may also cause watery nasal discharge,
sneezing and cough.
Increased level of SO swellingand stimulatedmucussecretion, Lungcancer
Conversion of SO2 to severe damage like breathlessness, bronchial spasms
H2SO4, H2SO3 and
sulphate aerosol
Exposure of Sulphur dioxide, sulphate aerosols, and Sulphur dioxide adsorbed onto
particulate matter, can be carried deep into the pulmonary system, which disrupts its
functions. Sulphur dioxide absorbs into the bloodstream and dissolves in the watery
fluids of the upper respiratory system, which is lethal for blood circulatory systems.
The sulphate concentration increases up to 40% in fine particulate matters if high
sulphur content is used in fuel. Therefore reducing concentration of particulate matter
may reduce the health impact of Sulphur Dioxide.
3.2.3 Case Study: The Great Smog of 1952 in London
In November and early December 1952, people of London were burning
large quantities of coal in their homes as the weather was very cold, with
heavy snowfall across the region. They needed warmer temperatures to cope
up with the chilling environment. The smoke of coal was pouring from the
chimneys of their houses. The smoke rose into the atmosphere and dispersed
in a very normal condition, but an anticyclone was hanging over the region.
This pushed the air downwards, warming it as it descended. This created an
inversion, where air close to the ground was warmer than the air higher above.
So as soon as the warm smoke came out of the chimney, it would be trapped.
The particles and gases emitted from factory chimneys in the London area,
along with pollution polluted the atmosphere.
Early on 5 December, in the London area, the sky was clear, winds were light
and the air near the ground was moist.Accordingly, conditions were ideal for
the formation of radiation fog. The sky was clear, so a net loss of long-wave
radiation occurred and the ground cooled. When the moist air came into
contact with the ground it cooled to its dew-point temperature and
condensation occurred. Beneath the inversion of the anticyclone, the very
light wind stirred the saturated air upwards to form a layer of fog 100-200
metres deep.Along with the water droplets of the fog, the atmosphere beneath
the inversion contained the smoke from innumerable chimneys in the London
area.
During the period of the fog, huge amounts of impurities were released into
the atmosphere. On each dayduring the foggyperiod, the following pollutants
were emitted: 1,000 tonnes of smoke particles, 2,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide,
140 tonnes of hydrochloric acid and 14 tonnes of fluorine compounds. In
addition, and perhaps most dangerously, 370 tonnes of sulphur dioxide were
converted into 800 tonnes of sulphuric acid. 55
Environmental Health 3.2.4 Precautionary Measures for Sulphur Oxides
Monitoring
In order to prevent getting affected due to Sulphur oxides the following protective
equipment and measures should be undertaken:
 Wear chemical safety goggles and face shield when contact is possible or in
work place.
 Use protective gears like chemical protective clothinge.g. gloves, aprons, boots.
 Anychemical cartridge respirator with cartridge(s) providing protection against
Sulphur dioxide for respiratory protection
3.3 NITROGEN OXIDES (NOX)

The oxides of nitrogen (NOX) i.e. Nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide are referred
together as nitrogen oxides. When nitrogen is released during the combustion process
it combines with oxygen atoms and forms nitric oxide (NO). This further combines
with oxygen to create nitrogen dioxide (NO2). In large cities where motor vehicle
traffic is high, the amount of nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere is increased
and causes air pollution.
Nitrogen dioxide is hazardous to health at typical ambient concentrations, whereas
nitric oxide is not considered hazardous. Nitrogen oxides are produced naturally by
lightning or Biogenic process which includes lightning, forest fires, grass fires, trees,
bushes, grasses, and yeasts, and also, to a small extent, by microbial processes in
soils. When NOx gases react in the atmosphere it forms smog and acid rain. Other
than this it also produces fine particles (PM) and ground level ozone, both of which
lead to adverse health effects. Automobiles are the main source of NOx emission
and contribute about half of the NOx that is emitted. Stationary sources like electric
power plant boilers produce about 40% of the NOxemissions. Various anthropogenic
sources such as industrial boilers, incinerators, gas turbines, reciprocating spark
ignition and diesel engines in stationary sources, iron and steel mills, cement
manufacturing, glass manufacturing, petroleumrefining, and nitric acid manufacturing
produce differing amounts of each oxide.
3.3.1 Environmental Impact of NOx
Table 3.8: Impacts of NOx
1 High levels of nitrogen dioxide Fade and discolour furnishingsandfabrics,
are also harmful to vegetation- reduce visibility, and react with surfaces.
damaging foliage, decreasing
growth or reducing crop yields.
2 The critical level for the

protection of vegetation is
30 µg/m3 measured as an
annual average.
3 NOx also reacts with other
pollutants in the presence of
sunlight to form ozone which
can damage vegetation at
high concentrations.
56
3.3.2 Health impact of NOx Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Table 3.9: Impacts of NOx on health
Exposure level of NO2 Impact on Health
Acute Health Effect  Contact can burn the skin and possible eye
damage
 Breathing can irritate nose and throat, as well
as irritate the lungs, causing coughing,
breathing problem.High level of exposure
may affect ability of blood to carry the
oxygen, which results headache, fatigue,
dizziness and blue colour to the skin and lips
(methemoglobinemia)
Chronic Health Effect  Mutation (genetic change), repeated

exposure to high levels may lead to
permanent lungdamageChildren with asthma
and older people with heart disease are most
at risk
3.3.3 Case Study: An Outbreak of Nitrogen Dioxide—Induced

Respiratory Illness Among Ice Hockey Players
During February 1987 an outbreak of nitrogen dioxide—induced respiratory

illness occurred among players and spectators of two high school hockey
games played at an indoor ice arena in Minnesota. The source of the nitrogen
dioxide was the malfunctioning engine of the ice resurfacer. Case patients
experienced acute onset of cough, hemoptysis, and/or dyspnea during, or
within 48 hours of attending, a hockey game. One hundred sixteen cases
were identified among hockeyplayers, cheerleaders, and band members who
attended the two games. Members of two hockey teams had spirometry
performed at 10 days and 2 months after exposure; no significant compromise
in lung function was documented. Nitrogen dioxide exposure in indoor ice
arenas may be more common than currently is recognized; only three states
require routine monitoring of air quality in ice arenas, and the respiratory
symptoms caused by exposure to nitrogen dioxide are nonspecific and easily
misdiagnosed.
3.3.4 Precautionary Measures for Nitrogen Oxides

The recommended airborne exposure limit is 1 ppm which should not be exceeded
at any time according to NIOSH. The following precautions should be taken care:
 There should be local exhaust ventilation at the site of NOx release
 Wear protective gears like suits, gloves, footwear, headgear, goggles in
workplace where chances of release of NOx is higher
 Wash thoroughly after immediate exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide.
 Trainingand communicationabouthealth and safetyhazardsof Nitrogen Dioxide
to potentially exposed workers. 57
Monitoring 3.4 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCS)
VOCs are organic compounds, which contain one or more carbon atoms that have
high vapor pressure and therefore evaporate readily into the atmosphere. The
concentration of VOCs are found much higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than
outdoors. Thousands of the products emit wide range of VOCs. In household
products, many of the organic chemicals are widely used as ingredients. These are
paints; varnishes, fuels and wax which all contain organic solvents, and are used for
cleaning, disinfecting, cosmetic, degreasingand hobbyproducts. MainVolatile Organic
Compounds are Acetaldehyde, Acetone, Benzene, Carbon tetrachloride, Ethyl
acetate, Ethylene glycol, Formaldehyde, Heptane, Hexane, Isopropyl alcohol, Methyl
ethyl ketone, Methyl chloride, Monomethyl ether, Naphthalene, Styrene, Toluene,
Xylene. During their usage, these products can release organic compounds. VOCs
are found in many of the households and other products like paints, paint strippers
and other solvents, wood preservatives, aerosol sprays, cleansers and disinfectants,
moth repellents and air fresheners, stored fuels and automotive products, hobby
supplies, dry-cleaned clothing and pesticide. Other than these household materials,
VOCs are also found in building materials and furnishings, office equipment such as
copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and
craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers and photographic
solutions.
3.4.1 Environmental Impact of VOC

The environmental impacts of VOCs are as follows:
 Reduction in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields
 Reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings
 Increased plant susceptibility to disease, pests
 Other environmental stresses like unpleasant weather
3.4.2 Health Impact of VOCs

A variety of chemicals included in VOCs may have short- and long-term adverse
health effects as each chemical has its own toxicityand potential for causing different
health effects. The risk of health effects from inhaling any chemical depends upon
the level and duration of the exposure. Exposure of low levels of VOCs in breathing
for long periods of time may increase some people’s risk to health problems. It is
found that exposure to VOCs may make symptoms worse for people with asthma
or who are particularly sensitive to chemicals. Common symptoms of exposure of
VOCs include:
Exposure level of VOCs Impact on Health
Acute/ short term exposures  Eye, nose and throat irritation

 Headaches
 Nausea/vomiting
 DizzinessWorsening of asthma symptoms
Chronic exposures  Cancer
 Liver and kidney damage
58 Central nervous system damage
3.4.3 Precautionary Measures for VOCs Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
The precautionary measures which should be employed while being exposed to
VOCs are:
 Buy environment friendly products that contain low or no VOCs
 Remove unused chemicals from the home because stored chemicals in closed
containers can sometimes “leak” and release VOCs into indoor air.
 Follow directions on product labels for using the product carefully.
 Open the doors and windows, use fans, maximize air brought in from outside
to increase ventilation
 Keep both the temperature and relative humidity as low as possible or
comfortable. Chemicals will off-gasunder warmer conditions with high humidity
 Prefer to perform renovations when home is unoccupied and try to allow for
additional ventilation
1. Explain the health impacts of VOCs.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. What are the health impacts of SOx?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
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3.5 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Carbon Monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, poisonous gas. It is produced
fromthe incomplete combustion of carbon-containingcompounds, mainlyin internal-
combustion engines. The incomplete burning of natural gas and any other material
containing carbon such as gasoline, kerosene, oil, propane, coal, or wood, produce
CO, which is a common industrial hazard. The most common sources of exposure
to CO in the workplace are the internal combustion engine and motor vehicle exhaust.
Forges, blast furnaces and coke ovens also produce CO. Tobacco smoke is also
one of the main indoor sources of carbon monoxide. The natural concentration of
carbon monoxide in air is around 0.2 parts per million (ppm), and that amount is not
harmful to humans. Natural sources of carbon monoxide include volcanoes and
bushfires.
3.5.1 Environmental Impact of CO

