GLOBAL GOVERNANCE
SYSTEM
TCW
(BS Psychology) (1D) | SEM 1 2022
INTRODUCTION
● Anarchy, Nation-state, Sovereignty
○ The global system is anarchic, and
this necessitates global governance to
maintain international peace and
security.
● United Nations
○ The primary venue and formal
arrangement for global governance
involving states and non-state actors
● In the absence of a global government, global
governance is defined as “the formal and
informal arrangements that produce a degree
of order and collective action above the state
in the absence of a global government” that
involve coordination among state and
non-state actors (Young, 1999:2). And States
adhering to global rules despite the lack of a
world authority creates an appearance of
world order. Global governance refers to these
interacting processes.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
● United Nations, IMF and World Bank are
usually referred as International Organization
and sometimes INGOs (International
Non-governmental Organizations)
● International Organizations is commonly used
to refer to international intergovernmental
organizations or groups that are primarily
made up of member states
● Fallacy about International Organizations
○ They are merely a mixture of various
state interests.
○ IOs can take on lives of their own -
For example, IMF was able to promote
a particular form of economic
orthodoxy that stemmed mainly from
the beliefs of its professional
economists (John Maynard Keynes,
Milton Friedman, Friedrich Hayek)
● Michael M. Barnett and Martha Finnemore
on powers of IOs:
1. IOs have the power of classification -
create powerful global standards.
2. IOs have the power to fix meanings -
meanings they create have effects
on policies.
3. IOs have the power to diffuse norms
UNITED NATIONS
AND GLOBAL INTERSTATE
The United Nations (UN) serves as the primary
organization for international cooperation and security.
● The only IO that can authorize the use of force
against an aggressor
● Primary concern is collective military security
through the facilitation of peaceful settlement
disputes among member-states or by
commanding allegiance of the entire UN
membership; sanctions
● Whose objective is to ensure peace and order
by which it can be a conflict actor in itself or an
instrument for action driven by the interests of
the particular states
● Being emphasized as a membership-directed
organization and the members are all states.
● San Francisco Conference - Representatives
of 50 countries convene at the United Nations
Conference on International Organization, to
draw up the United Nations Charter
UNITED NATIONS CHARTER OF 1945
SIX PRINCIPAL ORGANS:
1. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
(ECOSOC) - Primary objective is to advance
the economic, social and environmental
dimensions of sustainable development.
○ Serves as a gateway of the UN’s
partnership with the rest of the world.
○ Composed of 54 elected members by
the GA for overlapping three-year
terms.
○ The IMF and WB issue yearly reports
to the ECOSOC.
2. THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL - established
as a main organ of the UN (Chapter XIII) to
provide international supervision of Trust
Territories that are under the administration of
seven member-states, to ensure that adequate
steps are being made to prepare the peoples
of Trust Territories for self-governance. 11
Trust Territories achieved independence in
1994.
Trust Territories That Have Achieved
Independence:
○ Three types of countries became part
of the UN's trusteeship system:
○ (1) territories still administered by a
nation under a League of Nations
mandate,
○ (2) territories detached from enemy
states as a result of the Second World
War, and
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GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND GLOBAL INTERSTATE
SYSTEM
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○ (3) territories voluntarily placed under organs. At its head is the Secretary-General,
the system by states responsible for who provides overall administrative guidance.
their administration
■ Western Samoa (New
CHALLENGES OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Zealand)
■ Tanganyika (United ● Limits placed upon its various organs and
Kingdom) programs by the need to respect state
■ Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium) sovereignty (functions because of voluntary
■ Cameroons under British cooperation from states)
administration ● Issue of security (SC as tasked with
■ Cameroons under French authorizing international acts of military
administration intervention but because of 5Ps power to veto
■ New Guinea (Australia) any decisions of UN, it cannot function
■ Nauru (Australia) properly on its own - UN ineffectual)
■ Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands (United States)
■ Italian Somaliland REFORMING THE UNITED NATIONS
3. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE ● 1963 - UNGA voted for the expansion of the
- UN’s principal judicial organ. Its role is to UNSC from 11 to 15 member states
settle legal disputes between states ● Gould and Rablen (2017) state two distinct
(contentious cases) and to provide advisory sets of criticisms relating to the efficiency of
opinions on legal questions referred by the UN the council and the degree of equity regarding
organs and specialized agencies, in power allocation:
accordance to international law (advisory ○ For the inequity in the country level,
proceedings) the problem lies in overrepresentation
4. SECURITY COUNCIL (SC) - most potent of the PM countries.
organ with the power to make legally binding ○ In the regional level, there is lack of
resolutions. It comprises the strongest military representation for Asia and Africa
states and is a concrete manifestation of the while Eastern and Western Europe are
reality of power dynamics. The council is overrepresented - an overt
composed of 15 members, among them would manifestation of the North and South
be the five states which are granted divide.
permanent seats by the UN Charter.
○ Mandated to act on behalf of the entire
UN body to fulfill its primary
responsibility for maintaining
international peace and security
○ Functions may include: investigating
any situation that has the potential of
creating international tensions; call for
military action towards an aggressor or
threat; impose economic sanctions
and other measures; determine the
existence of a breach of peace and
actions to be pursued.
5. GENERAL ASSEMBLY (GA) - the only UN
organ with universal representation, with all
193 member states represented in the body.
The GA decides on essential questions with a
simple majority, while concerns related to
peace and security, budgetary matters, and
new membership admissions require a
two-thirds majority.
6. THE SECRETARIAT - carries out the
substantive and administrative work of the
United Nations as directed by the General
Assembly, the Security Council and the other

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GLOBAL DIVIDES: NORTH AND SOUTH AND ASIAN REGIONALISM
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(BS Psychology) (1D) | SEM 1 2022
INTRODUCTION
● Developmental patterns, wealth distribution,
and emerging economic situation are primary
considerations when attempting to
comprehend the concepts underlying the
Global North-South divide. However, cultural
and historical dimensions also contributed.
