GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND INTERSTATE SYSTEMjjjjj various powers, as outlined by scholars Michael

N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore.

Introduction
● In an anarchic world, nation-states must impose
their sovereign power, including the use of
physical violence through military and police
apparatus, to maintain order within their
domain.
● The global system is also anarchic, requiring
global governance to ensure international peace
and security in the absence of a global
government.
● Global governance involves formal and informal
arrangements that produce order and collective
action beyond the state level, including
coordination among state and non-state actors.
● The absence of a global government means that
states are not accountable to a single
organization, and there is no entity capable of
militarily compelling states to obey global rules.
● Despite the lack of a world government, states
generally adhere to certain global norms and
exhibit regularity in their behavior, which
contributes to a semblance of world order.
● Sources of global governance include
state-signed treaties, international
organizations, international NGOs, transnational
corporations, and influential ideas that shape
international behavior.
● Intergovernmental organizations, such as the
United Nations, play a significant role in
articulating global governance and will be a
focal point of this lesson.
● IOs have the power of classification, allowing
them to create global standards and define
critical concepts, such as the UNHCR
determining who qualifies as a refugee.
● IOs also have the power to fix meanings,
providing well-defined interpretations of terms
like "security" or "development," which
influence policies.
● UN started to define “security” as not just safety
from military violence, but also safety from
environmental harm
● IOs possess the power to diffuse norms,
spreading accepted codes of conduct that shape
behavior worldwide. Their experts help
establish norms in specific fields.
● The influence of IOs can lead to both positive
and negative outcomes, promoting norms like
environmental protection and human rights, but
potentially perpetuating rigid beliefs, as
criticized by economists like Joseph Stiglitz in
the case of the IMF's approach to developing
countries which uses a one-size-fits-all
approach.
THE UNITED NATIONSkkkkkkkk

What is an International Organizations?jjjjjjj

● International organizations (IOs) refer to groups
like the UN, IMF, and the World Bank, primarily
composed of member-states, as opposed to
international non-governmental organizations
(NGOs).
● In the past, IOs were often viewed as venues for
discussing state interests, with the belief that
they were merely talk shops.
● Recent insights reveal that IOs can develop
independent roles and influence. They possess