Carbon monoxide can persist in the atmosphere for about a month and can be
transported long distances. It is not uniformly distributed around the Earth. This is
one of the greenhouse gases, which has an influence on climate. The common
environmental impacts are mentioned below: 59
Environmental Health  Affects concentrations of other greenhouse gases including methane,
Monitoring
troposphere ozone and carbon dioxide, which contribute to unbalanced
atmospheric temperature
 Undesirable climate change by excessive emission of CO along with other
greenhouse gases
 CO has an ability to absorb infrared radiation that is escaping from the surface
of the earth causing the atmosphere to warm up.
3.5.2 Health Impact of CO
CO remains in the bodyfor a long time - the half-life of CO in the body is about five
hours. Increased levels of carbon monoxide reduce the amount of oxygen carried
by haemoglobin in the body in red blood cells and also causes asphyxiation. The
result is that vital organs, such as the brain, nerve tissues and the heart, do not
receive enough oxygen to work properly.
The effects depend on duration and concentration of carbon monoxide in the air.
For example, breathing air which has 400 parts per million (ppm) of CO in it will
cause a headache after one or two hours, but can kill some people after three hours.
The older people, foetus, children and people with heart, circulatory, or lung disease
are the most affected from the exposure to CO.
Concentration of CO exposure Impact on Health
Low concentration of Headache, loss of alertness, flu-like

CO exposure symptoms, nausea, fatigue, fast breathing,
confusion, disorientation, and overall
weakness. In addition, it can cause chest
pain in people with heart disease. CO can
also impair judgment and cause decreased
learning abilityin school children.
High concentration of High concentrations of CO can cause

CO exposure coma (unconsciousness) and death.
3.5.3 Case Study: Long Term Effects of Carbon Monoxide

Ryan (1990) presented the case of a woman who complained of headaches,
lethargy, and memory problems over a period of three years. Levels of CO in
her basement were found to be 180 ppm. COHb levels were not recorded.
The patient performed verypoorly on tests that measured new learning ability
and memory for new material, her scores being in the lowest fifth percentile.
She also showed poor performance on tests for visual memory processes.
The patient reported feelings of depression and anxiety, as well as headaches
and dizziness, even after the furnace had been repaired. This case suggests
that the development of long-term neurological symptoms can occur even
without loss of consciousness.
3.5.4 Precautionary Measures for Carbon Monoxide

Precautionary measures which need to be employed in case there are chances of
exposure to CO
 Never leave the motor running in a vehicle parked in an enclosed or partially
60 enclosed space, such as a garage.
 Never run a generator, pressure washer, or anygasoline-powered engine inside Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
a basement, garage etc. and use a dry surface far away from doors, windows,
vents and air conditioning equipment that could allow CO to enter in enclosed
structures, even if the doors or windows are open. Keep vents and flues free of
debris. Flying debris can block ventilation lines.
 Never run a motor vehicle, generator, pressure washer, or anygasoline-powered
engine less than 20 feet from an open window, door, or vent where exhaust can
vent into an enclosed area.
 When you use a generator, use a battery-powered or battery backup CO
detector in your home too.
 Never use a charcoal grill, hibachi, lantern, or portable camping stove inside a
home, tent, or camper.
 Avoid using unvented gas or kerosene heaters in enclosed spaces, especially
sleeping areas.
 Do not leave the rear window or tailgate of a vehicle open while driving. CO
from the exhaust can be pulled inside the car, van or camper.
 Never use a portable generator or a fuel-powered tool indoors or in other
enclosed or partially enclosed areas.
 Install battery operated CO alarms or plug-in CO alarms with battery backup
inside the house according to manufacturer’s installation instructions or NFPA
720: Standard for the Installation of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detection and
WarningEquipment.
 Replace CO alarm batteries once a year and test alarms frequently.
 Replace CO alarms every five years or as often as recommended by the alarm
manufacturer.
3.6 AMMONIA (NH3)

Ammonia (NH3) is a highly reactive and soluble alkaline gas. It originates from both
natural and anthropogenic sources, with the main source being agriculture, e.g.
manures, slurries and fertilizer application. The breakdown and volatilisation of urea
produce ammonia. It is also produced bybiomass burning or fertilizer manufacture.
Ammonia is also emitted from a range of non-agricultural sources, such as catalytic
converters in petrol cars, landfill sites, sewage works, compostingof organic materials,
combustion, industry and wild mammals and birds (Sutton et al. 2000, Wilson et al.
2004). The major use of ammonia is as a fertilizer, in textile industryto make synthetic
fibers (nylon and rayon), in dyeing and scouring of cotton, wool and silk, production
of synthetic resin. It prevents the coagulation of raw latex during transportation from
plantation to factory. It is also commonly used in producing soda ash by ammonia-
soda process i.e. Solvay process and in Ostwald process, a method for converting
ammonia into nitric acid. NH3 is also used in metallurgical processes and it is a useful
coolant in refrigeration and air-conditioning. In households, it is also used as cleansing
agents.
3.6.1 Environmental impact of NH3

Following are the main environment impacts of NH3: 61
Environmental Health  High levels of ammonia has toxic effects like death of animals, birds, fish and
Monitoring
death or low growth rate in plants
 Toxic to the alkaline water, due to increase of pH levels, this decreases the
concentration of Oxygen, which is toxic to the aquatic organisms.
 Acidification of ground and water bodies, which can harm plant and animal life.
3.6.2 Health Impact of NH3

Concentration of NH3 Impact on Health
exposure
High concentration of Immediate burning of the nose, throat and

NH3 exposure respiratory tract This can cause bronchiolar and
alveolar edema, and airway destruction resulting
in respiratorydistress or failure. Inhalation of lower
concentrations can cause coughing, and nose and
throat irritation. In contact of highly concentrated
ammonia, it may cause skin burns, permanent eye
damage or blindness. Exposure to high
concentrations of ammonia from swallowing
ammonia solution results in corrosive damage to
the mouth, throat and stomach. Ingestion of
ammonia does not normally result in systemic
poisoning.
Low concentration of Fatigue or adaptation, reducing awareness of one’s

NH3 exposure prolonged exposure at low concentrations. Rapid
skin or eye irritation.
3.6.3 Precautionary Measures for NH3

FIRSTAID: Move victim to fresh air. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes.
Flush eyes and affected areas with huge amount of water. Give artificial respiration
if victim is not breathing/ administer oxygen.
EMERGENCY RESPONSE: Shut off source of leak, if possible. Isolate leaking
cylinder/ source. Provide adequate ventilation to maintain the concentration below
exposure limit. Evacuate all personnel from leakage affected area. Isolate the area,
until dispersion of gas. Use Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) to extinguish the fire.
Water spraycan also be preferred. Wear the chemical protective clothing with SCBA
(Self Contained BreathingApparatus) with face mask, in areas of release, if possible.
3.7 OZONE (O3)

Ozone (O3) is composed of three oxygen atoms, and is a highly reactive gas. It is a
toxic, oxidative, unstable gas with pungent odour. Ozone has a greater oxidation
potential than oxygen. In stratosphere, particularly between 19 and 30 km above
the Earth’s surface, about 90% of atmospheric ozone can be found which is called
“ozone layer or good ozone”. The Ozone layer is partially destroyed by manmade
chemicals, which is called “hole in the ozone.” Near the ground level i.e. troposphere
there is only about 10% of the total ozone present. Ground-level (tropospheric)
62 ozone is created through the interaction of man-made (and natural) emissions of
volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides in the presence of heat and sunlight. Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Ground-level ozone is not emitted directly into the atmosphere. In the troposphere,
it works as a greenhouse gas. Near ground level, ozone can affect harmfully both
vegetation and human life. O3 reacts strongly with other molecules; large
concentrations of ozone near the ground prove toxic to living things. Ultraviolet
radiation bands between 210 and 290 nm is destructive of genetic cellular material
in plants and animals, as well as human beings. High concentration of Ozone creates
a layer “ozone layer” in the atmosphere, which phase out biologically harmful solar
ultraviolet radiation, keeping it from reaching the surface. Without “ozone layer” in
the atmosphere, life on the surface of the Earth would not be possible.
3.7.1 Environmental Impact of O3

Ground-level ozone can have detrimental effects on plants and ecosystems. These
effects include:
 Changes to water and nutrient cycles by interfering with the ability of plants to
produce and store food.
 Making plants more vulnerable to certain diseases, insects, other pollutants,
competition and harsh weather;
 Damagingthe leaves of trees and plants, negative impact on vegetation Reducing
forest growth and crop yields, potentially impacting species diversity in
ecosystems.
 Less variety of plants, animals, insects, and fish (Loss of diversity in species)
 Changes to the specific assortment of plants present in a forest
 Changes to habitat quality
3.7.2 Health Impact of O3

Irritation in respiratorysystem, causing coughing, feeling of irritation in throat and an
uncomfortable sensation in chest.
 Reduced lung function which can cause difficulty in breathing
 More aggressive for asthma patients and those sensitive to allergens, which are
the most common triggers for asthma attacks.
 Chronic lung diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis and reduction of the
immune system’s abilityto fight off bacterial infections in the respiratorysystem.
 Ozone may cause permanent lung damage. Majorly found short term impact
may cause damage to children’s developing lungs
 Repeated short-term ozone may lead to reduced lung function in adulthood.
3.7.3 Precautionary Measures for Ensuring Protection of