● The division is more than just geographical,
because not all states found north of the
equator belong to the Global North, and not all
states found south of the equator belong to the
Global South.
● UNDP’s Human Development Index - used to
differentiate in one attempt to produce an
objective classification.
● Global North consists of 64 countries with a
high HDI
● Global South consists of the remaining 133
countries.
● Rigg (2007) - states that this is not a strict
geographical categorization of the world, but
rather one based on economic inequalities
● He also emphasizes that rather than existing
as separate parts of the world, the North and
South are drawn together into global
processes.
● To be specific, the Global North includes
Australia, Canada, Israel, Hong Kong, Macau,
New Zealand, Japan, Singapore, South Korea,
Taiwan, the United States, and all of Europe
(including Russia). Asia (excluding Japan,
Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, South Korea,
and Taiwan) is included in the Global South,
as are Central America, South America,
Mexico, Africa, and the Middle East (with the
exception of Israel).
THE GLOBAL NORTH
● World’s More Economically Developed
Countries (MEDCs) could be found in the
north. Canada, the United States, Greenland,
and Russia are among the countries on the
northern side.
● They are regarded as the “richer” and more
stable nations.
Why are the countries in the North considered MEDC?
● Due to the stability of their economies and the
changes that are taking place within them.
● MEDC countries generally have a higher
standard of living and a higher quality of life.
● Aspects that may indicate this include:
country’s life expectancy, education levels,
availability of doctors (medicine), and the level
of technological development. Another factor
is the distribution of education and health care.
THE GLOBAL SOUTH
● The region south of the North-South Divide is
known as the South/developing, or “poor side”
● They are known as developing countries
because their GDP, HDI, and overall standard
of living are considered lower than that of
countries in the “North”
● Refers to countries that face social, political,
and economic challenges such as poverty,
environmental degradation, human and civil
rights violations, ethnic and regional conflicts,
mass refugee displacements, hunger, and
disease.
● Somalia, Vietnam, Haiti, and India are a few
examples of these countries.
Why are the countries in the South considered
LEDCs?
● Unstable government and a poor economy.
Furthermore, citizens have a low standard of
living and a low quality of life.
● Countries in this region may have a low Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and a low Human
Development Index (HDI).
● Some LEDCs have skewed HDIs due to their
relatively high GDP and exceptionally low
standard of living.
Why is the South at such a disadvantage?
● One factor that stands out is colonization.
Majority of the countries designated as
MEDCs were imperialists at some point in
history. As a result, most underdeveloped
countries have remained underdeveloped.
● However, the United States, a former British
colony, is an exception because it has grown
to become the world’s most powerful country.
FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD WORLDS
● The phrase “Global North-Global South” first
appeared in 1996. However, since the Cold
War’s end, many commentators have used the
North-South label to distinguish between
wealthy, developed countries primarily located
in the northern hemisphere (the North) and
poorer, developing countries primarily, located
in the southern hemisphere (the South)
● The term was also derived from the
categorization, which primarily included the
distinctions between the First, Second, and
Third World.
● First World - This was largely influenced by
the Cold War era between the United States
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and the Soviet Union. This was conveniently
based on political ideologies and alliances with
the United States and much of the Western
world, which preached for Democracy and
Capitalism
● Second World - The Communist bloc, led by
the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics) / Russia, China, and other states
that adhered to Marxist principles
● Third World - refers to non-aligned states,
underdeveloped nations, and countries with
unstable political and economic conditions.
○ The term "Third World" was coined in
1952 by French scholar Alfred Sauvy
to distinguish the formerly colonized
and currently neocolonized societies
of Asia, Africa, and Latin America from
the modernized "first" world of
capitalism and the modernizing
"second" world of socialism.
○ "Third World" would become a
central political slogan for the radical
left by the 1960s. The term's origins
suggested that societies in the Third
World embarking on the long path to
modernity had two options: capitalist
or socialist. Dirlick (2007)
● In effect, states hoping to navigate between
the two poles of the Cold War coined the term
"Third World," which gave birth to the
Non-Aligned Movement. These countries
were generally less developed economically
than their counterparts in the First and
Second Worlds.
● As Riggs (2007) pointed out, there are several
interchangeable terms that characterize the
Third World, including the Less-developed
World, the Non-Western World, the Poor
World, and the Undeveloped World, all of
which are tinged with economic insecurity and
a lack of development.
● The underdevelopment can be traced back to
historical events that led to Colonial patterns of
exploitation of the Developed World in the 15th
- 18th centuries,and modern clouts of Neo
Capitalism, in which much of the Third World
serves as “ready and willing markets to the
delight of First World producer states.
● “Developing World” - used to refer to states
that were previously classified as Third World
but found themselves with the need and
means to deal with economic realities as the
Cold War ended. It became popular in the
1980s.
● Many Third World countries were challenged
to ensure that national development spurred
by Globalization and greater economic
integration could be realized.
● As a result, the term “developing states”
came to be associated with the
industrialization efforts of many Asian
Countries - formerly “Asian Tigers” or NICs
(Newly Industrialized Countries) such as
Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South
Korea.
● Brandt report - issued in 1983 by a
commission chaired by former German
Chancellor Willy Brandt.
● This report discovered a North/South line (or
Brandt line) and popularized another term,
“The South.”
● “The South” - a geographical convenience
because the majority of the Poor World is
located south of latitude 30º North. Exceptions
were: Australia and New Zealand.
● Critics objected to the fact that it once again
obscured the political and economic processes
and historical legacies that had rendered these
southern countries impoverished in the first
place.
FLASHPOINTS AND PERSPECTIVES OF THE
DIVIDE
● “Global South” - used to refer collectively to
underdeveloped countries as they gain
visibility.
● Many Globalization scholars and writers
regard it as ambiguous because it employs
simple geographical criteria to describe a
complex social situation that distinguishes
poor countries from the wealthiest.
● It should be obvious that the implied
North-South divide has never been as
geographically fixed as the labels suggest.