● The United Nations (UN) is a primary
organization for international cooperation,
peace, and security, authorized to use force
against aggressors, primarily focusing on
collective military security.
● The UN is a membership-directed organization,
with all members being states, which
significantly impacts its actions.
● The UN Charter established six principal organs
in 1945, including the
● Economic and Social Council,
● Trusteeship Council,
● International Court of Justice,
● General Assembly,
● Security Council, and
● Secretariat.
1. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
● aims to promote economic, social, and
environmental aspects of sustainable
development, serving as a gateway for
UN's partnerships with the world.
● The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
and World Bank, affiliated with the UN,
are specialized agencies that issue
reports to ECOSOC, but the UN has
limited authority over them.
2. Trusteeship Council
● provided international supervision of
Trust Territories, which achieved
independence in 1994, and its
operation has been suspended.
3. International Court of Justice
● settles legal disputes between states
and provides advisory opinions based
on international law.
4. The Security Council (SC)
● the most potent UN organ with the
power to make legally binding
resolutions, consisting of both
permanent and non-permanent
members.
● The SC has the authority to address
international peace and security issues,
categorized as a 'threat to the peace,' a
'breach of the peace,' or an act of
aggression. The Responsibility to
Protect (R2P) principle is linked to SC
actions in response to human rights
violations.
● The power to veto substantive
resolutions by permanent members, or
P-5, is a safeguard to sovereignty but
can also lead to inaction when major
powers are involved in conflicts.
● The SC employs instruments such as
sanctions, peacekeeping, and peace
enforcement to maintain peace and
security, with a shift toward more
robust mandates in recent
peacekeeping operations.
5. The General Assembly (GA)
● has universal representation and makes
decisions through majority votes which
is considered as the main deliberative
policymaking body, but the SC remains
the primary decision-maker for
international peace and security
matters.
6. Secretary-General
● serves as the chief administrative officer
of the UN and may call attention to
 threats to international peace and
security.
● The three UN organs, the SC, GA, and
Secretariat: interrelated, with the SC having
greater influence since the Cold War.
● The Secretariat carries out substantive and
administrative work as directed by the various
UN organs, with the Secretary-General providing
overall administrative guidance.
Challenges of United Nationsnnnnnnn
● Respect for State Sovereignty: UN organs and
programs are limited by the need to respect
state sovereignty. The UN relies on voluntary
cooperation from states, and if states refuse to
cooperate, the UN's influence is restricted.
● For example, the UN Council on Human
Rights faces challenges when countries
do not invite special rapporteurs or
place conditions on their activities.
● Security Issues: One of the most significant
challenges is related to security matters,
particularly the UN Security Council's
authorization of international military
intervention. The veto power of the P5 makes it
difficult for the council to pass and implement
resolutions.
● For instance, in the late 1990s during
the Kosovo war, the US sought SC
authorization to intervene, but China
and Russia threatened to veto the
action, making the UN ineffective.
● A similar dynamic is seen in the Syrian
civil war, where Russia's veto power has
limited UN actions, despite the ongoing
conflict and humanitarian crisis.
● High Bar on Military Intervention: Despite
challenges, it's important for the UN Security
Council to maintain a high bar for military
intervention. While the SC has made wrong
decisions on intervention, it has also made
correct ones.
● For instance, it prevented the UN
resolution for the US invasion of Iraq in
2001, which later turned out to be
based on false claims of weapons of
mass destruction.
Reforming the United Nationsnnnnjn
● Historical Reform: The United Nations General
Assembly (UNGA) voted for reform once in
1963, expanding the UN Security Council
(UNSC) from 11 to 15 member-states (UNGA
Resolution of 1963).
● Ongoing Reform Efforts: In 1994, the
Open-ended Working Group on the Question
of Equitable Representation and Increase in the
Membership of the Security Council was
established to address reform. However,
negotiations have been challenging and have
been referred to as a "Never-ending Working
Group" due to prolonged deliberations (Gould
and Rablen, 2017).
● Criticisms and Challenges: Two sets of
criticisms exist regarding reform: efficiency of
the UNSC and equity in power allocation.
Inequity includes overrepresentation of the P5
countries and underrepresentation of Asia and
Africa, leading to a North-South divide. The G-4
proposal, including India, Brazil, Germany, and
 Japan, calls for permanent seats in the UNSC,
while smaller states seek equitable
representation for the South (Hosli & Dorfler,
2017).
● Caution in Structural Reforms: Some scholars
caution against hasty structural reforms to
expand UNSC membership. Gould and Rablen
(2017) argue that enlargement alone may not
be a panacea, and quantitative analysis
suggests it doesn't necessarily lead to improved
efficiency.
 GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURESlllllllllllll
Introduction
● International mass media facilitates the
globalization of ideas, culture, and information.
● The role of capitalism in promoting globalization
is noted.
● The question of whether mass media is neutral
or a tool for Western dominance in promoting
the flow of ideas is raised.
● Sreberny's three paradigms in international
communications are explored, including:
● Communications and development:
which views media as tools for changing
values and attitudes in underdeveloped
countries.
● Cultural imperialism: highlights an
uneven relationship between
technological and cultural flows, leading
to dependence on developed countries.
● Cultural pluralism: which is more
optimistic about global media diversity
and the presence of various providers
and localities.
● These paradigms offer different perspectives on
the impact and nature of globalization through
mass media
Modernization Paradigmnnnnnnnhnnnn
● Post-World War II development models
emphasize mass media and the free flow of
information as paths to modernization.
● Lack of human resources, rather than natural
resources, is seen as the main impediment to
development.
● Mass media and education play a central role in
building human capital for development.
● The modernization paradigm posits that mass
media are critical for development, as they
facilitate social, political, and economic growth.
● Key proponents like Wilbur Schramm and David
Lerner argue for the role of media in social
transformation and empathy development.
● Media is considered essential
modernization, preventing societal
disintegration, and fostering a sense of
belonging and imagined communities.
● Benedict Anderson emphasized the role of
printed communication and capitalism in
instilling nationalism and the sense of
belongingness among people who do not know
each other by creating imagined communities
● Everett Rogers builds on this paradigm,
considering mass media as an intervenor
between the causes and consequences of
modernization.
● There is a correlation between the prevalence
of mass media and social, economic, and
political development indicators.
● Critics argue that the media was used for
control and political indoctrination rather than
education for democracy.
● The modernization paradigm faced increased
scrutiny in non-Western and emerging cultures
by the late 1970s, leading to a paradigm shift
towards cultural imperialism.
Cultural imperialismnnnnnnnnnnnnn
● Cultural imperialism paradigm emerged in the
backdrop of the Cold War, decolonization, and
post-colonialism that happened from the 1960’s
to the 1980s.
● Third World countries expressed their common
struggle against imperialism, colonialism, and
neocolonialism, emphasizing the free flow of
information by creating the Non-Aligned
Movement.
● The movement opposed disparate information
flows and highlighted "free-market" expression
controlled by media owners.
● Cultural imperialism - defined as a process in
which societies are brought into the modern
world system and pressured to conform to the
values and structures of the dominant culture.
● It focuses on global power dynamics, the
concentration of control and resources, and a
Western-centric view of culture.
● For Herbert Schiller,
● the clearest and most influential
for
theorists on the cultural imperialism
 tradition, defines cultural imperialism as ● Critics like Tomlinson acknowledge its relevance
the concept of cultural imperialism in highlighting capitalism's expansionist nature
today best describes the sum of the and its impact on global culture.
process by which a society is brought ● Rantanen appreciates the paradigm for its
into the modern world system and how macro-level analysis of uneven and
its dominating stratum is attracted, asymmetrical global relations and their
pressured, forced and sometimes bribed implications for developing societies.
into shaping social institutions to ● Sparks and other scholars have updated and
correspond to, even promote, the values improved the cultural imperialism framework.
and structures of the dominating centre ● Sparks addresses the theoretical ambiguity of
of system. Schiller's conceptualization and proposes an
● Media imperialism - subset of cultural alternative that considers contemporary
imperialism, refers to external influences on a developments in international communication.
country's media, without proportional influence ● He reconsiders the concept of
reciprocation. imperialism, emphasizing the
● The paradigm contrasts with the modernization competition among large-scale
paradigm, viewing media as a tool of major capitalism and an array of competing
powers that impedes development. states with varying powers and
● Western dominance in news broadcasting and influence.
international agencies is seen as propagating ● The contemporary view focuses on multiple
biased images and prejudices. states coordinating their political and economic
● The concentration of control and resources in power to exert control over less developed and
the hands of a few dominates the media weaker countries.
landscape, favoring Western interests and
values.
● The NWICO campaign aimed to change the
dynamics of media flows from a "one-way flow"
to a "two-way flow" between North and South.
● Many Voices, One World report made
suggestions to enhance media independence,
variety, and pluralism in the South.
● The paradigm of cultural imperialism has faced
criticisms for its theoretical consistency, its focus
on the nation-state as a worthy agent of
resistance, and its failure to address the
changing global structures of media.
● New media and transnational communication
systems have provided opportunities for
marginalized groups to form linkages and
cohesion for social change.
● The importance of television as a socializing
agent in Third World nations cannot be
disregarded.
● Cultural imperialism paradigm's merits are
recognized despite criticisms.
 ● Empirical evidence, such as Gordon's study on
Jamaican media, challenges the assumptions of
cultural heterogeneity and diversification,
highlighting instances of homogenization of
American culture in local television content
production in certain contexts.