O3 Layer
Unlike Tropospheric O3, Stratospheric O3 i.e. Ozone layer is the protection from
Ultraviolet rays and therefore it is necessary to protect this Ozone layer. Some of
the precautionary measures to protect Ozone layer and will also help to reduce the
effect of bad ozone are mentioned below:
63
Environmental Health  Buy air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment that do not use HCFCs as
Monitoring refrigerant.
 Buy aerosol products that do not use HCFCs or CFCs as propellants.
 Conduct regular inspection andmaintenance of air-conditioning and refrigeration
appliances to prevent and minimize refrigerant leakage.
 For existingair-conditioning and refrigeration appliances that operate on HCFCs
or CFCs, the refrigerant should be recovered or recycled whenever an overhaul
of equipment is to be carried out. Replacing or retrofitting such equipment to
operate on non-HCFCs refrigerant should also be considered.
 When motor vehicle air-conditioners need servicing, make sure that the
refrigerants are properly recovered and recycled instead of being vented to the
atmosphere.
3.8 AIR QUALITYASSESSMENT TOOLS

Status of present air quality can be examined byAir quality monitoring process.
Existing policies and their effective implementation may also be evaluated through
this process. Based on the air quality objectives, any air quality monitoring program
canbe planned, designed and establish. Urbanair qualitymanagement plan (UAQMP)
is an effective and efficient tool employed in managing acceptable urban air quality.
Many developed countries have their own UAQMP with a regulatory management
framework. However, the UAQM practices are specific to a country’s needs and
requirements. Developing countries are still working in formulating the effective and
efficient UAQMPs to manage their deteriorating urban air environment. UAQMP
can be formulated in 2 steps:
 UAQMP is to identify the air quality control regions based on ambient air
qualitystatus
 Initiate a time bound program involving all stakeholders to develop UAQMPs.
The successful implementation of UAQMPs depends on the strength of its key
components, e.g. goal/objective, monitoring network, emission inventory, air quality
modeling, control strategies and public participation.
In India, the UAQM practices were initiated after implementation of the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution]Act, 1981. At present, no UAQMP exists to
manage urban air pollution in Indian cities. The CPCB has issued guidelines to prepare
action plans for sixteen polluted cities. Most of the developing countries have evolved
their own air quality standards. However, some countries follow the WHO-AQG
and specify them as their standards. The WHO-AQG for PM is more stringent than
any other ambient air quality standards specified in USA, UK and EU countries. In
India and China, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) has been
formulated based on sensitive, residential/commercial and industrial areas. NAAQS
in India has been set up for 12 pollutants (SO2, NO2, PM2.5, PM10, O3, Pb, CO,
NH3, Benzene, Benzo(a)Pyrene-Particulate phase only arsenic and Nickel).
In most of the developing countries, the air quality–monitoring network has been
designedprimarilytoensure effective regulatorycompliance. InIndia, nationalambient
air quality monitoring (NAAQM) network has 342 monitoring stations in 127 cities/
towns in 26 states and 4 union territories. Additionally, individual state pollution
64
control boards are operating their own monitoring stations. In the recent past, the Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
Ministryof of Earth Sciences, Government of India has started monitoring of critical
air pollutants, specificallydesigned for Delhi City.
S. Pollutants Time Concentration in Ambient Air

No. Weighted Industrial Ecologically
Average Residential, Sensitive Area
Rural and (notified by
other Areas Central
Government)
1. Sulphur Dioxide Annual 5080 5080

(SO2), µg/m3 24 Hours
2. Nitrogen Dioxide Annual 4080 4080
(NO2), µg /m3 24 Hours
3. Particulate Matter Annual 60 60
(Size<10µm) or 24 Hours 100 100
PM10 µg /m3
4. Particulate Matter Annual 4060 4060
(Size<2.5µm) or 24 Hours
PM2.5 µg /m3
5. Ozone (O3), µg /m3 8 Hours 100180 100180
1 Hours
6. Lead (Pb), µg /m3 Annual 0.501.0 0.501.0
24 Hours
7. Carbon Monoxide 8 Hours 0204 0204
(CO), mg/m3 1Hours
8. Ammonia (NH3), Annual 100 100
µg/m3 24 Hours 400 400
9. Benzene (C6H6), Annual 05 05
µg /m3Benzo (a)
Pyrene (BaP)-
10. Particulate phase Annual 01 01
only, ng/m3
11. Arsenic (As), ng/m3 Annual 06 06
12. Nickel (Ni), ng/m3 Annual 20 20
24 Hours
3.9 EMISSION INVENTORY

Emission inventory is the tool, which is used for management of the atmospheric
environment. The inventoryemission tool can calculate the quantities of air pollutants
which are emitted and the source of its generation. It is an indispensable tool for a
wide range of environmental measures such as management of chemicals as well as
the prevention of air pollution. The tool can be utilized for the following purposes:
65
Environmental Health (I) Quantitative understanding of actual emissions
Monitoring
The major emission sources can be identified, priorities for emission reduction defined
and any data gaps requiring further work are revealed, through this process. It
provides the quantitative emissions estimates and helps in better understanding of
the actual emissions and to raise the awareness of both policymakers and the general
public.
(II) Use for modeling activity
Emissions data allocated geographically and temporally can be used as input data
for atmospheric transport and deposition models. The resulting air concentration
and deposition estimates obtained by modeling, after verification with monitoring
data on the ground and/or data from satellite observations, will be important
information for air qualitymanagement decision-making. Further useful information
can be provided by estimates of the likely adverse impacts (to humans, animals,
crops and natural ecosystems), which may be assessed from the modeled deposition
and concentration of pollutants.
(III) Use for future projections and setting of targets
A current emission inventorycan be used as the basis for estimating future emissions
according to projected likely changes in socio-economic indices (e.g. population
growth, economic growth, changes in energy use per unit activity), lower emission
factors (e.g. by introduction of better control measures), fuel switching and so forth.
Estimatedfuture emissions provide important information for settingemissionstargets.
(IV) Use for the consideration of possible reduction measures
Anemissioninventoryenablesthe introducingvariouspreventionand controlmeasures
within different source sectors to be assessed and compared, both now and in the
future. Combined with knowledge of costs of different options, this also enables the
most cost-effective emission reduction measures to be identified and implemented.
(V) Use for planning of policy and measures and their follow-up
Emissions inventory data can be regarded as an index similar to the various indices
used for gauging changes in economic activity. The trend of such an index allows us
to judge whether we should introduce or reinforce regulations, economic measures
or technical measures to control air pollutant emissions.
3.9.1 Cooperation in Preparing Inventories in East Asia

Cooperation in preparing inventories could also promote capacity building in the
measurement of emissions, developing emission indicators and on the use of
inventories and models. The resulting increased capacity will contribute to the
development of pollution control strategies in each countryleading to a reduction in
transboundaryair pollution.
3.9.2 Emission Sources for Air Pollutants in Inventories

The emission sources of air pollutants are:
 Anthropogenic (human-made)
 Natural sources
66
Air Quality Assessment
Anthropogenic (human-made) Natural sources and Monitoring
 Energy (Power plants, Industrial  Ocean

boilers, Vehicles, ship,  Lightning
airplanes etc.)  Volcanic activities
 Commercial
 Institutional
 Residential
3.9.3 Emission Factors

Emission factors are the average rate of emission of a pollutant per unit of activity
data for a given sector. When there is no emission factor reflecting the actual local
situation, default values in manuals are used. For example: SOx emission per the
amount of fuel burnt, calculated based on the Sulphur content of fuel, the Sulphur
retained in the ash and the reduction achieved by emission control technology (fuel
combustion), NOx emission per distance (exhaust gas emissions from vehicles) and
SOx emission per the amount of copper smelted (copper smelting)
3.9.4 Activity Data

Activity data gives a measure of the scale of activity causing the emissions. 0The
necessary data can be collected from statistics and surveys. Example: the amount
of fuel burnt (fuel combustion), the distance of vehicle travelled(exhaust gas emissions
from vehicles), the rates of the production of the commodity (industrial process
without combustion)
3.9.5 Method of Developing Inventories

In general, anthropogenic emissions of air pollutants are estimated by the following
basic formula for each source, when it is difficult to measure it directly.
Emission= Emission Factor X Activity Data
3.10 DISPERSION MODELING

Dispersion modeling is the most commonly used air quality model. This model is
typicallyused in the permitting process to estimate the concentration of pollutants at
specified ground-level receptors surrounding an emissions source. Dispersion
modeling uses mathematical formulations to characterize the atmospheric processes
that disperse a pollutant emitted by a source. Based on emissions and meteorological
inputs, a dispersion model can predict whether there will be problems with emissions
from a site and help explore the effect of various solutions.
TheAir Dispersion model will take the emissions and combine these with the weather
conditions and effects of topography (hills, buildings etc.) and then predict the
concentration at ground level of the emissions. The concentrations of the substances
are then generallycompared to theAmbientAir Qualitystandards. US Environmental
Protection Agency used dispersion modeling for State Implementation Plan (SIP)
revisions for existing sources and for New Source Review (NSR) and Prevention of
Significant Deterioration (PSD) programs. The following models are used: 67
Environmental Health AERMOD Modeling System- A steady-state plume model that incorporates air
Monitoring
dispersion based on planetary boundary layer turbulence structure and scaling
concepts, including treatment of both surface and elevated sources, and both simple
and complex terrain.
CALPUFF Modeling System- A non-steady-state puff dispersion model that
simulates the effects of time and space-varyingmeteorological conditions on pollution
transport, transformation, and removal. CALPUFF can be applied for long-range
transport and for complex terrain.
Other Models- Other dispersion models including BLP, CALINE3, CAL3QHC/
CAL3QHCR, CTDMPLUS and OCD.
3.11 LET US SUM UP

The unit describes the various air pollutants and their environmental and health impact.
Air quality monitoring and its various tools help to measure these pollutants, which
help in formulating various policies, precautionarymeasures for safetyand awareness
to the public about its negative impact. This unit will enable the student to understand
the basic of one of the most important and troublesome aspects of our environment
today. According to several studies, Air Pollution is likely to be that silent killer
which can kill millions around the globe, especiallyin countries which are developing
and are racingto reach growth targets comingfromindustrialization and infrastructure
development. India presently has more than 5 cities among the top 10 most polluted
cities in the world which endangers lives of millions of people and is a serious concern.
The unit focusses on the key pollutants, their causes, their after effects and remedial
solutions. The reader will get a fair understanding which can then lead to generation
of interest for work in the policy space as well as modeling and data analysis which
is quite a niche area developing with the needs of the time.
3.1 KEYWORDS
Fine Particulate Matter PM2.5: The atmospheric particulate matter with a diameter
of less than 2.5 micrometers, it is commonlyknown as Fine Particulate Matter PM2.5.
The particles of PM2.5 can only be detected with an electron microscope. Fine
particles (PM2.5) are generally produced from anthropogenic processes which
include power plants, motor vehicles, airplanes, residential wood burning, forest
fires, agricultural burning, volcanic eruptions and dust storms.
Ammonia (NH3) is a highlyreactive and soluble alkaline gas. It originates from both
natural and anthropogenic sources, with the main source being agriculture, e.g.
manures, slurries and fertilizer application.