○ Australia and New Zealand, for
example, have long been regarded as
southern outliers of the North.
● The Global South includes some of the world's
wealthiest countries (those with a high GDP
per capita). Nonetheless, the model is still
based solely on a "latitudinal" division.
● The South was once with starvation,
malnutrition, poverty, epidemics, low
educational levels, political authoritarianism,
and dictatorships. However, many South
American countries, specifically in Latin
America and Asia, contribute a large number
of well-educated, competent professionals to
the global labor force.
● Guttal (2016) - Inequality and inequity
continue to be inherent and almost
foundational features of the North-South
divide.
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○ It exists as a distinguishing set of
factors prompting many to refer to
conditions of wealth, power, poverty,
and inequality.
○ While such theorizing may seek to
challenge the traditional global
North-South divide, it still employs the
labels of North and South to denote
conditions that are similar to those in
the original conceptualization.
○ Despite improvements in
social-economic indicators and
increases in wealth accumulation and
capital and investment flows among
many South Asian countries,
significant differences in living
conditions, consumption levels and
patterns, social and economic
structures, access to services and
resources, and political power in
supranational global governance
remain.
○ Despite efforts by developing
countries to gain greater power, the
North continues to dominate global
economic and financial governance
systems and institutions.
● Magallanes (2012) - the term “Global South”
is historical and decontextualized. It omits a
critical core of dynamic variables that
characterize various types of countries,
including historical, economic, social, cultural,
and political variables. These factors may
explain the reality of these countries as a
result of a societal process, as well as the
nature and origin of their differences.
○ It is critical to examine the historical,
political, and even cultural contexts of
these countries to understand why
they are considered poor.
○ It should also be noted that the term
Global South has shed the negative
political and economic labeling that
Third World had previously, as it is
widely perceived to be more apolitical.
● Dirlick (2007) - Given the rapidly changing
patterns of development, massive
technological revolution, ease of travel and
migration, and interconnectedness of
commerce and trade brought about by trade
liberalization, the terms may change quickly,
particularly with regard to the states or
countries categorized under it.
○ The uneven development of the
Global South has complicated the
geography of the term to the point
where it may have become an
impediment to understanding the
current global situation. Some of the
societies covered by the term have
benefited from globalization to become
more assertive in global relations.
● Mendez (2015) - It is also clear that the Global
South is on an unprecedented upward
trajectory. The combined output of the
developing world's three leading economies
(Brazil, China, and India) approaches that of
the long-standing industrial powers of the
North - Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the
United Kingdom, and the United States.
○ Smaller countries such as
Bangladesh, Chile, Ghana, Mauritius,
Rwanda, and Tunisia are undergoing
rapid economic development.
According to the 2013 UNDP Human
Development Report, developing
countries will house 80% of the world's
middle-class population by 2030.
○ There is an ongoing global
transformation known as "South-South
cooperation." South-South
cooperation is now playing an
important role in the evolving theory
and discourse of development.
Originally linked to developing
countries' responses to the Cold War's
destabilizing politics, South-South
cooperation gave voice to aspirations
for a development path free of
ideological conflict, as well as
recognition that relations between
developing countries should be a
critical means of achieving these
aspirations. This clears the way for
states that are deemed to be in the
same position to emerge from the
label "South" and aspire to become a
part of the "North." As a result, states
that were previously labeled as part of
the Global South may, depending on
their future socioeconomic status,
become included as part of the Global
North.
● Jean Grugel (1990) - Identified three factors
that influence the economic development of
states in the Global South. These are:
(1) Elite behavior within and between
nation states,
(2) Integration and cooperation within
'geographic areas,
(3) The resulting position of states and
regions within the global world market,
as well as the related political
economic hierarchy.
● The important thing to remember is that the
divide, like any other global phenomenon, is
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never static, especially when factors such as
technology, migration, increasing levels of
literacy, employment, GDP growth, and
currency valuation rise into play. Indeed, with
the onslaught of global economic integration, it
is becoming increasingly difficult to make an
outright categorization that is truly acceptable.
BRICS
● Good example of the divide being never static
● Refers to a grouping of five major emerging
economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and
South Africa.
● Prior to the inclusion of South Africa in 2010,
the first four were referred to as "BRIC" (or
"the BRICS"). The BRICS members are
well-known for their significant influence on
regional affairs, and they are all G20
members.
● BIC > BRIC > BRICS
The Global South and Global North represent an
updated perspective on the post-1991 world,
distinguishing not between political systems or levels
of poverty, but between global capitalism's victims and
benefactors.
Many economists believe that international free trade
and unrestricted capital flows across countries will
result in a narrowing of the Global North-South divide,
which will undoubtedly catapult development in the
South. After all, globalization is not simply a process
that can be described in a single construct.
● Robertson (1993) - The improvement in
economic interdependence will contribute to
the further "shrinking" of the world and is
expected to shake up the volatile Global North
- South divide even more.
● Through its Millennium Development Goals for
Sustainable Development, the United Nations
has created a program dedicated to closing
the gap. Improving education and health care,
promoting gender equality, and ensuring
environmental sustainability are all part of this.
● The IMF, World Bank, and other progressive
Northern countries have embarked on
development initiatives such as providing
loans and grants to Global South countries in
order for these nation states to achieve
long-term development.
ASIAN REGIONALISM
INTRODUCTION
● The growing demand for economic integration,
fueled largely by the rapid but steady
onslaught of globalization, the threat of
terrorism, the spread of diseases, massive
technological innovations, and geopolitical
uncertainities are just a few of the realities that
nation states must deal with.
● These perceived opportunities, threats, and
challenges cause nation states to unite and
form ties and alliances based on solid legal
frameworks
● The adage “there is strength in numbers”
bodes well for countries that choose to join
organizations that they believe will help and
support their national interests whether in
economic, military, political, or cultural
contexts.
● The rationale for regionalism is that regional
organizations are treaty and charter-based,
giving them formal status in international law.