HINTS:

● Make sure to understand the concept of each

sub-topics and the direction of the discussion
● Remember the person’s view on mass media or
media culture
Cultural Pluralismnllllllllllllllllllllllllll

● The emergence of the cultural pluralism

paradigm or cultural globalization is a response
to criticisms of the cultural imperialism
paradigm.
● It shifts from the one-way model of cultural
imperialism to a nuanced analysis of
multidirectional flows among countries.
● This approach acknowledges the audience's
capacity to react and mobilize for resistance and
empowerment based on their socio-economic
context and cultural preferences.
● The shift is characterized as the
homogenization-heterogenization debate, with
development and imperialism paradigms falling
under the homogenization school, and cultural
pluralism belonging to the heterogenization
school.
● The heterogenization school views globalization
as involving hybridization, synchronization,
re-territorialization, and indigenization.
● Contemporary media studies focus on
unpacking the audience and their ability to
receive and interpret messages, moving away
from the notion of a homogeneous audience to
one that is fragmented with distinctive tastes.
● Critics point out that the new orthodoxy
marginalizes the role of the state, disregards the
importance of the state, and neglects the
economic power of global media firms
concentrated in the United States.
QUIZZES:
GLOBAL DIVIDE
A if both statements are false
B if first statement is true and second statement
is false
C if first statement is false and second
statement is true
D if both statements are true
A. The North-South Divide is economic in nature as
the division is based primarily as the countries of
the North are richer while the countries of the South
are poorer.
B. The North-South Divide, therefore is thought to
be more socio-politically and economically
classified rather geographical.
Answer: D
A. China belongs to the Global South even it is not
anymore part of the category of the poor nation.
B. While Japan according to Joey Brandt (in his
Brandt line) belongs to the Global North.
Answer: B
A. Most of the countries in the South are part of the
non-aligned nations or states.
B. Brazil is growing its economy despite belonging
to the Third World.
Answer: D
A. First World countries denotes that they are richer
than the second world countries.
B. Australia is being categorized as a nation-state
belonging to the South despite its progressive
economic development.
Answer: A
A. It was Sauvy who categorized the third world as
the poor world.
B. Most of the third world countries are towards the
direction of national development as they are being
spurred by Globalization and the realization of
greater economic integration.
Answer: C
The following are part of the Asian Tigers (Four) in
the Global South, except one, which does not
belong?
Answer: Japan
It was this country that led to the creation and
direction of the First World countries after the Cold
War Era.
Answer: USA
What is that one factor being discussed as the
reason why the South is at a disadvantage? (Just
write the exact term mentioned)
Answer: Colonization
This is the only country in G8 that belongs to the
continent of Asia.
Answer: Japan
This is one of the reasons why Global South is
considered LEDC.
Answer: They have unstable government and poor
economy
This is the only country that belongs to the global
North.
Answer: Israel
The following are part of the BRICS except one,
which does not belong to the group?
Answer: Canada
The following are the terms that characterized the
third world except one, which does not belong to
the group?
Answer: Marginalized World
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Choose from the options below:
A if both statements are false
B if first statement is true and second statement
is false
C if first statement is false and second
statement is true
D if both statements are true
A. UN started to define security as not limited to
safety from national violence but also safety from
environmental harm.
B. IOs have the power to introduce laws to its
nation-states.
Answer: B
A. SC is UN's main deliberative policymaking and
representative organ.
B. SC also takes the lead in determining the
existence of a threat to the peace or a act of
aggression.
Answer: C
A. The North-South Divide is economic in nature as
the division is based primarily as the countries of
the North are richer while the countries of the South
are poorer.
B. The North-South Divides, therefore, is thought to
be more socio-politically and economically
classified rather geographical.
Answer: D
A. Cultural imperialism paradigm grew in influence
from the 1960s to 1980s in the context of the Cold
War and the period of decolonization and
post-colonialism.
B. The above statement is correct.
Answer: D
A. Cultural pluralism is defined as the process
whereby ownership, structure, distribution or
content of the media in any one country are singly
or together are subject to substantial external
pressures from the media interests of any other
country.
B. Media imperialism model views modern
communication media has having been designed to
maintain and expand dependence and domination
over the world.
Ans: C
Which of the statements below are not part of the
powers of IOs?
a. IOs have the power to diffuse norms
b. IOs have the power to redirect the
movement of globalization
c. IOs have the power of classification
d. IOs have the power to fix meanings.
Which among the nation-states that is not part of
P5 of the security council?
Ans: Brazil
The following are part of the BRICS except one,
which does not belong to the group?
Ans: Canada
What is the main reason for countries to form
regional organizations?
a. To assert their dominance over other
regions
b. To control the direction of globalization
c. To create political and economic blocs
d. To weaken the power of other countries
What is the meaning of regionalism?
Ans: A political process characterized by
economic policy cooperation and coordination
among countries
What is the main reason for the creation of the
Non-Aligned Movement?
a. To pursue world peace and international
cooperation, human rights, national
sovereignty, racial and national equality,
non-intervention, and peaceful conflict
resolution
b. To protect their independence from the
pressures of superpower politics
c. To expand their leverage against trading
partners
d. To get better returns for their exports
This theorist espoused the modernization paradigm
but forwards a nuanced relationship by treating
mass media as a factor that intervenes between
antecedents and consequences of modernization.
Ans: Everett Rogers
This theory argues that global audiences are
exposed to media messages dominantly deriving
from Western industrialized states.
Ans: cultural imperialism
There are series of statements below, identify
which of them do/does not speak about Growth and
Development paradigm.
I. The primary hindrance to country development is
the lack of human resources.
II. This theory takes on a macro-perspective of
global power dynamics and struggles among state
economic relations particularly the concentration of
control and resources at the expense of the
development of the rest of the world.
III. Media imperialism model views modern
communication media has having been designed to
maintain and expand dependence and domination
over the world. IV. The interactive and integrative
capabilities of media that prevent societal
disintegration are critical to the success of efforts to
modernize
V. David Lerner emphasized the importance of
empathy, stating that as people are more exposed
to media, the greater is their capability to imagine
themselves as strange persons in a strange
situations.
Ans: II, III
 GLOBAL DIVIDES: The NORTH and the SOUTH
Introduction

• The North-South divide is an economic and sociopolitical classification.

• The Global North comprises more prosperous and economically stable countries, including the
United States, Canada, G8 member nations, and the four UN Security Council permanent
members.
• The Global North extends to countries south of the equator, such as Australia and New Zealand.
• The Global South mainly encompasses nations in Africa, Latin America, and developing Asia,
except Japan.
• The UNDP's Human Development Index offers an objective classification, with the Global North
consisting of 64 high HDI countries.
• The remaining 133 countries form the Global South.
• The division is not solely geographical but based on economic disparities, with some geographic
alignment.
• The North and South are interconnected in global processes.
• Specific countries in the Global North include Australia, Canada, Israel, Hong Kong, Macau, New
Zealand, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, the United States, and all of Europe (including
Russia).
• The Global South includes Asia (except for Japan, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, South Korea,
and Taiwan), Central America, South America, Mexico, Africa, and the Middle East (except for
Israel).