READINGS
https://www.ppsthane.com/environmental-quality-monitoring-assessment
https://www.ppsthane.com/environmental-quality-monitoring-assessment
www.airinfonow.org
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/environment/9-ill-effects-of-sulphur-dioxide-and-
68 other-sox-on-environment/12378
http://www.metlink.org/other-weather/miscellaneous-weather/case-studies/case- Air Quality Assessment
and Monitoring
study-great-smog/
https://www.nap.edu/read/4795/chapter/40
http://www.icopal-noxite.co.uk/nox-problem/nox-pollution.aspx
http://www.apis.ac.uk/overview/pollutants/overview_NOx.htm
https://www.saimm.co.za/Journal/v107n05p299.pdf
https://www3.epa.gov/ttncatc1/dir1/fnoxdoc.pdf
https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-
indoor-air-quality
https://iaq.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/212106857-What-are-Volatile-Organic-
Compounds-VOCs-
http://www.ec.gc.ca/cov-voc/default.asp?lang=Enandn=C064ECF0-1%5C
h t t p s: / / www. te c h s c i r e s e a r c h . c o m/ a d mi n/ ga l l _ c on t e n t / 2 01 7 / 5 /
2017_5$thumbimg112_May_2017_070949977.pdf
http://www.findingthemold.com/mold-information/voc/voc-prevention/
http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/publications/factsheet-carbon-monoxide-
co
http://www.aboutcarbonmonoxide.com/health.htm
https://www.cdc.gov/features/copoisoning/index.html
http://www.floridahealth.gov/newsroom/2014/01/010714-carbon-monoxide.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/ammonia
http://apps.sepa.org.uk/spripa/Pages/SubstanceInformation.aspx?pid=1
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/ammonia-total
https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/emergency/chemical_terrorism/
ammonia_tech.htm
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/chem_profiles/ammonia.html
https://ndma.gov.in/images/chemical/Ammonia.pdf
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1309104215302373
http://envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/NCAP%20with%20annex-ilovepdf-
compressed.pdf

 Due to their small size and light weight, PM2.5 may stay longer in the air
in comparison to heavier particles. They can easily be inhaled by humans
69
Environmental Health and animals through nose and throat and then they penetrate deep into the
Monitoring
lungs and circulatory system. The exposure of fine particles leads to the
premature deterioration of heart and lungs which causes chronic disease
such as asthma, heart attack, bronchitis and other respiratory problems.
The long exposure may cause blockage and hardening the arteries,
inflammation of vascular system which is responsible for heart attack and
stroke. It is also found in a study that long-term exposure of PM2.5 (every
10 micrograms per cubic meter (¼g/m3) causes air pollution) can cause
increase rates of risk of cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality.
 The American Heart Association has also warned about the impact of
PM2.5 on heart health and mortality:
A varietyof chemicals included in VOCs mayhave short- and long-termadverse
health effects as each chemical has its own toxicity and potential for causing
different health effects. The risk of health effects from inhaling any chemical
depends upon the level and duration of the exposure. Exposure of low levels of
VOCs in breathing for long periods of time may increase some people’s risk to
health problems. It is found that exposure to VOCs maymake symptoms worse
for people with asthma or who are particularly sensitive to chemicals.
Exposure of Sulphur dioxide, sulphate aerosols, and Sulphur dioxide adsorbed
onto particulate matter, can be carried deep into the pulmonary system, which
disrupts its functions. Sulphur dioxide absorbs into the bloodstream anddissolves
in the watery fluids of the upper respiratory system, which is lethal for blood
circulatory systems. The sulphate concentration increases up to 40% in fine
particulate matters if high sulphur content is used in fuel. Therefore reducing
concentration of particulate matter may reduce the health impact of Sulphur
Dioxide.
70
UNIT 4 SOIL QUALITY AND NOISE
ASSESSMENT AND
MONITORING
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Soil Quality
4.2.1 Why do we Need Soil Quality Concept?
4.2.2 Definition
4.2.3 Needs of Soil Quality Improvement
4.2.4 Factors Causing Soil Quality Improvement
4.2.5 Monitoring of Quality
4.2.6 Types of Soil Quality Assessment Tools
4.2.7 Steps for Improvement of Soil Quality
4.2.8 Importance of Soil Quality
4.3 Soil Salinity

4.3.1 Types of Salt Soils
4.3.2 Principles of Salinity Control
4.3.3 Methods of Prevention
4.3.4 Testing and Monitoring Salinity
4.3.5 Adverse Effects of Soil Salinity
4.3.6 Units of Soil Salinity
4.4 Organic Matter

4.4.1 Formation of Organic Matter
4.4.2 Soil Organic Matter
4.4.3 Property of Soil Organic Matter
4.4.4 Measurements of Organic Matter
4.5 Heavy Metals

4.5.1 Characteristics of Heavy Metals
4.5.2 Analytical Techniques for Estimation of Heavy Metal in Soil Ecosystem
4.5.3 Estimation of Heavy Metals
4.5.4 Adverse effect of Heavy Metal on Human Health
4.6 Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC)

4.6.1 Historical Perspective
4.6.2 Why are Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) of Concern?
4.6.3 Sources of Volatile Organic Chemicals
4.6.4 Environmental and Climate Impact of VOCs
4.6.5 Health Risks
4.6.6 Principle and Measurement Methods
4.6.7 Control of Volatile Organic Chemicals
4.7 Nitrogen and Phosphate

4.7.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
71
4.7.2 Nitrogen Fertilizers
Environmental Health 4.7.3 Availability and Uses of Nitrogen from Different Sources
Monitoring 4.7.4 Phosphate
4.7.5 Phosphate as a Fertilizer
4.7.6 Phosphorous Chemistry in Soil
4.7.7 Phosphorous Essential to Bone Health
4.7.8 Environmental Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphate
4.7.9 Compound Fertilizers of Nitrogen and Phosphate
4.7.10 Application
4.8 Noise Level Monitoring

4.8.1 Purpose of Measurements
4.8.2 Measuring Sound Level
4.8.3 Noise Level Monitoring Procedure
4.8.4 Noise Measuring Instrument
4.8.5 Sound Level Meter (SLM)
4.8.6 Noise Dosimeter
4.8.7 Noise Monitoring System
4.9 Let Us Sum Up

4.10 Keywords
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The maintenance and improvement of soil and noise quality is important for
environmental sustainability. In this unit, a wide perspective of soil quality, salinity,
organic matter, volatile organic chemicals, heavy metal and noise the complex task
of its assessment, considering the inherent and dynamic factors, are introduced.
Soil, water, and air are three basic natural resources upon which most of the lives
depend. The balance between economic viability and destruction often dependson
how we manage our soil resource base. For example, the soil provides nutrientsfor
plant growth that are essential for animal and human nutrition. It providesthe medium
for the recycling and detoxification of organic materials and for therecycling of many
nutrients and global gases.Ahealthy soil provides a link toplant, animal, and human
health. Finally the unit also focuses on the noise monitoring techniques.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
 define and describe the soil qualityand its monitoring;
 describe the cause of salinity and its control;
 to understand the heavy metals and its estimation;
 list the sources of volatile organic chemicals and how its control;
 importance of nitrogen and phosphate; and
72  to understand the concept of noise level and its measurement.
Soil Quality and Noise
4.2 SOIL QUALITY Assessment and
Monitoring
Soil qualityreflects howwell a soil performs the functions of maintaining biodiversity
and productivity, partitioning water and solute flow, filtering and buffering, nutrient
cycling, and providingsupport for plants and other structures.Soilqualityin agricultural
terms is measured on a scale of soil value.
4.2.1 Why do we Need Soil Quality Concept?
 To address the problems of non agricultural uses of soil (e.g., mine land
restoration, urban uses and disposal of urban wastes, soil contamination and
pollution byindustrial activities)
 Todevelop appropriate indicators ofsoilqualityin relationto specific soilfunction
(e.g., agricultural, urban, industrial, recreational, athletic, environmental, and
waste disposal).
4.2.2 Definition
The capacity of the soil to function within the ecosystem boundaries to sustain
biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal
health is called soil quality.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture Natural
ResourcesConservation Service, “Soil quality is the capacity of a specific kind of
soil tofunction, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plantand
animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, andsupport human
health and habitation.
Figure 4.1: Soil quality
Soil quality is divided in two types:

i. Inherent Soil Quality
It is a natural ability to function of soil.For example, clayey soil drains slower
thansandy soil. Deep soil has more room for roots than soils with bedrock near
the surface. This is a quality of soil. These are the permanentcharacteristics.
ii. Dynamic Soil Quality
This type of soil quality describes the soil changes depending on how it is
managed. It affects the amount of water- nutrient-holding capacity, soil organic
matter and soil structure. One goal of soil-quality research is to learn how to
manage soil in a way that improves its functions. 73
Environmental Health 4.2.3 Needs of Soil Quality Improvement?
Monitoring
Throughout history, humans have worked the fields, and land degradation has
occurred. The United Nations estimates that 2.5 billion acres have suffered erosion
since 1945 and that 38% of global cropland has become seriously degraded. The
exhaustive use of land is combined with increasing populations; greater consumption
of animal products produced in large-scale facilities, which creates less efficient use
of crop nutrients; expanding acreages for bio fuel crops; and the spread of urban
areas, suburban and commercial development, and highways onto agricultural lands.
Climate
Evapotranspirati
on
Temperature
Humidity
Land
Terrain
La nd Use Vegetation
F arming system Soil Geology
Purchased Input
OutputInput Ra tio
Degradation Hydrology
Soils
S ustainability
Socio economic f actors