● According to Acharya (2009), Regional
organizations gain legitimacy through the
articulation and implementation of distinct
regional norms and practices.
○ The Arab League, for example,
derives legitimacy from its “Arabness,”
which draws on a rich common culture
and history;
○ Southeast Asian states are known for
their articulation of what has been
dubbed the ASEAN way, a
consensus-based approach based on
strict observance of sovereignty
○ In light of paradigm shifts, the ASEAN
way has evolved into the ‘Asian Way,’
encompassing a broader and still
evolving concept of East Asian
regionalism.
● In the context of International Relations,
regionalism is the manifestation or expression
of a shared sense of cultural identity and
purpose, combined with the establishment and
operation of institutions that express a specific
identity and shape collective action within a
geographical region.
● Most long-lasting regional blocs, such as the
E.U. and ASEAN, were formed out of a shared
commonality and unity of aspiration.
● It should be noted, however, that the majority
of regional organizations established,
particularly after WWII, are fundamentally
based on economic integration.
● Economic regionalism - refers to institutional
agreements designed to facilitate the free flow
of goods and services as well as to coordinate
foreign economic policies among countries in
the same geographic region or close proximity.
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● Economic regionalism is a deliberate
attempt to manage the opportunities and
constraints created by the dramatic increase in
international economic ties in order to foster
economic growth and prosperity among its
member states.
● Fawcett (2012) - Free trade zones, customs
unions, common markets, and economic
unions are all examples of economic
regionalism.
REGIONALISM IN ASIA
● A great deal has been said about Asia,
including its enormous size, population,
resources, and ability to influence the global
political and economic environment.
● In fact, the center of economic, political, and
security activities in the world has migrated to
Asia.
● The Asian Development Bank went so far as
to claim that the region’s economy is already
comparable in size to those of Europe and
North America, and that its global impact is
growing.
● Asia is now so vital to the global economy, it
must play a larger role in global economic
leadership, so goes the argument.
● In light of this, the need for regional economic
operation is crucial for resolving these
obstacles.
● This is partly due to Asia’s tremendous
economic expansion during the previous three
decades, driven by Japan, China, and South
Korea.
2018 ECONOMIC OUTLOOK
ASIA PACIFIC ECONOMIES
China - 6.5% Thailand - 3.8%
Asian integration can lead to the following
outcomes:
India - 7.3% Indonesia - 5.3%
Malaysia - 5.2% Australia - 2.8%
Korea - 3.0% New Zealand - 2.9%
Taiwan - 2.4%
● Highlights:
○ ASIA (ex-Japan) to see 5.9 growth in
2018
○ China: Economic growth to continue
its slow-but-steady transition towards
an economic model based on services
and consumption
○ Korea: Increased government
spending, a healthy global economy
and a boost from the PyeongChang
Winter Olympics are expected to
support the economy this year.
● The region is home to more than half the
world’s population, generates three-tenths of
global output (in terms of purchasing power),
and consistently has the highest economic
growth rates in the world.
● The Asian”miracle,” as many refer to the rapid
economic transformation of the 1980s, did not
end with the 1997/98 financial crisis; for some
countries, it signaled the start of renewed
acceleration.
● The presence of regional order in the Asian
region is fueled by the existence of patterns of
similarity that are too strong to ignore.
● Its strength stems from the
interconnectedness, diversity, and
dynamism of its economies. Cultural ties
based primarily on language and religion are
also strong arguments for greater regional
cooperation.
● Should Asia stick to its established
regional pattern? or Is more integration
required? Yes. A more dynamic and
outward-looking Asian regionalism could bring
enormous benefits not only to Asia, but also to
the rest of the world. It has the potential to
help the region’s growth, stability, and-with the
right policies- reduce inequality and address
the perennial problem of poverty.
ASIAN REGIONALISM IMPERATIVE
● Primary advantages and benefits of Asian
regionalism.
○ The ADB Paper on Emerging Asian
Nationalism outlines some of the most
important considerations for Asian
regionalism.
This analysis divides them into four
major categories:
(1) trade, investment, and “real” economic activity
integration
(2) financial integration
(3) macroeconomic policy links
(4) shared social and environmental concerns
1. Create productivity gains, new ideas, and
competition that boost global economic growth
and incomes.
2. Contribute to the efficiency and stability of
global financial markets by strengthening and
securing Asian capital markets and
maximizing the productive use of Asian
savings
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3. Diversify global demand sources, thereby
helping to stabilize the global economy and
reducing the risks posed by global imbalances
and downturns in other major economies.
4. Assist in the maintenance of open global trade
and financial systems.
5. Establish regional mechanisms to better
manage health, safety, and environmental
issues, thereby contributing to more effective
global solutions to these issues.
6. The assumption is that as long as Asian
regionalism maintains its dynamism, it will be
able to expand its role in the changing global
economic and political landscape.
7. However, what distinguishes Asian
regionalism is its openness and
accommodating nature. It should be noted that
countries formed preferential trade blocs in the
1930s in an attempt to protect their economies
from the Great Depression.
8. Several countries formed discriminatory
currency blocs, imposing strict exchange
controls on outsiders.
9. However, the consequences were disastrous:
these arrangements caused the collapse of
international trade and financial flows,
hastening the economic downturn.
10. This experience preoccupied the architects of
the postwar global economic system, who
made nondiscrimination a central pillar of the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT), the forerunner of the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
11. Many economists and policymakers are
skeptical of regionalism because it has the
potential to harm the multilateral trade and
financial system
12. One feature that distinguishes Asian
regionalism is its disregard for protectionist
blocs
13. The growing economic interdependence of
Asia provides numerous opportunities for
collaboration.
REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN ASIA
1. ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian
Nations)
2. APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation)
3. APT (ASEAN Plus Three)
4. EAS (East Asian Summit)
5. APC (Asia Pacific Community, (with a small
“c”)
6. EAC (East Asian Community) clog discussions
about Asia’s present and future regional
architecture. Acharva (2010)
The most compelling argument, however, is whether
these institutions are merely talk shops or genuine
forces for stability and security.
I. ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN
NATIONS
● Association of Southeast Asian Nations
● regional grouping of nation states primarily
located in Southeast Asia
● regional intergovernmental organization made
up of ten Southeast Asian countries that seek
to promote intergovernmental cooperation and
facilitate economic, political, security, military,
educational, and socio-cultural integration
among its members, other Asian countries,
and the rest of the world
● Founding Fathers of ASEAN: Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand.
○ Signed the ASEAN Declaration
(Bangkok TEW Declaration on August
8, 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand
● Brunei Darussalam joined on January 7,
1984. Followed by Viet Nam on July 28 1995,
Lao PDR and Myanmar on July 23, 1997, and
Cambodia on April 30, 1999, forming what is
now ASEAN’s ten member states.
GOALS
1. To accelerate economic growth, social
progress, and cultural development in the
region through collaborative efforts in the spirit
of equality and partnership in order to
strengthen the foundation for a prosperous
and peaceful Southeast Asian community.
2. To promote regional peace and stability by
upholding justice and the rule of law in the
region's relationships and adhering to the
principles of the United Nations Charter;
3. Encourage active collaboration and mutual
assistance on issues of mutual interest in the
economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific,
and administrative fields;
4. To assist one another by providing training and
research facilities in education. professional,
technical, and administrative spheres;
5. To work more effectively together to improve
the utilization of their agriculture and
industries, the expansion of their trade,
including the study of international commodity
trade problems, the improvement of their
transportation band and communications
facilities, and the raising of their peoples' living
standards;
6. To maintain close and mutually beneficial
cooperation with existing international and
regional organizations with similar goals and
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objectives, and to explore all possibilities for
even closer cooperation among themselves.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
The ASEAN Member States must adhere to the
following fundamental principles in their interactions
with one another, as outlined in the 1976 Treaty of
Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC):
1. Mutual respect for all nations’ independence,
sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and
national identity;
2. The right of every State to live its national
existence free of external interference,
subversion, or coercion;
3. Non-interference in one another’s internal
affairs;
4. Peaceful resolution of differences or disputes;
5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force;
6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
ASEAN COMMUNITY
● The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by ASEAN
Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN,
agreed on a shared vision of ASEAN as an
outward-looking community of Southeast
Asian nations living in peace, stability, and
prosperity, bonded together in partnership in
dynamic development, and in a community of
caring societies
● ASEAN has a land area of 4.4 million square
kilometers, accounting for approximately 3% of
the total land area of the Earth. ASEAN’s
territorial waters are roughly three times larger
than its land counterpart, making it especially
important in terms of sea lanes and fisheries.
● Member countries have a combined
population of approximately 640 million
people, accounting for 8.8% of the world’s
population, more than the EU28, though
slightly smaller in terms of land. The
organization’s combined nominal GDP had
risen to more than USD $2.8 trillion in 2015
● Being a global superpower ASEAN is
well-known for its diverse range of instruments
and treaties that promote cooperation,
recognition, and unity on a variety of levels,
including internally, regionally, and
internationally.
● Today, the ASEAN Summit is a major regional
(Asian) and international (global) conference,
with world leaders attending related summits
and meetings to discuss various problems and
global issues, strengthen cooperation, and
make decisions. World leaders have praised
the summit for its success and ability to
produce global results.
● It should also be noted that ASEAN has
established itself as the central platform for
Asian integrations and cooperation, working
with other Asian countries to promote the
region's unity, prosperity, development, and
sustainability, as well as working on solutions
to regional disputes and problems.
● While focusing primarily on Asia-Pacific,
ASEAN maintained communications with
other parts of the world in order to better
promote global peace and stability. The
organization has a global reputation for
promoting goodwill and diplomacy among
countries, rejecting any biased opinion or
decision, and upholding the principles of
non-interference and mutual respect.
II. ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC
COOPERATION
● Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is
a regional economic cooperation in 1989 to
capitalize on Asia's growing interdependence.
● The 21 members of APEC seek to increase
regional prosperity by promoting balanced,
inclusive, sustainable, innovative, and secure
growth and by accelerating regional economic
integration. APEC ensures that goods,
services, investment, and people can cross
borders freely.
● Members facilitate this trade by facilitating
faster border customs procedures, improving
business climates behind the border, and
aligning regulations and standards across the
region.
● APEC's initiatives to synchronize regulatory
systems, for example, are an important step
toward integrating the Asia-Pacific economy.
With just one set of common standards across
all economies, a product can be exported
more easily.
● APEC works to ensure that all Asia-Pacific
residents can participate in the region's
growing economy.
● Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile,
People's Republic of China Hong Kong, China,
Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea,
Peru, The Philippines, The Russian Federation,
Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, United
States of America, and Vietnam are among the
21 member economies of APEC.
● APEC is a multilateral, cooperative economic
and trade forum.
● Member economies participate on the basis of
open dialogue and respect for all participants'
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points of view. All economies have an equal
say in APEC, and decisions are made by
consensus.
● There are no treaty obligations or binding
commitments. Commitments are made
voluntarily, and capacity building projects
assist members in implementing APEC
initiatives.
III. EAST ASIAN SUMMIT
● The East Asia Summit is a one-of-a-kind
Leaders-led forum of 18 Asia-Pacific countries
formed to advance the goals of regional
peace, security, and prosperity.
● It has evolved into a forum for strategic
dialogue and cooperation on common regional
political, security, and economic issues, and it
plays an important role in regional
architecture.
● EAS, which was established in 2005, allows
the major players in the Asia-Pacific region to
discuss issues of mutual interest and concern
at the highest level in an open and transparent
manner.
● The EAS membership includes ten ASEAN
member countries (Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines,
and Vietnam), Australia, China, India, Japan,
New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, the
Russian Federation, and the United States.
● EAS is an ASEAN initiative based on the
premise of ASEAN's centrality.