Global South Countries based on Continents

Africa: • Eritrea • Namibia

• Algeria • Eswatini • Niger
• Angola • Ethiopia • Nigeria
• Benin • Gabon • Rwanda
• Botswana • Gambia • Sao Tome and
• Burkina Faso • Ghana Principe
• Burundi • Guinea • Senegal
• Cameroon • Guinea-Bissau • Seychelles
• Cape Verde • Kenya • Sierra Leone
• Central African • Lesotho • Somalia
Republic • Liberia • South Africa
• Chad • Libya • South Sudan
• Comoros • Madagascar • Sudan
• Congo, Dem. Rep. • Malawi • Tanzania
• Congo, Rep. • Mali • Togo
• Cote d'Ivoire • Mauritania • Tunisia
• Djibouti • Mauritius • Uganda
• Egypt • Morocco • Zambia
• Equatorial Guinea • Mozambique • Zimbabwe
Asia: • Malaysia • Tajikistan
• Afghanistan • Maldives • Thailand
• Bangladesh • Mongolia • Timor-Leste
• Bhutan • Myanmar • Turkmenistan
• Cambodia • Nepal • United Arab
• China • North Korea Emirates
• India • Oman • Uzbekistan
• Indonesia • Pakistan • Vietnam
• Iran • Palestine • Yemen
• Iraq • Philippines
• Jordan • Qatar
• Kazakhstan • Saudi Arabia
• Kyrgyzstan • Singapore
• Laos • Sri Lanka
• Lebanon • Syria

South America: •
Jamaica • Palau
• Argentina •
Mexico • Papua New Guinea
• Bolivia •
Nicaragua • Samoa
• Brazil •
Panama • Solomon Islands
• Chile •
Paraguay • Tonga
• Colombia •
Peru • Tuvalu
• Costa Rica •
Suriname • Vanuatu
• Cuba •
Trinidad and Tobago
• Dominican Republic •
Uruguay
• Ecuador •
Venezuela
• El Salvador Oceania:
• Guatemala • Kiribati
• Guyana • Marshall Islands
• Haiti • Micronesia
• Honduras • Nauru

GLOBAL NORTH BASED ON CONTINENTS

North America: Europe:

• Canada • All European Union
• United States member states Asia:
• Greenland (territory • Iceland • Israel
of Denmark) • Norway • Japan
• Mexico (considered • Switzerland • South Korea
by some sources to • United Kingdom • Singapore
be part of the • Russia (partially in • Kazakhstan
Global North, but Europe and partially • Turkey (partially in
not universally in Asia) Europe and partially
agreed upon) • Cyprus (partially in in Asia)
Oceania: Europe and partially
• Australia in Asia)
• New Zealand
• Papua New Guinea
• Fiji

The Global North

The world's More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) could be found in the north. Canada, the
United States, Greenland, and Russia are among the countries on the northern side of the divide. They
are regarded as the "richer" and more stable nations.

Why are the countries in the North considered MEDC?

• MEDC (More Economically Developed Countries) are characterized by stable economies and
ongoing positive changes within their borders.
• MEDC countries typically offer higher standards of living and better quality of life.
• Indicators of this include factors like life expectancy, education levels, access to medical care, and
technological development.
• For instance, in the United States (a MEDC), women have an average life expectancy of 79 years,
and men have an average life expectancy of 77 years.
• In contrast, Somalia (an LEDC) has significantly lower life expectancies, with women averaging 51
years and men averaging 48 years.
• Access to education and healthcare plays a crucial role in the MEDC/LEDC divide. Canada, for
instance, offers free universal healthcare and secondary education, leading to a higher standard
of living for its citizens.
• In contrast, many parts of Africa, which are predominantly LEDCs, struggle with limited access to
education and healthcare.
• These disparities highlight just a few of the many differences between MEDC and LEDC nations
(Guttal, 2016).
The Global South
The region south of the North-South Divide is known as the South/developing, or "Poor side." These
countries are known as developing countries because their GDP, HDI, and overall standard of living are
considered lower than that of countries in the "North." Somalia, Vietnam, Haiti, and India are a few
examples of these countries.
Why are countries in the South considered LEDCs?
• Southern countries are often classified as LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) due to
multiple factors, including political instability and economic challenges.
• LEDCs typically exhibit low standards of living and poor quality of life for their citizens.
• Economic indicators like a low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and a low Human Development
Index (HDI) are common in these countries.
• Some LEDCs may have distorted HDIs due to a relatively high GDP coupled with exceptionally
low standards of living.
• An example of such a country is Indonesia, which falls into this category, illustrating the
complexities of LEDC classification.

Why is the South at such a disadvantage?

• Colonization is a significant factor contributing to the challenges faced by many countries in the
south.
• Most of the countries classified as MEDCs today have historical records of imperialism.
• Powerful nations, including France and the United Kingdom, have maintained their dominance
for centuries, while many underdeveloped countries have struggled to progress.
• However, there are exceptions to this historical pattern, as seen in the case of the United States,
which was once a British colony but has evolved into the world's most powerful country (Guttal,
2016).
First, Second and Third Worlds

• The "Global North-Global South" concept emerged in 1996 to distinguish between wealthy,
developed countries primarily in the northern hemisphere (the North) and poorer, developing
countries primarily in the southern hemisphere (the South).
• The First, Second, and Third World categorization during the Cold War was based on political
ideologies and alliances: the "First World" aligned with democracy and capitalism, the "Second
World" with socialism, and the "Third World" represented non-aligned, underdeveloped, and
politically unstable nations.
 • The term "Third World" originated in 1952 to distinguish formerly and currently colonized
societies of Asia, Africa, and Latin America from the capitalist "first" world and the socialist
"second" world. This became a central slogan for the radical left by the 1960s.
• The "Third World" gave rise to the Non-Aligned Movement, encompassing economically less
developed countries.
• Various interchangeable terms describe the Third World, all indicative of economic insecurity
and underdevelopment.
• Historical events, including colonial exploitation in the 15th-18th centuries and modern neo-
capitalism, contributed to underdevelopment in much of the Third World.
• The term "Developing World" emerged as some previously classified as Third World countries
needed to address economic realities after the Cold War.
• The challenge was to ensure that national development in the Developing World could be
realized through globalization and economic integration.
• The Brandt report in 1983 introduced the North/South divide and the term "The South," which
largely refers to countries south of latitude 30° North, despite some exceptions like Australia and
New Zealand.
• Critics argue that these terms obscure the political, economic, and historical factors that led to
the impoverishment of southern countries.