Population density
La nd People Ratio
La nd tenure systems
Form Policies
Ma rketing
Figure 4.2: Soil degradation
4.2.4 Factors Causing Soil Quality Degradation

Consideration of soil threats is crucial for assessing the quality of the soil system.
These are the major threats faced by soils:
 soil erosion,
 soil contamination,
 decline in organic matter and biodiversity,
 soil compaction,
 salinization,
 floods and landslides, and
 soil sealing.
74
Actions to protect soil qualitynecessitate tackling collectivelythe different threats.The Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
risk of these soil threats can be monitored by use of indicators such as trends in Monitoring
yields on soils under irrigation to monitor risk of salinity.
4.2.5 Monitoring of Soil Quality

Soil qualitymonitoring is divided into three types, namely,
(a) Implementation monitoring
(b) Effectiveness monitoring aid
(c) Validation monitoring
In soil quality monitoring,two quantitative procedures are involved. The first is

assessment of those parameters which indicate the level of acceptabilityof soil quality
at a site. The second is comparison of measurements from before and after an
activity. It cannot be measured directly, so we evaluate indicators. Indicators are
measurable properties of soil or plants that provide clues about how well the soil
can function. Indicators can be physical, chemical and biological characteristics.
Useful indicators:
 should be easy to measure
 measure changes in soil functions
 encompass chemical, biological, and physical properties
 should be accessible to many users and applicable to field conditions
 should be sensitive to variations in climate and management.
Table 4.1: Monitoring soil quality
Indicator Category Related soil function
Chemical Nutrient cycling, Buffering, Water relations
Physical Stability and support, Water relations,
Biological Biodiversity, Nutrient cycling, filtering
Soil Quality Test Kit developed by the United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) can be used to monitor soil quality in the field. This test is designed
specifically so that different soils or different experimental treatments can be
compared. The test includes the following measurements:
4.2.6 Types of Soil Quality Assessment Tools

•Infiltration: In this measurement measures how fast water can infiltrate into the
soil. It is an indicator in which water will infiltrate, pond, or runoff during rainfall or
irrigation.
75
Environmental Health Bulk Density: Itmeasures the weight of the soil per volume of soil. It is an indicator
Monitoring
how well plant seedlings can emerge and how well air can circulate through the soil.
pH: Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in soil water. pH is an indicator
of whether the soil is acidic, neutral, or basic.
Electrical Conductivity: This is an indicator, which indicates how much salt is
present in the soil. It measureshow well an electrical current travelsthrough the soil
water.
Nitrate: It measures how much nitrate present in the soil. Theamount of nitrate is an
indicator of theavailabilityof the important plantnutrient- nitrogen.
Aggregate Stability: It is an indicator ofhow well water can infiltrate into thesoil
during rainfall or irrigation and howeasily soil is washed off or blown away.
Slaking:How fast soilparticles disperse in water measured by slaking. Slaking is
anindicator of whether and how fast soil will form slurryduring rainfall orirrigation.
 Earthworm Counts: Measures how much of earthworms present in
soil.Earthworms generally enhance microbialactivity, soil fertility and
physicalproperties.
 Penetration Resistance: Measures the force required to insert a metal rod
intothe soil. Resistance is an indicator of howeasily roots can grow in the soil.
4.2.7 Steps for Improvement of Soil Quality
After the assessment of soil quality, we need to improve it. Some practices which
improve the soil qualityare:
 Addition of Organic Matter: Regular additions of organic matter are linked
to many aspects of soil quality. Organic matter form from crop residues at the
surface, roots of cover crops, animal manure, green manure, compost, and
other sources. It can improve water holding capacity, nutrient availability, and
can help protect against erosion.
 Avoid Excessive Tillage: Tillage has positive effects, but it also triggers
excessive organic matter degradation, disrupts soil structure, and can cause
compaction.
 Management of Fertilizer and Pesticide Use: Itcan increase plant growth
and the amount of organic matter returned to the soil. If they are mismanaged
they can harm non-target organisms and pollute water and air. Manure and
other organic matter also can become pollutants when misapplied or over-
applied.
 Ground Cover should Increase: Bare soil is susceptible to wind and water
erosion, and to drying and crusting. Water availability can be improved by
larger soil organisms, such as insects and earthworms. Cover crops, perennials,
and surface residue increase the amount of time that the soil surface is covered
each year.
 Increase Plant Diversity: Each crop contributes a unique root structure and
type of residue to the soil. A diversity of soil organisms can help control pest
populations, and a diversity of cultural practices can reduce weed and disease
pressures.Plant diversity across the landscape and over time can be increased
76
by using buffer strips, small fields, contour strip cropping, crop rotations, and Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
byvarying tillage practices. Changing vegetation across the landscape increases Monitoring
plant diversity, and the types of insects, microorganisms, and wildlife.
4.2.8 Importance of Soil Quality

Agricultural productivityimpacts bydirectlyand indirectlybysoil, water quality, and
the global climate. Microorganisms in soils transform nutrients into forms that can be
used by growing plants. Water and nutrients are store in soil. Plants draw on these
stores as needed to produce roots, stems, leaves, and, eventually, food and fiber for
human consumption. Soils are a fundamental resource on which the productivities of
agricultural and natural ecosystems depend.
4.3 SOIL SALINITY

Salts are a natural component in soils and water. Na+, K++, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Cl” (at
pH above >9.0) ions responsible for salinization. Saline soils will have a relatively
high number of sodium ions compared to healthysoils. Sodic soils present particular
challenges because they tend to have very poor structure which limits or prevents
water infiltration and drainage. An example of this occurred in Egypt in 1970 when
the Aswan High Dam was built.Inorganic fertilizers are also high in salt due to the
salt content of the minerals. Australia, North and Central Asia and SouthAmerica
are highest concentrations salt-affected areas. However, every continent and almost
every part of the earth can be affected.
Definition
Salt content in the soil is called Soil salinity. The process of increasing the salt
content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water.
4.3.1 Types of Salt Soils
i. Saline soil
ii. Sodic Soil
iii. Saline/Sodic Soil
Saline Soils: It contains high total soluble salts that canadversely affect plant health.
Saline soils still havegood soil structure intact. Saline soils must have chlorine present
(Cl). pH for saline soils is usuallybetween 7 and 8.5.
Sodic Soils: High enough levels of sodium ions present in this soil and it affect
soilstructure. This means the sodium binds to clay particles so the clay in thesoil
does not stick together when the soil becomes moist. It often becomeseasily
waterlogged, not allowing water to drain. When it does dry out, itbecomes like
concrete and is difficult for plant roots to penetrate. The pH range of this soils are
usually between 8.5 and 10.
Sodic/Saline Soils: These soils are a mixture of both, but saline/Sodicsoil usually
exhibit more of the characteristic of saline soil especiallyreduced water uptake by
plants, leaf burn, etc. It will causestructural problems in soil.
The cause of soil salinity may be due to the characteristics of the landscape, climate
and effects of human activities.
77
Environmental Health 4.3.2 Principles of Salinity Control
Monitoring
Soil salinityis controlling by drainage. The system should permit a small fraction of
the irrigation water (about 10 to 20 percent, the drainage or leaching fraction) to be
drained anddischarged out of the irrigation project.The salt concentration of the
drainage water is normally 5 to 10 times higher than that of the irrigation water.
When reclaiming alreadysalinized soils, the salt concentration of the drainage water
will initially be much higher than that of the irrigation water (for example 50 times
higher). Salt export will greatly exceed salt import, so that with thesame drainage
fraction a rapid desalinization occurs.
4.3.3 Methods of Prevention
In high-risk areas: monitor groundwater levels and the amount of salt in the land
and water to stop salt moving towards the surface, stop further loss of deep-rooted
native vegetation in high-risk areas as well as areas that contribute groundwater to
them.
In at-riskAreas: retain and regenerate native vegetation, avoid building dams at
sites where the water table is high, locate roads along ridges where disruption to
water tables will be minimal, site houses (and septic systems) away from areas with
high water tables, maintain good pasture cover through conservative stocking rates,
adopt cropping practices that minimize deep drainage.
4.3.4 Testing and Monitoring Salinity
Monitoring bores, windmills or piezometers can be useful to assess changes in
groundwater level, although levels can vary with seasonal and land-use changes.
These instruments can also be usedto determine the direction of groundwater low
and the estimated low capacity of the aquifermaterial.Depth to the water table can
be measured using a tape measure and bell shaped plopper. A plopper can be an
old valve from an engine or a similar object with a concave face. It should makea
sound when it strikes the water surface. Soil testingis necessary to confirm a salinity
problem. A variety of meters can measure electrical conductivity but detailed soil
tests should be done through registered soil testing laboratories todetermine the
concentration of a range of salts. Take a 500g sample for testing fromrepresentative
areas across the site.
4.3.5 Adverse Effects of Soil Salinity
Presence of excessive salt not only destroys the soil structure, saltalso attracts water
and blocks its absorption to plant roots. Finally, plants may exhibit signs of drought
even when the soil iswet or waterlogged. Waterpooling on the surface without
penetrating is an example of salt damage.Just as the results of high soil salinity on
plants are seen in leaf and stemburns, it is hard on earthworms and microorganisms
as well.They are detrimental for plant growth and yield, they damage infrastructure,
reduce water quality, cause sedimentation problems and ultimatelysoil erosion when
crops are too strongly affected by the amounts of salts.
4.3.6 Units of Soil Salinity
Soilsalinityismeasure interms ofelectricalconductivity.The preferredunit for electrical
conductivityis deciSiemens/metre (dS/m).Conductivity values (for a soil saturation
extract) may vary from 0.1dS/m (low salinity hazard) to 9.0dS/m (very high).The
conversions in table are based on the estimate that 670mg of a mixture of salts in 1L
78 of water will have a conductivity of approximately 1dS/m.
Salinity is an important land degradation problem. Soil salinity can be reduced by Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
leaching soluble salts out of soilwith excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control Monitoring
involves watertable control and flushing in combination with tile drainage. A
comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available from the United Nations Food
andAgriculture Organization.
1. Define of soil salinity.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2. Write down the types of saline soil.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4.4 ORGANIC MATTER