ASIAN REGIONALIST ISSUES AND CONCERNS
● The concept of an East Asia Grouping was first
proposed by Malaysian Prime Minister
Mahathir bin Mohamad in 1991
● The East Asian Study Group, established by
the ASEAN+3 countries (China, Japan, and the
Republic of Korea) in 2002, recommended EAS
as an ASEAN-lead development limited to the
ASEAN+3 countries. However, on July 26,
2005, the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM) in
Vientiane welcomed the participation of
ASEAN, China, Japan, Republic of Korea,
Australia, India, and New Zealand in the first
EAS
● On November 19, 2011, the United States and
the Russian Federation were formally admitted
as members of the EAS at the 6th EAS in Bali,
Indonesia.
IV. APT ASEAN PLUS THREE
● ASEAN+3 cooperation began in December
1997 and was formalized in 1999 with the
Leaders issuing a Joint Statement on East
Asian Cooperation at their Third ASEAN+3
Summit in Manila.
● The leaders of ASEAN+3 expressed greater
resolve and confidence in further
strengthening and deepening East Asian
cooperation at various levels and in various
areas, such as energy, transportation, and
information and communications technology
(ICT)
● ASEAN agreed to strengthen its partnership
with the People’s Republic of China, Korea, and
Japan to address mutual issues and concerns
in energy security, natural gas development, oil
market studies, oil stockpiling, and renewable
energy.
● ASEAN Plus Three (APT) is a forum that
serves as a coordinator of cooperation
between the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations and the three East Asian nations of
China, Japan, and South Korea.
● Government leaders, ministers, and senior
officials from ASEAN’s ten members and the
three Northeast Asian states consult on a
growing number of issues.
● The APT is the most recent example of East
Asian regional cooperation (www.asean.org).
● Asia’s promising economic prospects create
an enabling environment for regional
cooperation.
● However, establishing an Asian economic
community takes time, and the economic
climate cannot be expected to remain
consistently favorable. Some dangers are well
known.
● Asia relies on global demand and financial
stability, which could be jeopardized by a
worsening credit crisis, a falling dollar, a
sudden unwinding of current account
imbalances, and/or rapidly rising energy, food,
and other commodity prices.
● Other shocks, such as the negative effects of
global warming, may become more severe
over time.
● After a long period of economic expansion (in
some countries, nearly two decades), there will
inevitably be financial reversals and economic
slowdowns in Asia due to business cycles,
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whether they originate in the region or
elsewhere, as well as longer-term challenges
such as excess savings and population aging
(ADB Emerging Asian Nationalism, 2012)
● New health or security threats may make the
movement of people and goods more difficult
and costly.
● Environmental damage may force drastic
changes in economic policies
● Social unrest may cause tensions and
uncertainty, impeding economic progress
● Regional cooperation is a type of insurance in
some ways (ADB Emerging Asian Nationalism,
2012)
It is also important to highlight some of the common
criticisms leveled at Asian regionalism
● First, they have not played a role in major and
long-standing regional conflicts, particularly
those that are Cold War hangovers, such as
the PRC-Taiwan conflict, or those between
North and South Korea, or India and Pakistan
● Second, relates to their failure to use available
conflict prevention and resolution tools. For
examples, the ASEAN Regional Forum has not
progressed from a confidence-building to a
preventive diplomacy mode, as was clearly
intended when it was established in 1994
● Third, failure of regional trust-building,
ostensibly brought about by regional
organizations such as ASEAN, is reflected in
the emergence of what appears to be a
significant arms race across the region
● Four, there has been no regional free-trade
zone under the auspices of APEC, which was
created in part with that goal in mind. Instead,
bilateral trade agreements have thrived,
undermining the case for larger regional
agreements.
● Fifth, despite the fact that natural disasters
strike the region on a regular basis, there is no
permanent regional humanitarian and disaster
assistance mechanism in place, despite
periodic attempts to establish one.
Transnational threats such as illegal migration,
terrorism, and pandemics are still dealth with
ad hoc or bilaterally, with little multilateral
action.
● Finally, when it comes to human rights and
social issues, Asia continues to lag behind
other regions, including Africa and Latin
America, not to mention Europe, in terms of
developing regional human rights promotion
and protection mechanisms.
● By adopting an ASEAN Charter, ASEAN has
taken an important first step in this direction,
but it remains to be seen whether ASEAN
members can and will accept the challenge of
complying with the obligations of ASEAN’s
numerous treaties and agreements. The ARF,
APEC, ASEAN-Plus-Three, and the fledgling
East Asian Summit could all benefit from
greater institutionalization and fostering a
culture of treaty observance.
● Finally, Asian regional institutions should
broaden their focus to include transnational
issues, and move beyond being consultation
and dialogue forums to become
problem-solving instruments. They should
develop collective mechanisms for disaster
management, peacekeeping, and human
rights and environmental protection without
going as far as NATO, the EU, or the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe (Lee, 2014)
ASIAN REGIONALISM AND THE PHILIPPINES
● The Philippines has always been an active
participant in regional blocs that have evolved
from the defunct South East Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) to the current regional
groupings, most notably ASEAN, APT, and
APEC.
● As enshrined in its Constitution, the
Philippines firmly believes in establishing close
ties with its neighbors and pursuing friendship,
amity, and cooperation.
● We remain committed to the ideals and vision
of One Asean and place great emphasis on the
principles of economic integration, regional
peace, and socio-cultural cooperation.
● The Philippines remains an important founding
member of ASEAN, having recently hosted
several summits.
● However, the issue of the oil PRC’s and several
ASEAN states’ long-standing claims to the
West Philippine Sea remains an important
point of contention. The current MA
administration, led by Pres. Rodrigo Duterte,
seeks a peaceful and cooperative resolution to
the Spratlys debacle by forging more
cooperative and open relationships with the
PRC.
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INTRODUCTION
● International mass media has boosted
globalization by fostering the flow of ideas,
culture, and information. Capitalism has
helped.