Flashpoints and Perspectives of the Divide

• The "Global South" collectively refers to underdeveloped countries, although it's seen as an
oversimplification of a complex social situation based on geographical criteria.
• The North-South divide has never been strictly geographical, with examples like Australia and
New Zealand situated in the southern hemisphere.
• The "North" was historically associated with issues like starvation, malnutrition, low education,
and political authoritarianism, but changes have occurred.
• Despite improvements, inequality remains inherent in the North-South divide, shaping power
relations within and among societies.
• The term "Global South" has become more neutral and apolitical compared to the earlier label
"Third World."
• The uneven development of the Global South complicates the concept's geography, with some
societies benefiting from globalization.
• The "South-South cooperation" is a significant trend, and states may transition from the Global
South to the North based on socioeconomic status.
• Factors influencing economic development in the Global South include elite behavior, regional
integration, and their position in the global world market.
• The categorization of nations is dynamic, influenced by technology, migration, literacy,
employment, GDP growth, and currency valuation.
• The BRICS grouping (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) highlights the evolving global
landscape and its impact on the North-South divide.
• Economists expect international free trade and capital flows to narrow the North-South divide,
driven by globalization's economic interdependence.
HINTS for the EXAM:

• Focus on the nature of the DIVIDES

• The people who contributed in the discussion of GLOBAL DIVIDES
• BRICS
• Countries belonging to the Global North and Global South
FOCUS on the definition and the different ASIAN communities and partially on their role and activity.

Asian Regionalism

NATO and OPEC - define them.

Introduction
The growing demand for economic integration, fueled largely by the rapid but steady
onslaught of globalization, the threat of terrorism, the spread of diseases, massive
technological innovations, and geopolitical uncertainties are just a few of the realities
that nation states must deal with. These perceived opportunities, threats, and challenges
cause nation states to unite and form ties and alliances based on solid legal frameworks.
The adage "there is strength in numbers" bodes well for countries that choose to join
organizations that they believe will help and support their national interests, whether in
economic, military, political, or cultural contexts.
The rationale for regionalism is that regional organizations are treaty and charter-based,
giving them formal status in international law. This status is significantly enhanced by the
United Nations' and other multilateral organizations' recognition and status of regional
organizations, such as the World Trade Organization. Regional organizations, according to
Acharya (2009), gain legitimacy through the articulation and implementation of distinct
regional norms and practices. The Arab League, for example, derives legitimacy from its
"Arabness," which draws on a rich common culture and history; Southeast Asian states
are known for their articulation of what has been dubbed the ASEAN way, a consensus-
based approach based on strict observance of sovereignty. In light of paradigm shifts, the
ASEAN Way has evolved into the 'Asian Way,' encompassing a broader and still evolving
concept of East Asian regionalism (Stubbs et.al, 2005).
This chapter is organized around a broad discussion of what Asian Regionalism is and
what it stands for, as well as its ultimate value in the current state of world affairs.
However, before proceeding, the concept of Regionalism must be thoroughly examined.
In the context of International Relations, regionalism is the manifestation or expression of
a shared sense of cultural identity and purpose, combined with the establishment and
operation of institutions that express a specific identity and shape collective action within
a geographical region. Most long-lasting regional blocs, such as the E.U. and ASEAN, were
formed out of a shared commonality and unity of aspiration. It should be noted,
however, that the majority of regional organizations established, particularly after WWII,
are fundamentally based on economic integration. Economic regionalism refers to
institutional arrangements designed to facilitate the free flow of goods and services as
well as to coordinate foreign economic policies among countries in the same geographic
region or close proximity. Economic regionalism is a deliberate attempt to manage the
opportunities and constraints created by the dramatic increase in international economic
ties in order to foster economic growth and prosperity among its member states. Free
trade zones, customs unions, common markets, and economic unions are all examples of
economic regionalism (Fawcett, 2012).
Regionalism in Asia
A great deal has been said about Asia, including its enormous size, population,
resources, and ability to influence the global political and economic environment. In fact,
the center of economic, political, and security activities in the world has migrated to Asia.
The Asian Development Bank went so far as to claim that the region's economy is already
comparable in size to those of Europe and North America, and that its global impact is
growing. Asia is now so vital to the global economy, it must play a larger role in global
economic leadership, so goes the argument. In light of this, the need for regional
economic cooperation is crucial for resolving these obstacles. This is partly due to Asia's
tremendous economic expansion during the previous three decades, driven by Japan,
China, and South Korea.
The region is home to more than half of the world's population, generates three-tenths
of global output (in terms of purchasing power), and consistently has the highest
economic growth rates in the world. The Asian "miracle," as many refer to the rapid
economic transformation of the 1980s, did not end with the 1997/98 financial crisis; for
some countries, it signaled the start of renewed acceleration. The question is no longer
whether Asia will be central to the economy of the twenty-first century, but rather how it
will play that role and how its reliance on the rest of the world will be reduced. Trade,
financial transactions, direct investment, technology, labor and tourist flows, and other
economic relationships are increasingly connecting Asia's economies.
The presence of regional order in the Asian region is fueled by the existence of patterns
of similarity that are too strong to ignore. After all, Asia contains some of the world's
wealthiest and poorest economies, large continental powers as well as small city states,
continuously independent countries, and former colonies. Its strength stems from the
interconnectedness, diversity, and dynamism of its economies. Cultural ties based
primarily on language and religion are also strong arguments for greater regional
cooperation.
The question is whether Asia should stick to its established regional patterns. Is more
integration required? The obvious answer is yes. A more dynamic and outward-looking
Asian regionalism could bring enormous benefits not only to Asia, but also to the rest of
the world. It has the potential to help the region's growth, stability, and—with the right
policies—reduce inequality and address the perennial problem of poverty. It could also
aid in the coordination of a coordinated response to major new challenges, which
frequently emerge suddenly and unexpectedly. A vibrant, integrated Asia could apply the
region's vast intellectual and economic resources to these and future challenges. And it
has the potential to help power and stabilize the global economy by increasing
productivity, raising living standards, and reducing poverty worldwide. Everyone benefits
from a stable, cohesive, and productive Asia. As a result, regionalism is essential for Asia.