Organic matterconsists of decomposing plant and animal residues. In addition to
these materials, soilorganic matter contains livinganddead microbial cells, microbially
synthesized compounds and a number of derivatives produced as a result of microbial
activity. It is the store house of all essential plant nutrients. It protects soil against
erosion and helps to form good soil structure. It provides good aeration and better
water movement by loosening the soil.
4.4.1 Formation of Organic Matter
The larger molecules of organic matter can be formed from the polymerization of
different parts of alreadybroken down matter.The formation of natural organic matter
depends on its origin, transformation mode, age, and existing environment.
4.4.2 Soil Organic Matter
Soil organic matter mainlyoriginatesfrom plants, animals and microorganisms. Leaves
and roots of trees, shrubs, grasses and other plants etc. usually supplylarge quantities
of organic materials to the soil.Animals are generally considered secondarysources
of organic matter. Certain forms of animal life, particularly earthworms, centipedes,
insects and ants, also play an important role in the turnover of plant residue. When
the organic matter has broken down into a stable substance that resists further
decomposition it is called humus.
4.4.3 Property of Soil Organic Matter
An important propertyof soil organic matter is that it improves the capacityof a soil
to hold water and nutrients, and allows their slow release, thereby improving the
conditions for plant growth. Another advantage of humus is that it helps the soil to
stick together which allows nematodes, or microscopic bacteria, to easily decay the
nutrients in the soil.There are several ways to quicklyincrease the amount of humus.
Combining compost, plant or animal materials/waste, or green manure with soilwill
increase the amount of humus in the soil.Organicmatter is very important in the 79
Environmental Health movement of nutrients in the environment and plays a role in water retention on the
Monitoring surface of the planet.
4.4.4 Measurements of Organic Matter
Some definitions of organic matter likewise only consider “organic matter” to refer
to only the carbon content, or organic compounds, and do not consider the origins
or decomposition of thematter.They generally measure only organic compounds or
carbon, and so are only an approximation of the level of once-living or decomposed
matter. Organic matter is heterogeneous and verycomplex. Generally, organic matter,
in terms of weight, is:45–55% carbon, 35–45% oxygen, 3–5% hydrogen, 1–4%
nitrogen. The molecular weights of these compounds can vary drastically, depending
on if they repolymerize or not, from 200 to 20,000 amu.
1. What is the property of soil organic matter?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4.5 HEAVY METALS

They are generally defined as metals with relatively high densities, atomic weights,
or atomic numbers. In metallurgy, for example, a heavy metal maybe defined on the
basisofdensity, whereasinphysicsthe distinguishingcriterionmightbe atomic number,
while a chemist would likelybe more concerned with chemical behaviour. The earliest
known metals—common metals such as iron, copper, and tin, and precious metals
such as silver, gold, and platinum—are heavy metals. From 1809 onwards, less
well-known heavymetals includinggallium, thallium, and hafnium.Potential sources
of heavymetalpoisoninginclude mining, tailings, industrial wastes, agricultural runoff,
occupational exposure, paints and treated timber.
4.5.1 Characteristics of Heavy Metals

Heavymetals tend to be less reactive than lighter metals and have much less soluble
sulfides and hydroxides.Most heavymetals have a high atomic number, atomic weight
and a specific gravity greater than 5.0gm/cm3. Examples of heavy metals include
lead, mercury, cadmium, sometimes chromium.
4.5.2 Analytical Techniques for Estimation of Heavy Metals

in Soil Ecosystem
Soil, an important environmental medium, is exposed to a number of pollutants
including toxic heavy metals by various natural and anthropogenic activities.
Consequentlyheavymetal contaminated soil has the potential to pose severe health
risk sand hazards to human as well as other living creatures of the ecosystem through
various routes of exposure such as direct ingestion, contaminated drinking ground
water, foodcrops, contact with contaminated soil and through food chain. Therefore,
it is mandatory to explore various techniques that could efficiently determine the
80 occurrence of heavy metals.
4.5.3 Estimation of Heavy Metals Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
Monitoring
i. Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES):
Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy is demonstrated to
be one of the most widelyused techniques for estimation of heavymetal content
in soils samples. This technique has the feasibilityto analyze the metals in traces.
They mentioned that detection limits were in range 0.1–10 ng/ml for most of
the elements studied.The major advantage of this technique is the increasing
demand of performing simultaneous multi element determination at the nano-
gram/milli liter level for manytrace constituents and limited volume of samples
especiallythe biological samples.
ii. Inductively CoupledAtomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES):The use
of AES for rock analysis was performed over the routinely used techniques
like atomic absorption spectrometry and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry due
to the fact that the instrument was capable of determining several elements
simultaneously. The use of this technique for analyzing soils from urban areas
(residential, commercial and industrial estates) and hotspots (volcanic regions)
of Hong Kong for Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn estimation.
iii. Inductively Coupled Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS): The multi elemental
ultra trace detection capabilityof inductivelycoupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) makes it the most powerful technique. Speciation analysis using
inductivelycoupled plasma mass spectrometry(ICPMS) has become common
practice in recent years for ultra-sensitive detection of trace metal and metalloid-
containing compounds. This instrument has been used for industrial analysis of
metals, chemicals and advanced synthesized material, for environmental analysis
and clinical and biological materials, food and beverage.
iv. Atomic Fluorescence Spectrometer (AFS): Atomic-fluorescence
spectroscopy (AFS) has undoubtedly become very sensitive, selective and
versatile method for the determination of number of environmentally and bio
medicallyimportant elements. This technique has been used by several groups
of workers as a complementary technique that may permit higher analytical
sensitivity than atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) for chemical analysis
of various substance. Due to its excellent sensitivity and selectivity, AFS was
considered as one of the most important analytical tool for the analysis of trace
elements, including mercury, arsenic and selenium analyzed heavy metalsAs,
Hg, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, and Cd in soil.
v. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRF): X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
spectroscopyis based on simple relation of the fundamental physics comprising
of atom–radiation interaction. It is highly sensitive analytical tool used for the
analysis of heavy metals. Themajor advantage of XRF is its ability to perform
accurate quantitative analysis over a wide range of elements.
vi. NeutronActivation Analysis (NAA):Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is
a quantitative and qualitative method of high efficiency for the precise
determination of trace elements in different types of samples. NAA was
discovered in the year 1936 by Heves when he observed that the samples
containing certain rare earth elements became radioactive on exposure to source
of neutrons. Apart from this, some elements cannot be determined either due
to too long half life of produced radionuclide or due to the reason that it does
not emit gamma rays. The major advantage of thermal and epithermal neutron 81
Environmental Health activation analysis is that rare earth elements can be determined non-
Monitoring
destructively by neutron activation using a short irradiation time.
vii. D.C.Argon Plasma Multi ElementAtomic Emission Spectrometer (DCP-
MAES): It is a validated analytical method for determination of several elements
simultaneously. DCP-MAES system offers acceptable levels of selectivity,
sensitivity, speed and economy for the analysis of many trace elements.
viii. Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS):Atomic absorption spectrometry
(AAS) is the most common technique used for analyzing metals and some
metalloids present in complex environmental matrices.AAS dates back to 19th
century, when in 1950sAlan Walsh and his team developed this technique for
determination of particular metal concentration within the test sample. This
chemical technique can reliablyanalyze 62 different metals in a solution and has
proven to be less time consuming, accurate and more convenient than other
spectroscopic techniques for elemental analyses.
ix. Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM–
EDX):Although SEM-EDX is another technique to detect heavy metals yet it
is rarely permitted or used to detect heavy metals or rare earth metals in soil
matrix. However, heavy metal rich minerals can be identified by SEM-EDX
provided that all soil sub-portions uniformly contain the heavy metal content.
4.5.4 Adverse Effect of Heavy Metals on Human Health

 Vanadiumpentoxide (V2O5) is carcinogenic in animals and, when inhaled, causes
DNA damage.
 MnO–4 is poison for liver and kidney.
 Ingesting 0.5 grams or more of iron can induce cardiac collapse; such overdoses
most commonly occur in children and may result in death within 24 hours.
 30 parts per million of nickel carbonyl (Ni2 (CO)4), can cause respiratoryfailure,
brain damage and death.
 Imbibing a gram or more of copper sulphate (CuSO4) can be fatal; survivors
may be left with major organ damage.
 Five milligrams or higher of selenium is highly toxic; long-term poisoning can
have paralytic effects.
1. Effect of the heavy metals on human health.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
82
..............................................................................................................
Soil Quality and Noise
4.6 VOLATILE ORGANIC CHEMICALS (VOC) Assessment and
Monitoring
These are ubiquitous in both outdoor and indoor air. Indoor VOCs originate from
construction materials in addition to outside sources, vegetation, bio effluents,
occupant activities, and building maintenance. Sampling typicallyidentifies between
50 and 300 different VOCs in indoor air, with individual compounds in the 1 to 10
μg/m3 range and total VOCs in the 200 to 5000 μg/m3 range.
4.6.1 Historical Perspective

In the 1970s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measured the
concentrations of air pollutants indoors and compared them to outdoor exposures,
resulting that indoors air exposures from chemicals were greater than outdoor
exposures.In 1981, ASHRAE suggested criteria for over 40 indoor air pollutants.
In 1991, VOC concentration limits to address off-gassing were first proposed for
new buildings. In 1999, the USGBC issued the LEED Green Building Rating System
for New Construction. In 2013, LEED was updated to increase the number of
VOCs to 33 compounds.
4.6.2 Why are Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs) of