● Globalization of culture raises the question
whether mass media has been pluralistic and
neutral in promoting the flow of ideas or a tool
for Western dominance.
● Examines three important globalization
analytical views from international
communications
● Sreberny (1996) established three paradigms
that arose in three phases:
(1) Communication and Development -
sees media as tools for changing
values and attitudes in
underdeveloped countries.
(2) Cultural Imperialism - argues an
uneven relationship between the flow
of ‘hardware technology’ and media
and ‘software’ cultural products, which
contributes to poor countries’
dependence on developed countries
(Rantanen, 2005)
(3) Cultural Pluralism - more hopeful
about global media diversity, with a
variety of providers and localities
(Rantanen, 2005)
THE FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION: A PATH TO
MODERNIZATION
● Post-World War II period - rise of
Developmental models based on MASS
MEDIA and FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION,
particularly under the leadership of United
States
● Communication and Development model as
Modernization
● Modernization model (Communication and
Development model) argues that the lack of
modernization in the developing world is not
due to a lack of resources.
● The primary impediment to a country’s
development is a lack of human resources,
and education and mass media would be
tasked with the primary task of building human
capital
● Mass media to play critical roles in the
Development
● Wilbur Schramm (1964, as cited in Melkote &
Steeves, 2001), one of the paradigm’s
pioneering scholars, observed a positive
relationship between communication
components and those of social, political, and
economic components in national growth.
○ “The task of mass media of
information and “new media” of
education, is to speed and ease the
long, slow social transformation
required for economic development,
and , in particular, to speed and
smooth the task of mobilizing human
resources behind the national effort.
● David Lerner (1958) - proposed that
developing societies must follow the Western
concept of modernity in order to achieve
development.
○ He emphasized the importance of
empathy, stating that "the more people
are exposed to media, the greater
their capacity to imagine themselves
as strange persons in strange
situations, places, and times than
people in any previous historical
epoch".
○ He argued that the psychological
mechanism of empathy enables
people to mobilize efficiently in a
modern society that is participatory,
literate, and urban, as opposed to a
traditional society that is
non-participatory.
● Lerner (1958, as cited in Boadu, 1981) -
proposed that mass media can promote the
development of empathic skills. Media's
interactive and integrative capabilities, which
prevent societal disintegration, are critical to
the success of modernization efforts (Boadu,
1981). This perspective is consistent with:
● Benedict Anderson's (1983) thesis about
nations as imagined communities. He
emphasized the role of printed communication
and capitalism in instilling nationalism and a
sense of belonging among strangers by
forming imagined communities.
● Everett Rogers (1965-1966) - influenced by
Lerner's ideas, espouses the same paradigm
but advances a nuanced relationship by
treating mass media as a factor that
intervenes between the causes and
consequences of modernization. In his
theoretical model, socio economic
antecedents would determine the capacity of
mass media exposure to result in
modernization indicators, as shown in:
ANTECEDENTS PROCESS CONSEQUENCES
Functional Mass Empathy
literacy Media Agricultural and
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Education Exposure home
innovativeness
Social Status Political knowledge
Age Achievement
motivation
Cosmopoliteness Educational and
occupational
aspirations
● (Melkote & Steeves, 2001) - Modernization
researchers have identified a correlation
between the prevalence of mass media in
societies and the social, economic, and
political indicators of development. The
strength and power of mass media to impact
societies derives from its "one-way, top-down,
simultaneous, and widespread distribution"
and its ability to shape social processes,
construct meanings, identities, and ambitions
of a society
● (Fejes, 1981) - These theories had a
significant impact on the development
programs implemented by international
organizations like the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations
Development Program (UNDP), and the
United States Agency for International
Development (USAID). However, the media's
function as an intervenor and tool in the
modernization process has been hotly
questioned and debated.
● Curran and Park (2005) set out the criticisms
of the paradigm of how governments
embracing the Western model of
modernization used the media system to
maintain control over the populace rather than
to promote education for democracy. In
addition, they described how the national
development model was used to justify the
arbitrary use of political authority, political
indoctrination, and restrictions on freedom of
expression. In the context of non-Western and
emerging cultures, criticisms of the
modernization paradigm gained momentum
and impact by the end of the 1970s, calling
into question the paradigm's assumptions and
conceptualization. As a reaction of the
developing world to the destructive impacts of
US hegemony and liberal expansionism during
the Cold War, this period would be
characterized by a paradigm shift to cultural
imperialism.
DEMANDING A BALANCED INFORMATION
FLOW: A STRUGGLE AGAINST CULTURAL
IMPERIALISM
● In the backdrop of the Cold War,
decolonization, and post-colonization, the
cultural imperialism paradigm's influence
developed from the 1960s through the 1980s.
In the Non-Aligned Countries Declaration of
1979, also known as the Havana Declaration,
Third World countries declared their common
struggle against imperialism, colonialism,
neocolonialism, expansionism, racism,
including Zionism, apartheid, exploitation,
power politics, and all forms and
manifestations of foreign occupation,
dominance, and hegemony (as cited in
Osmaczyk, 2003)
● Under the guise of the free flow of information
and the freedom of expression, the movement
was also opposed to the disparate information
flows associated with unequal development. In
practice, it "meant "free-market" expression,
which meant that media owners had the
authority to control what was conveyed"
(Buchanan, 2014).
● Cultural imperialism theory - global
audiences are primarily exposed to media
messages originating from Western
industrialized nations (Kraidy, 2002).
● Herbert Schiller (1976), the most lucid and
influential theorist of the cultural imperialism
tradition (Sparks, 2012) - defines cultural
imperialism as: the concept of cultural
imperialism today best describes the sum of
processes by which a society is brought into
the modern world system and how its
dominant stratum is attracted, pressured, and
sometimes bribed into shaping social
institutions to correspond to, or even promote,
the values and structures of the dominant
culture.
● The theory above adopts a macro-perspective
on global power dynamics and fights between
state economic ties, focusing on the
concentration of control and resources at the
expense of the growth of the rest of the globe.