The Asian Regionalism Imperative

What are the primary advantages and benefits of Asian regionalism? The ADB paper on
Emerging Asian Nationalism outlines some of the more important considerations for
Asian regionalism.
According to some, Asian integration can lead to the following outcomes:
1. Create productivity gains, new ideas, and competition that boost global economic
growth and incomes.
2. Contribute to the efficiency and stability of global financial markets by strengthening
and securing Asian capital markets and maximizing the productive use of Asian savings.
3. Diversify global demand sources, thereby helping to stabilize the global economy and
reducing the risks posed by global imbalances and downturns in other major economies.
4. Assist in the maintenance of open global trade and financial systems.
5. Establish regional mechanisms to better manage health, safety, and environmental
issues, thereby contributing to more effective global solutions to these issues.
The assumption is that as long as Asian regionalism maintains its dynamism, it will be able
to expand its role in the changing global economic and political landscape. However,
what distinguishes Asian regionalism is its openness and accommodating nature. It
should be noted that countries formed preferential trade blocs in the 1930s in an
attempt to protect their economies from the Great Depression. Several countries formed
discriminatory currency blocs, imposing strict exchange controls on outsiders.
However, the consequences were disastrous: these arrangements caused the collapse of
international trade and financial flows, hastening the economic downturn. This
experience preoccupied the architects of the postwar global economic system, who
made nondiscrimination a central pillar of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT), the forerunner of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Many economists and
policymakers are skeptical of regionalism because it has the potential to harm the
multilateral trade and financial system. One feature that distinguishes Asian regionalism
is its disregard for protectionist blocs (ADB, 2012).
This is evident in the nature and existence of some regional organizations, which will be
discussed further below. The growing economic interdependence of Asia provides
numerous opportunities for collaboration. This analysis divides them into four major
categories: (1) trade, investment, and "real" economic activity integration; (2) financial
integration; (3) macroeconomic policy links; and (4) shared social and environmental
concerns. The following diagram depicts specific guidelines for achieving Asian regional
economic cooperation along four major themes.
Regional Organizations in Asia
The following discussion focuses on some of the most prominent and long-lasting
organizations to emerge in the Asian region. In Asia, acronyms like ASEAN (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations), APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation), APT (ASEAN Plus
Three), EAS (East Asian Summit), APC (Asia Pacific Community, with a small "c"), and EAC
(East Asian Community) clog discussions about Asia's present and future regional
architecture. Acharva (2010) The more compelling argument, however, is whether these
institutions are merely talk shops or genuine forces for stability and security. We'll go
over them one by one to get a better understanding of them.
I. ASEAN
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, is a regional grouping of nation
states primarily located in Southeast Asia. It is a regional intergovernmental organization
made up of ten Southeast Asian countries that seeks to promote intergovernmental
cooperation and facilitate economic, political, security, military, educational, and socio-
cultural integration among its members, other Asian countries, and the rest of the world.
The Founding Fathers of ASEAN, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,
and Thailand, signed the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok TEW Declaration) on 8 August
1967 in Bangkok, Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 7 January 1984, followed by Viet
Nam on 28 July 1995, Lao PDR and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April
1999, forming what is now ASEAN's ten member states.
Goals and Objectives
ASEAN's goals and objectives, as stated in the ASEAN Declaration, are as follows:
1. To accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the
region through collaborative efforts in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to
strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful Southeast Asian community.
2. To promote regional peace and stability by upholding justice and the rule of law in the
region's relationships and adhering to the principles of the United Nations Charter;
3. Encourage active collaboration and mutual assistance on issues of mutual interest in
the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific, and administrative fields;
4. To assist one another by providing training and research facilities in the educational,
professional, technical, and administrative spheres;
5. To work more effectively together to improve the utilization of their agriculture and
industries, the expansion of their trade, including the study of international commodity
trade problems, the improvement of their transportation band and communications
facilities, and the raising of their peoples' living standards;
6. To maintain close and mutually beneficial cooperation with existing international and
regional organizations with similar goals and objectives, and to explore all possibilities for
even closer cooperation among themselves.

Fundamental Concepts
The ASEAN Member States must adhere to the following fundamental principles in their
interactions with one another, as outlined in the 1976 Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia (TAC):
1. Mutual respect for all nations' independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity,
and national identity;
2. The right of every State to live its national existence free of external interference,
subversion, or coercion;
3. Non-interference in one another's internal affairs;
4. Peaceful resolution of differences or disputes;
5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by ASEAN Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN,
agreed on a shared vision of ASEAN as an outward-looking community of Southeast Asian
nations living in peace, stability, and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in
dynamic development, and in a community of caring societies.
ASEAN has a land area of 4.4 million square kilometers, accounting for approximately 3%
of the total land area of the Earth. ASEAN's territorial waters are roughly three times
larger than its land counterpart, making it especially important in terms of sea lanes and
fisheries. Member countries have a combined population of approximately 640 million
people, accounting for 8.8% of the world's population, more than the EU28, though
slightly smaller in terms of land. The organization's combined nominal GDP had risen to
more than USD $2.8 trillion in 2015. If ASEAN were a single entity, it would be the world's
sixth largest economy, trailing only the United States, China, Japan, France, and Germany.
ASEAN borders India, China, Bangladesh, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea on land, and
India, China, Palau, and Australia on the sea. Certain ASEAN members support East Timor
and Papua New Guinea's membership in the organization.
Being a global superpower ASEAN is well-known for its diverse range of instruments and
treaties that promote cooperation, recognition, and unity on a variety of levels, including
internally, regionally, and internationally. Today, the ASEAN Summit is a major regional
(Asian) and international (global) conference, with world leaders attending related
summits and meetings to discuss various problems and global issues, strengthen
cooperation, and make decisions. World leaders have praised the summit for its success
and ability to produce global results.
It should also be noted that ASEAN has established itself as the central platform for Asian
integrations and cooperation, working with other Asian countries to promote the region's
unity, prosperity, development, and sustainability, as well as working on solutions to
regional disputes and problems. While focusing primarily on Asia-Pacific, ASEAN
maintained communications with other parts of the world in order to better promote
global peace and stability. The organization has a global reputation for promoting
goodwill and diplomacy among countries, rejecting any biased opinion or decision, and
upholding the principles of non-interference and mutual respect.