Concern?
VOCs are a source of indoor and outdoor pollution. As an indoor pollution, VOCs
evaporate under normal indoor atmospheric conditions with respect to temperature
and pressure.
As an outdoor pollutant, VOCs are of concern due to their reaction with nitrogen
oxide (NOx) in the presence of sunlight. The reaction forms ground-level ozone
(O3) – the main component of smog. If levels are high enough, this ground-level
ozone can be harmful to human health and vegetation, including crops.
Because of the relationship with the formation of ground-level ozone, VOCs are
regulated by the 1990 CleanAir Act and certain State laws. ThisAct requires every
state to submit a State Implementation Plan (SIP) outlining achievements and
maintenance of federal ambient air qualitystandards, includingthe standard for ozone.
4.6.3 Sources of Volatile Organic Chemicals

Man-made VOCs are typically petroleum-based and are a major component of
gasoline.
 VOCs also release from burning fuel, such as gasoline, wood, coal, or natural
gas.
 In solvents like paints, paint thinners, lacquer thinners, moth repellents, air
fresheners, wood preservatives, degreasers, dry cleaning fluids, cleaning
solutions, adhesives, inks,
 Some pesticides.
 Motor vehicle exhaust
 Emission from industrial facilities and electric utilities
In nature, VOCs can originate from
 Sunlight 83
Environmental Health  Emitted from volcanoes
Monitoring
 Trees even produce different types and amounts of VOCs.
 Vegetation
 Bacteria
 Fossil fuel deposits, such as oil sands.
4.6.4 Environmental and Climatic Impacts of VOCs

The atmospheric chemistry of VOCs in urban areas results in the formation of‘
photochemical smog’, in which the major components are ozone (O3) andSOA.
The photolysis of nitrous acid (HONO) can also be a significant source of OH in
highlypolluted regions.
Though OH radicals react with manytrace constituents, the oxidation rates of VOCs
are much faster than the relatively more abundant trace gases4 like methane (CH4)
and carbon monooxide (CO). Any chemical compound based on carbon chains or
rings (and also containing hydrogen) with a vapour pressure greater than 2mm of
mercury (0.27 kPa) at 250 C, excluding methane.
4.6.5 Health Risks

With short-term exposure, the consequences can encompass eyevisual disorders,
respiratorytract irritation, headaches, dizziness, fatigue, loss of coordination, allergic
skin reactions, nausea, and memoryimpairment.
Long-term contact with VOCs can damage the liver, kidneys and central nervous
system.
Older adults, individuals with lung disease, and even healthypeople active outdoors
are at risk, as well. A study of symptoms reported by 2,000 occupants at this time
(1987) found a dose-response relationship with airborne formaldehyde as follows:
Table 4.2: Dose-Response Relationship of Symptoms and Formaldehyde
Concentrations inAmbientAir
Formaldehyde Irritation Nose/Throat Headache Rash
Eye (μg/m3)
>300 90% ~85% 71% ~25%
300 32% 36% 36% 17%
100 12% 12% - None
<100 ~2% ~5% 7% None
4.6.6 Principle and Measurement Methods

There are electronic devices that can detect ppm concentrations despite the non-
selectivity.Solid-phase micro extraction (SPME) techniques are used to collectVOCs
at low concentrations for analysis.
84
Direct injection mass spectrometry techniques are frequently utilized for the rapid Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
detection and accurate quantification of VOCs. PTR-MS is among the methods Monitoring
that have been used most extensively for the on-line analysis of biogenic and
anthropogenic VOCs.
4.6.7 Control of Volatile Organic Chemicals

Volatile Organic Chemicals are very harmful for health so that need to control its
exposure/emission. Some efforts are:
Reducing Exposure
 eliminating stockpiling of these chemicals,
 reduce exposure to these toxins,
 should buy products that contain Low-VOCs or No VOCs,
 use products with VOCs in well ventilated areas.
Regulation of Indoor VOC Emissions
France, Germany, and Belgium have enacted regulations to limit VOC emissions
from commercial products, and industry has developed numerous voluntary eco-
labels and rating systems, such as EMICODE, M, Blue Angel and Indoor Air
Comfort. In the United States, several standards exist; California Standard CDPH
Section 01350 is the most common one.
4.7 NITROGENAND PHOSPHATE

Nitrogen
The earth atmosphere is approximately 78% nitrogen existing as an inert gas which
the majority of living organisms cannot exploit. Nitrogen, therefore has to be fixed
before use.
Amino acidsare made up of nitrogen, the building blocks of proteins. The N content
of most proteins varies between 14 and 18%. Plants need nitrogen primarily for leaf
development. Nitrogen is the onlycrop nutrient that can be lost in significant amounts
to the atmosphere in gaseous form. It is also very easily lost in its soluble form as
nitrate ions via Leaching.
4.7.1 The Nitrogen Cycle

A convenient way of visualizing the movement of nitrogen is to identifythe internal
pathways (in the farming system) and the many sources of loss an addition of
nitrogen to the system. In the inorganic formof Nitrogen compounds are ammonium
(NH4 +) and nitrate (NO3) ions. The positivelycharged ammonium ion is relatively
stationary and is absorbed by organic matter or clay particles. The nitrate ion is
negatively charged and is therefore not held to the other negatively charged soil
collides and is therefore mobile in the soil solution. Soil bacteria, fungi and
actinomyctes are responsible for the conversion of N from one form to another. The
form of nitrogen available to crops is profoundly affected by cultivations, organic
additions (manure), crop rotation and root exudates. One of the main features of the 85
Environmental Health N cycle is the turnover of soil N by: Mineralisation–is the process conversion of
Monitoring
bound organic nitrogen into the mineral (ionic or inorganic) form required for plant
uptake. The inorganic nitrogen is then converted in a process known as nitrification
from ammonium salts to nitrites, and from nitrites to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria
which obtain their energy from this oxidation process. Once free nitrate is formed,
the rapid recycling process offers many options; the nitrate may be immobilized,
assimilated by plants, denitrified or leached. Immobilization - This occurs when
inorganic ions are assimilated by soil organisms and are bound organicallyagain.
These processes occur simultaneously in a continuous cycle.
4.7.2 Nitrogen fertilizers

Nitrogen fertilizers are made from ammonia (NH3), which is sometimes injected into
the ground directly. The ammonia is produced by the Haber-Bosch process. In this
energy-intensive process, natural gas (CH4) usually supplies the hydrogen, and the
nitrogen (N2) is derived from the air. This ammonia is used as a feedstock for all
other nitrogen fertilizers, such as anhydrous ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) and urea
(CO (NH2) 2).
4.7.3 Availability and Uses of Nitrogen from Different

Sources
Availabilityand uses of nitrogen from different sources are show in following
figure.
4.7.4 Phosphate
Phosphorus is a non metallic chemical element with symbol P and atomic number
15. There are several forms of phosphorous, called white, red and black phosphorus,
although their colours are more likely to be slightly different.
All phosphate fertilizers are obtained by extraction from minerals containing the
anion PO43". The most popular phosphate-containing minerals are referred to
collectivelyas phosphate rock. The main minerals are fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F (CFA)
and hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3OH. These minerals are converted to water-soluble
phosphate salts by treatment with sulphuric (H2SO4) or phosphoric acids (H3PO4).
4.7.5 Phosphate as a Fertilizer
The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the superphosphates. “Single
superphosphate” (SSP) consists of 14–18% P2O5, again in the form of Ca(H2PO4)
2
, but also phosphor gypsum (CaSO4 · 2H2O). Triple superphosphate (TSP) typically
consists of 44-48% of P2O5 and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate
and triple superphosphate is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a
typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble.
4.7.6 Phosphorus Chemistry in Soil
Phosphorus exists in soils in both forms organic and inorganic. Organic forms of P
are found in humus and other organic material. Concentrated phosphoric acids,
which can consist of 70% to 75% P2O5. Global demand for fertilizers led to large
increase in phosphate (PO43–) production in the second half of the 20th century.
86
4.7.7 Phosphorus Essential to Bone health Soil Quality and Noise
Assessment and
Monitoring
The ionic forms of calcium and phosphorus combine to form calcium phosphate in
vivo. There are several stages of human life when the calcium and phosphorus
requirements are most critical. First, in Uterus, followed by childhood anabolism,
and later during puberty when there is a strong requirement for growth hormone.
4.7.8 Environmental effects of Nitrogen and Phosphate

Highapplication rates of nitrogen-containingfertilizerscausing groundwater pollution.
The large growing consumption of fertilizers can affect soil, surface water, and
groundwater due to dispersion of mineral use. It is important to be aware of the
environmental effects in order to use them sparingly.
Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause ‘blue baby
syndrome’ (acquired methemoglobinemia) The nutrients, especially nitrates, in
fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are
washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.
4.7.9 Compound Fertilizers of Nitrogen and Phosphate

Compound fertilizers, which contain N, P, and K, can often be produced by mixing
straight fertilizers. In some cases, chemical reactions occur between the two or
more components. For example, mono ammonium and di ammonium phosphates,
which provide plants with both N and P, are produced by neutralizing phosphoric
acid (from phosphate rock) and ammonia:
4.7.10 Application
Global demand for fertilizers led to large increase in phosphate (PO43–) production
in the second half of the 20th century.Phosphorus, being an essential plant nutrient,
finds its major use as a constituent of fertilizers for agriculture and farm production in
the form of concentrated phosphoric acids, which can consist of 70% to 75% P2O5.
Fertilizers are commonlyused for growing all crops, with application rates depending
on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and according to the particular
crop.
4.8 NOISE LEVEL MONITORING

National Environment Policy (NEP)-2006, Ambient Noise included noise as an
environmentalqualityparameter and tobe monitored in specified urban areasregularly.
Therefore, Central Pollution Control Board developed National Ambient Noise
Monitoring Network Programme which includes installation of Noise Monitoring
Stations all over India. It is a process to measure magnitude of noise in industries
and residential areas.
4.8.1 Purpose of Measurements