● Minor distinctions exist between the terms
"culture imperialism" and "media imperialism,"
but the majority of international communication
literature classifies the latter as a subset of the
former (Kraidy, 2002).
● Media imperialism is described as follows by
Boyd-Barret (1977):
○ The process through which the
ownership, structure, distribution, or
content of the media in any one
country is susceptible to strong
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external influences from the media
interests of any other country or
countries without proportional
influence reciprocation by the country
affected.
● According to the media imperialism paradigm,
current communication mediums are designed
to preserve and grow global reliance and
dominance (Fejes, 1981). It is in stark contrast
to the assumptions of the modernization
paradigm, which views communications media
as instruments of development. Together with
its variant conceptions of "culture dependency"
and "electronic colonialism"
● (Hesmondhalgh, 2005), cultural and media
imperialism views the media as a tool of major
powers that impedes steady development
between the developed and underdeveloped
worlds (Fejes, 1981).
● According to Hesmondhalgh (2005),
imperialism refers to the "creation of empires";
nevertheless, the word cultural imperialism
implies that, with the end of the era of direct
political and economic control by colonial
governments, a new form of indirect power
and concern has evolved. Cultural dominance
over less- developed nations would increase
post-colonial populations' demands for
Western lifestyles and products, paving the
path for the entry of Western-based
transnational companies that would then
control non-Western economies
● (Hesmondhalgh, 2005). He views media as
cultural industries from a political economy
perspective; those who own the capital and
infrastructure and exert political control
determine the messages produced and the
cultural products exported, which in turn
imposes the western socio-cultural norms and
values of liberalism and consumerist
capitalism on weaker and poorer states.
● Scholars view the Western dominance in news
broadcasting, particularly of international
agencies such as Reuters, AFP, UPI, and AP,
as a factor in the propagation of biased
images and prejudices of colonialism toward
the South, as well as the reduction of nations
to "places of corruption, coup, and disaster"
● (Matos, 2012, p. 3). The limited agencies that
serve as limited sources for international news
have been accused of contributing to the
homogenization of global culture, which favors
Western interests and values, and of
influencing national government perceptions
by bringing global issues to the local level and
vice versa (Matos, 2012).
● Richter (2016) cites Zenith Optimedia's yearly
global ranking of the world's largest media
corporations. Internet has displaced print
media as the second most significant
advertising medium, behind television. Five
digital businesses - Google, Facebook, Baidu,
Yahoo, and Microsoft - dominate 65 percent of
the overall online advertising industry and
account for more than one-third of the
revenues of the largest media owners listed in
the top 30.
● The contributions of media imperialism
scholars such as Schiller served as the basis
for an international campaign directed at the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to demand a
change in its communication policies in order
to balance the relationship between the Newly
developed and developing states (Sparks,
2012). During the 1970s and 1980s, the World
Information and Communication Order
(NWICO) was UNESCO's primary
preoccupation.
● During the Cold War, representatives from
developing nations that formed the
Non-Aligned Movement demanded significant
changes to the international communications
media in the current world order, which they
accused of "neocolonialism" and "cultural
imperialism" on the part of the West and its
transnational corporations (Buchanan, 2014).
● The NWICO movement was a collective
resistance to pressure UNESCO to change the
dynamics of news media that has been
dismissive of the needs and interests of the
less affluent world, to shift the "one-way flow"
of news, media, and cultural products between
the North and South to a "two-way flow"
(Buchanan, 2014).
● The political battle among developing nations
was first a struggle for a "New International
Information Order" and a comparable call for a
"New International Economic Order," which
represents the South's opposition to the
symbolic and economic impacts of imperialism
(Sparks, 2012).
● The NWICO campaign resulted in the report
Many Voices, One World by the MacBride
Commission (UNESCO, 1980), which included
suggestions to encourage media
independence, variety, and pluralism and to
enhance the national media of the South. The
purpose of the paper was to address the
issues of unequal access to and
communication flows caused by media
commercialization and consolidation. In
addition, significant nations such as the United
States and the United Kingdom resisted the
requests and withdrew from UNESCO, but
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later rejoined the organization (Buchanan,

2014).
● Sparks (2012) identifies the primary flaw of the
NWICO. The movement's critique of the
structural disparities resulting from power
struggles between the North and South, which
greatly restricted human contact, was
inconsistent. In addition, the movement was
contaminated by intentional political
partnerships with authoritarian authorities that
sought media regulation to repress and
muzzle the opposition. He stressed that "a
critical effort that acknowledged only those
abuses done by corporate and financial
interests while keeping oblivious to those of
oppressive nations could never hope to gain
theoretical acceptability" (p. 286).
● In addition, the paradigm of cultural
imperialism has been subject to numerous
challenges. Arguments against the thesis have
been focused at its theoretical consistency
(Tomlinson, 1999) - its ambiguity and breadth,
which raises the question of what really
constitutes cultural imperialism in unequal
cultural interactions between nations (Sparks,
2012). The paradigm has also been critiqued
for romanticizing the national as a worthy
agent of resistance while ignoring the fact that
the state can be just as oppressive and
homogenizing (via nationalism) to societies as
the global (Rantanen, 2005).
● In addition, Sengupta and Frith (1997)
emphasize the changing global structures of
the media and state that "the cultural
imperialism argument that is framed in terms
of 'centres' with power over disempowered
'peripheries' may need to be reevaluated as
the 'new' media penetrate slowly into
developing nations" (p. 14). Transnational
communication systems and new media have
afforded novel and inventive opportunities for
forming cultural groups' linkages and cohesion
(Ang 1990).
● This change has been evident in notable
historical events in which marginalized groups
utilized new media to instigate social change,
such as the Zapatista Uprising in 1994 against
the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) and the Battle of Seattle protests
during the World Trade Ministerial Conference
in 1999. Nonetheless, Sengupta and Frith
(1997) admit that the importance of television
as a socializing agent in Third World nations
cannot be disregarded

15