II. APEC - Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation.

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a regional economic forum founded in
1989 to capitalize on Asia's growing interdependence. The 21 members of APEC seek to
increase regional prosperity by promoting balanced, inclusive, sustainable, innovative,
and secure growth and by accelerating regional economic integration. APEC ensures that
goods, services, investment, and people can cross borders freely. Members facilitate this
trade by facilitating faster border customs procedures, improving business climates
behind the border, and aligning regulations and standards across the region. APEC's
initiatives to synchronize regulatory systems, for example, are an important step toward
integrating the Asia-Pacific economy. With just one set of common standards across all
economies, a product can be exported more easily. APEC works to ensure that all Asia-
Pacific residents can participate in the region's growing economy. For example, APEC
projects teach digital skills to rural communities and assist indigenous women in
exporting their products abroad. Recognizing the effects of climate change, APEC
members are also implementing initiatives to promote energy efficiency and sustainable
management of forest and marine resources. The forum adapts to allow members to
deal with significant new economic challenges in the region. This includes disaster
preparedness, pandemic planning, and dealing with terrorism.
Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, People's Republic of China, Hong Kong,
China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New
Guinea, Peru, The Philippines, The Russian Federation, Singapore, Chinese Taipei,
Thailand, United States of America, and Vietnam are among the 21 member economies
of APEC. APEC is a multilateral, cooperative economic and trade forum. Member
economies participate on the basis of open dialogue and respect for all participants'
points of view. All economies have an equal say in APEC, and decisions are made by
consensus. There are no treaty obligations or binding commitments. Commitments are
made voluntarily, and capacity-building projects assist members in implementing APEC
initiatives.
The structure of APEC is based on both a "bottom-up" and a "top-down" approach. Four
core committees and their respective working groups make strategic policy
recommendations to APEC Leaders and Ministers, who set the vision for overarching
goals and initiatives on an annual basis. Working groups are then tasked with carrying out
these initiatives via a variety of APEC-funded projects. Members also take individual and
collective actions to implement APEC initiatives in their respective economies with the
help of APEC capacity building projects.
The 21 APEC member economies are working together to achieve Jour free and open
trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2020, as well as the formation of a larger
regional community to address the economic and social dimensions of development—a
commitment made by APEC Leaders in 1994 known as the Bogor Goals (apec.org).

III. East Asian Summit (EAS)

The East Asia Summit is a one-of-a-kind Leaders-led forum of 18 Asia-Pacific countries
formed to advance the goals of regional peace, security, and prosperity. It has evolved
into a forum for strategic dialogue and cooperation on common regional political,
security, and economic issues, and it plays an important role in regional architecture.
EAS, which was established in 2005, allows the major players in the Asia-Pacific region to
discuss issues of mutual interest and concern at the highest level in an open and
transparent manner. The EAS membership includes ten ASEAN member countries (Brunei
Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, In Thailand,
the Philippines, and Vietnam), Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of
Korea, the Russian Federation, and the United States. EAS is an ASEAN initiative based on
the premise of ASEAN's centrality.
The concept of an East Asia Grouping was first proposed by Malaysian Prime Minister
Mahathir bin Mohamad in 1991. The East Asian Study Group, established by the
ASEAN+3 countries (China, Japan, and the Republic of Korea) in 2002, recommended EAS
as an ASEAN-led development limited to the ASEAN +3 countries. However, on July 26,
2005, the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting (AMM) in Vientiane welcomed the participation of
ASEAN, China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Australia, India, and New Zealand in the first EAS.
On November 19, 2011, the United States and the Russian Federation were formally
admitted as members of the EAS at the 6th EAS in Bali, Indonesia.

IV. APT ASEAN Plus Three

ASEAN+3 cooperation began in December 1997 and was formalized in 1999 with the
Leaders issuing a Joint Statement on East Asian Cooperation at their Third ASEAN+3
Summit in Manila. The leaders of ASEAN+3 expressed greater resolve and confidence in
further strengthening and deepening East Asian cooperation at various levels and in
various areas, such as energy, transportation, and information and communications
technology (ICT). ASEAN agreed to strengthen its partnership with the People's Republic
of China (PRC), Korea, and Japan to address mutual issues and concerns in energy
security, natural gas development, oil market studies, oil stockpiling, and renewable
energy.
ASEAN Plus Three (APT) is a forum that serves as a coordinator of cooperation between
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the three East Asian nations of China,
Japan, and South Korea. Government leaders, ministers, and senior officials from ASEAN's
ten members and the three Northeast Asian states consult on a growing number of
issues. The APT is the most recent example of East Asian regional cooperation
(www.asean. org).