There are manyreasons to make noise measurements. Noise data contains amplitude,
frequency, time or phase information, which allows us to:
 Identify and locate dominant noise sources
 Optimize selection of noise control devices, methods, materials
87
Environmental Health  Evaluate and compare noise control measures
Monitoring
 Determine compliance with noise criteria and regulations
 Quantify the strength (power) of a sound source
 Determine the acoustic qualities of a room and its suitability for various uses.
4.8.2 Measuring Sound Level

Sound produced from anysource is stimuli and it can be measured as sound pressure.
The sound pressure range varies from 20μPa- 200 Pa and it can be expressed on a
scale based on the log of the ratio of measured sound pressure and a reference
standard pressure Sound Level,
L= Log10 5ØCÜ (bels)
P= Measured quantity of sound pressure or sound power, or sound intensity.
Po=Reference standard quantity of sound pressure, or sound power, or sound
intensity (20 × 10-6 Pa)
L= Sound Level in Bels (B)
However, above unit bels (B) is turn out to be a rather large unit, a smaller unit of
decibels (dB) is generally used.
L= 10.Log10 5ØCÜ(dB) * 1dB= 1 10 B
Sound Pressure Level,
Lp= 20.Log10 (5ØCÜ5Ø_Ü.5ØZÜ.5Ø‘Ü 20μ5ØCÜ5ØNÜ)
The logarithmic unit of measurement means, for example. that 80dB is 10 times
louder than 79dB. This is one of the motivations for usingthe decibel scale to measure
sound intensity.
4.8.3 Noise Level Monitoring Procedure

Noise level measurement procedures are processes which are followed while
monitoring sound level or acoustic energylevel in specifed area. Noise or sound can
be measured by Noise level meter in decibel (dB).Noise or sound level monitoring
or measurement is a process to measure magnitude of Noise in industries and
residential area. Data collected from Noise level monitoring & Testing helps us
to understand trends and action can be taken to reduce noise pollution. Noise pollution
is Low or High frequencysound that can cause/harm the activityof human life. It can
be caused by various industrial Machines, Motor Vehicles and Craft etc.
4.8.4 Noise Measuring Instruments

The most common instruments used for measuring noise are the sound level meter
(SLM),the integrating sound level meter (ISLM), and the noise dosimeter. It is
important to understand the calibration, operation and reading the instrument before
use. The performance characteristicsofsound measurement instrumentsare quantified
by:
Frequency Response - Range of frequencies over which an instrument reproduces
thecorrect amplitudes of the variable being measured (within acceptable limits).
88
Typical Limits over a specified frequency range:
Microphones  2dB
Tape Recorders 1 or3 dB
Loudspeakers  5 dB
Dynamic Range - Amplitude ratio between the maximum input level and
theinstrument’s internal “noise floor” (or self noise).All measurements should be at
least 10 dB greater than the noise floor. The typical dynamic range of meters is 60
dB, more is better.
Response Time - The time interval required for an instrument to respond to a full
scaleinput, (limited typically by output devices like meters, plotters)
4.8.5 Sound Level Meter (SLM)

The SLM consists of a microphone, electronic circuits and a readout display.
Themicrophone detects the small air pressure variations associated with sound and
changesthem into electrical signals. These signals are then processed bythe electronic
circuitry ofthe instrument. The readout displays the sound level in decibels. The
SLM takes the soundpressure level at one instant in a particular location.The primary
tool for noise measurement is the Sound Level Meter (SLM). The compromises
with sound level meters are between accuracy, features and cost. The precision of a
meter is quantified by its type.
Type 0: Laboratory reference standard, intended entirely for calibration of other
sound level meters
Type 1: Precision sound level meter, intended for laboratory use or for field use
where the acoustical environment can be closely controlled.
Type 2: General purpose, intended for general field use and for recording noise level
data for later frequency analysis
Type 3: Surveymeter, intended for preliminaryinvestigationssuchas the determination
of whether noise environments are unduly bad.
4.8.6 Noise Dosimeter

A noise dosimeter is a small, light device that clips to a person’s belt with a small
microphonethat fastens to the person’s collar, close to an ear. The dosimeter stores
the noise levelinformation and carries out an averaging process. It is useful in industry
where noise usuallyvaries in duration and intensity, and where the person changes
locations.
4.8.7 Noise Monitoring System

Noise Monitoring System (NMS) is used formeasuring real time noise since large
number ofstations can be managed easilyusing this technology. NMSs are optimized
for outdoor usewith small, custom designed enclosure, and also designed for use in
all climatic environments. NMS consist of a weatherproof cabinet containing a noise
level analyzer and a battery, a communication device for transmittingdata to receiving
station, a backplate and an outdoor microphone (for measuring sound) all of which
can be mounted on a mast. Some of the features and particulars of NMS are
mentioned as follows: 89
Environmental Health  NMSs are modular both in hardware and software.
Monitoring
 The NMS has been specifically designed to operate unattended in in-
hospitableenvironments protecting the contents from weather, tampering,
vandalism etc. Therobust, durable, weatherproof cabinet includes a kit for
fastening the cabinet to a wallor pole.Protection is also provided for the cabling,
to reduce the risk of tampering oraccidental damage.
4.9 LET US SUM UP

One of the most important prerequisites to achieve the environmental sustainability
is to maintenance and improvement of soil quality.Soil organic matter is the key to
building and maintaining healthysoils because it has such great positive influences on
essentially all soil properties helping to grow healthier plants. It also plays a critical
role in the water, nitrogen, and carbon cycles. Organic matter consists mainly of the
living organisms in the soil (“the living”), the fresh residue (“the dead”), and the very
well decomposed (or burned) material (“the very dead”). Each of these types of
organic matter plays an important role in maintaining healthy soils. You have also
known about noise measurement instrument.
4.10 KEY WORDS

Fertilizer: Any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin that is
added to soil to supply certain elements essential to the growth of plants.
Manure: The excreta of animals, with or without the admixture of bedding or litter,
in varying stages of decomposition.
Organic matter: The organic fraction of the soil; includes plant and animal residues
at various stages of decomposition.
Soil: The unconsolidated material on the immediate surface of the earth that serves
as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.
Noise Monitoring System (NMS) is used formeasuring real time noise since
large number ofstations can be managed easily using this technology.

READINGS
Agarwal, S.K. (1997), Environmental Issues and Themes, New Delhi.
Dilip Kumar Das (1996) Introductory Soil Science, Kalyani Publication.
P.D. Sharma Environmental Science.
Kumar, H.D. (1997), Modern Concepts of Ecology, Vikas Publishing House, New
Delhi.

90  Definition
 Name of salts which responsible for salinity.
2. Your answer should include types of saline soil.
 An important propertyof soil organic matter is that it improves the capacity
of a soil to hold water and nutrients, and allows their slow release, thereby
improving the conditions for plant growth. Combining compost, plant or
animal materials/waste, or green manure with soil will increase the amount
of humus in the soil.
 The most common instruments used for measuring noise are the sound
level meter (SLM), the integrating sound level meter (ISLM), and the
noise dosimeter. It is important to understand the calibration, operation
and reading the instrument before use.
 Sound level meter (SLM)
 Noise dosimeter
 Noise Monitoring System (NMS) is used formeasuring real time noise
since large number of stations can be managed easilyusing this technology.
NMSs are optimized for outdoor use with small, custom designed
enclosure, and also designed for use in all climatic environments. NMS
consist of a weatherproof cabinet containing a noise level analyzer and a
battery, a communication device for transmitting data to receiving station,
a backplate and an outdoor microphone (for measuring sound) all of which
can be mounted on a mast.
91

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ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

1.11 Environmental Sustainability

l explain the environmental sustainability

1.3 EXPLORING LINKAGES BETWEEN

1.4 UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT

1.5 SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT

1.6.1 Chemical Composition

1.6.2 Layers of the Atmosphere

1.6.3 Functions of Atmosphere

1.8.1 The Crust

1.8.2 The Mantle

1.10 RAMIFICATIONS OF ANTHROPOCENE ON

1.10.1 The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental

1.10.2 Carrying Capacity

1.10.3 Loss of Ecosystem Services

1.10.4 Environment and Health

14 1.11 ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

1.12 LET US SUM UP 15

1.13 KEY WORDS

Climate Change : A change in weather over time and/or region; usually

Ecological Footprint : A measure of the area of biologically productive land

Ecosystem Services : The role played by organisms, without charge, in

Ecosystem : A region in which the organisms and the physical

Carrying Capacity : The maximum population that an ecosystem can

1.14 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

Asheim, G.B. (1994). Sustainability Ethical foundation and economic

Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (2010). Environmental Science: Earth as a

Cunningham, W.P., Cooper, T.H., Gorhani, E and Hepworth, M.T. (2001).

De, A.K. (2010). Environmental Chemistry. New Age International Publishers.

Miller, G.T. (2012). Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and

Spellman, F.R. and Stoudt, M.L. (2013). Environmental Sciences - Principles

Wright, R.T. and Nebel, B.J. (2002).Environmental Science: Toward a Sustainable

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. “Environ” which means “surrounding” or “to encircle”. Environment can be

Check Your Progress 2

1. There are four different segments of environment such as atmosphere,

2.3 Structure and Function of An Ecosystem

2.4 Energy Flow

2.8 Let Us Sum Up

2.2 ECOSYSTEM: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS

2.2.1 Definition and Concept of Ecosystem

2.2.2 Components of an Ecosystem

2.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF AN

1. Grass  Grasshopper  Frog  Snake  Hawk

3. Rose plant  Aphids  Beetle  Chameleon  Hawk 23

1. Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Small fish  Tuna

2. Phytoplanktons  Zooplanktons  Fish  Man

3. Grass  Rabbit  Fox  Tiger

1. Leaves or dead plants  Soil mites  Insects  Birds

2.3.3 Ecological Pyramids

2.4 ENERGY FLOW

2.5 ECOLOGICAL BALANCE

2.6 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

(a) Primary Succession: It is the series of community changes that occur on an

(b) Secondary Succession: It is the series of community changes, which take

Notes: (a) Write your answers in bout 50 words.

2.7 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

This type of recycling process benefits the environment in two ways.

i. It reduces the accumulation of waste that can cause pollution

1. Evapotranspiration: The water evaporates and returns to the earth by

2.7.2 Carbon Cycle