Asian Regionalist Issues and Concerns

Asia's promising economic prospects create an enabling environment for regional
cooperation. However, establishing an Asian economic community takes time, and the
economic climate cannot be expected to remain consistently favorable. Some dangers
are well known. Asia relies on global demand and financial stability, which could be
jeopardized by a worsening credit crisis, a falling dollar, a sudden unwinding of current
account imbalances, and/or rapidly rising energy, food, and other commodity prices.
Other shocks, such as the negative effects of global warming, may become more severe
over time. After a long period of economic expansion (in some countries, nearly two
decades), there will inevitably be financial reversals and economic slowdowns in Asia due
to business cycles, whether they originate in the region or elsewhere, as well as longer-
 term challenges such as excess savings and population aging (ADB Emerging Asian
Nationalism, 2012).
New health or security threats may make the movement of people and goods more
difficult and costly. Environmental damage may force drastic changes in economic
policies. Social unrest may cause tensions and uncertainty, impeding economic progress.
Many of these risks can be mitigated with adequate foresight and cooperation, and this
study addresses some strategies for doing so. However, not all risks can be predicted,
and the unexpected frequently has the greatest impact. Unexpected developments could
either slow or accelerate Asian regionalism. The 1997/98 financial crisis prompted
increased regional cooperation and commitment to integration. Asian governments are
becoming more aware that they face a wide range of common challenges, such as
financial contagion and deadly diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) and avian flu, and that they stand to benefit greatly from addressing them
together. Regional cooperation is a type of insurance in some ways (ADB Emerging Asian
Nationalism, 2012).
It is also important to highlight some of the common criticisms leveled at Asian
regionalism. The first is that they have not played a role in major and long-standing
regional conflicts, particularly those that are Cold War hangovers, such as the PRC-Taiwan
conflict, or those between North and South Korea, or India and Pakistan. Neither has it
mattered in the resolution of maritime territorial disputes involving China, Taiwan,
Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei, such as the Spratly Islands dispute.
Similarly, none of the regional groups have addressed territorial disputes between China
and Japan over the Senkaku/Daoyutai islands, or between Korea and Japan over the
Takeshima/Tokdo islands.
A second new criticism relates to their failure to use available conflict prevention and
resolution tools. For example, the ASEAN Regional Forum has not progressed from a
confidence-building to a preventive diplomacy mode, as was clearly intended when it was
established in 1994. ASEAN has yet to use its dispute-resolution mechanism to resolve
bilateral territorial disputes, such as the one between Cambodia and Thailand over the
Preah Vihear temple, or the one between Singapore and Malaysia over Pedra
Branca/Palau Batuh Putih in the South China Sea. In the previous two cases, the parties
instead relied on the International Court of Justice.
Third, the failure of regional trust-building, ostensibly brought about by regional
organizations such as ASEAN, is reflected in the emergence of what appears to be a
significant arms race across the region. China is massively investing in its military,
increasing its defense budget by double-digit percentages year after year and building a
blue-water navy. Japan's naval operational radius has effectively exceeded 1,000 nautical
miles. India and China may be developing a naval competition for dominance in the
Indian Ocean. Countries in Southeast Asia, such as Singapore and Malaysia, are engaged
in competitive arms acquisitions.
Fourth, there has been no regional free-trade zone under the auspices of APEC, which
was created in part with that goal in mind. Instead, bilateral trade agreements have
thrived, undermining the case for larger regional agreements.
China has played a significant role in global integration through its economic policies. It has offered its large and relatively low-cost labor force to attract
foreign businesses, which has led to an expansion of trade with countries it previously had political differences with.
This approach has made China a central player in the global economy. China's economic reforms and engagement with the global market have been
a key driver of its integration into the global economy.
Fifth, despite the fact that natural disasters strike the region on a regular basis, there is
no permanent regional humanitarian and disaster assistance mechanism in place, despite
periodic attempts to establish one. Transnational threats such as illegal migration,
terrorism, and pandemics are still dealt with ad hoc or bilaterally, with little multilateral
action. While statements and declarations addressing such challenges have been issued,
such as the ASEAN Counterterrorism Convention, the East Asian disease surveillance
framework, and a tsunami early warning system, joint action is neither automatic nor
guaranteed. There is no regional peacekeeping force, nor is there even a limited stand-by
arrangement.
Finally, when it comes to human rights and social issues, Asia continues to lag behind
other regions, including Africa and Latin America, not to mention Europe, in terms of
developing regional human rights promotion and protection mechanisms. The recently
established ASEAN Inter-Governmental Commission on Human Rights is merely a body
for the "promotion" rather than "protection" of human rights, with no enforcement
authority. Asian regional institutions have not undertaken any significant social agenda,
such as the creation of social safety nets to protect people who have become
impoverished as a result of economic downturns. They have also failed to address the
critical issues of environmental degradation, climate change, and energy security.
Multilateral agreements and action have also failed to prevent forest fires in Indonesia or
India-China competition for energy resources. Climate change efforts, which are at best
limited at any level, are primarily global rather than regional (Acharya, 2010).
Asian regional groups are norm-making and socializing agents rather than problem-
solving or law-enforcing mechanisms. In this regard, they follow the general model of
international organizations, which lack coercive enforcement power but serve as
socialization and legitimizing actors. Asian institutions must move beyond the ASEAN Way
of informal, consensus-driven cooperation and embrace greater institutionalization and
legalization. Asia's institutions are still based on the ASEAN model, which emphasizes
sovereignty and non-interference while avoiding formal and legalistic approaches to
problem-solving.
By adopting an ASEAN Charter, ASEAN has taken an important first step in this direction,
but it remains to be seen whether ASEAN members can and will accept the challenge of
complying with the obligations of ASEAN's numerous treaties and agreements. The ARF,
APEC, ASEAN-Plus-Three, and the fledgling East Asian Summit could all benefit from
greater institutionalization and fostering a culture of treaty observance.
Finally, Asian regional institutions should broaden their focus to include transnational
issues, and move beyond being consultation and dialogue forums to become problem-
solving instruments. They should develop collective mechanisms for disaster
management, peacekeeping, and human rights and environmental protection without
going as far as NATO, the EU, or the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(Lee, 2014).
Asian Regionalism and the Philippines
The Philippines has always been an active participant in regional blocs that have evolved
from the defunct South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) to the current regional
groupings, most notably ASEAN, APT, and APEC. As enshrined in its Constitution, the
Philippines firmly believes in establishing close ties with its neighbors and pursuing
friendship, amity, and cooperation. We remain committed to the ideals and vision of One
Asean and place great emphasis on the principles of economic integration, regional
peace, and socio-cultural cooperation.
The Philippines remains an important founding member of ASEAN, having recently
hosted several summits. However, the issue of the oil PRC's and several ASEAN states'
long-standing claims to the West Philippine Sea remains an important point of
contention. The current MA administration, led by President Rodrigo Duterte, seeks a
peaceful and cooperative resolution to the Spratlys debacle by forging more cooperative
and open relationships with the PRC.