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Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Damping

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Damping is an effect, which tends to reduce the velocity of a moving object, stabilizes the
motion under equilibrium conditions, and plays an important role in controlling the motion of an
object. A number of damping techniques are used in various moving, oscillating, and rotating
systems. These techniques include conventional friction damping, air friction damping, fluid
friction damping, and electromagnetic (eddy current) damping. Electromagnetic damping is one
of the most interesting damping techniques, which uses electromagnetically induced currents to
slow down the motion without any physical contact with the moving object.

To understand the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping, we need to know electromagnetic

induction (discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831) and eddy currents also known as Foucault
currents (discovered by Leon Foucault in 1851). Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon, in
which an electromotive force (emf) is induced in a conductor, when it experiences a changing
magnetic field. An emf is induced when either the conductor moves across a steady magnetic
field or when the conductor is placed in a changing magnetic field. Due to the induced emf and
the conducting path available, induced currents (flow of electrons) are set up in the body of the
conductor. These induced currents are in the form of ‘eddy currents,’ which are electrons
swirling within the body of the conductor like water swirling in a whirlpool (eddy).

The eddy currents swirl in such a way as to create their own magnetic field (opposing the
change in the magnetic field experienced by the conductor) in accordance with the Lenz’s law.
Thus the eddy currents swirl in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field. These eddy currents
interact with the magnetic field to produce a damping force, which opposes the motion of the
moving conductor or object. This damping force is proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field and the induced eddy currents, and hence the velocity of the object. Thus the faster the
object moves the stronger is the damping force. This means that as the object slows down, the
122 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

damping force is reduced, resulting in a smooth stopping motion. It is important to note that due
to the eddy currents thermal energy is generated in the conductor in accordance with the Joule
effect. This energy comes at the cost of kinetic energy of the moving conductor.

6.1 Demonstration
6.1.1 Objective

The objective of the demonstration is to illustrate the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping.

The demonstration also explains the dependence of electromagnetic damping on the
conductivity of the material of a conductor in which eddy currents are set up and on the strength
of the magnetic field. This demonstration involves illustration and observation types of
experimental activities.

6.1.2 Teacher Handout

Introduction

In this demonstration one observes the fall of solid (magnetized and non-magnetized) cylinders
through three different hollow cylindrical pipes made of aluminum, brass and PVC. The motion
of the magnetized cylinders through aluminum and brass pipes is damped on account of
electromagnetic damping caused by induced eddy currents in the pipe. The eddy currents are
induced due to the motion of the magnetized cylinders through the pipe. The motion of these
magnetized cylinders through the PVC pipe is un-damped, since no eddy currents are set up in
this case. The motion of the non-magnetized cylinder through all three pipes is un-damped.
(Note that, in this discussion, the damping due to air is negligible, and hence is neglected.)

Apparatus

1) Three hollow cylindrical pipes each one made of a different material

2) Three small solid cylinders
3) Three retort stands with clamps and bossheads
4) Three plastic boxes with a sponge at the base
5) A digital stopwatch
6) A meter scale
Electromagnetic Damping 123

Experimental Setup

The experimental setup (Figure 6.1) consists of three hollow cylindrical pipes, identical in
dimensions and made of aluminum, brass and PVC, respectively. Each pipe is clamped exactly
vertical to a retort stand using clamps and bossheads as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.1 Photograph of the experimental Figure 6.2 Schematic of a hollow cylindrical
setup pipe clamped to a retort stand

Three small solid (rare earth/ceramic) cylinders marked C1, C2, and C3 are used. All the three
cylinders are identical with respect to their dimensions and masses. Two of them i.e. C2 and C3
are magnetized under different fields (i.e. they are magnets of different pole strengths) and the
cylinder C1 is not magnetized; it is not a magnet but a non-magnetized solid cylindrical object.
Cylinders C2 and C3 are magnets with the magnetic pole strength of C2 smaller than that of C3. A
handheld digital stopwatch is used to measure the time of flight of the cylinders through the
pipes. A meter scale is used to for length measurements. A plastic box with sponge at the base is
kept underneath each pipe to collect the falling cylinders without damaging them.

Useful Data and Dimensions

1) The material of the hollow cylindrical pipes is aluminum or brass or PVC

2) Inner diameter of hollow cylindrical pipes = 1.60 cm
3) Outer diameter of hollow cylindrical pipes = 3.84 cm
124 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

4) Wall thickness of hollow cylindrical pipes = 1.12 cm

5) Length of hollow cylindrical pipes = 90.0 cm
6) Diameter of small solid cylinders = 1.24 cm
7) Height of small solid cylinders = 2.00 cm
8) Mass of small solid cylinders = 17.78 g

Instructions and Discussion

Part A

Take the non-magnetized cylinder C1 and drop it through each of the three pipes. Measure the
time it takes to come out of the pipe (i.e. the time of flight) in each case. One concludes that the
time of flight is almost the same in all the three cases.

Question 1: Why is the time of flight for C1, almost the same in each pipe?
Answer: The cylinder C1 falls freely under gravity in all the three cases and there is no other
force (except damping due to air, which is negligible) acting on it in each case. The length of the
pipes being the same, the time of flight also remains almost the same.

Part B

Now, take cylinder C2 and drop it first through the aluminum pipe and then through the PVC
pipe. Measure the time of flight in each case. It is observed that the time of flight for cylinder C2
through the aluminum pipe is much greater than through the PVC pipe. It is also observed that
the time of flight of cylinder C2 through the PVC pipe is almost the same as that of cylinder C1
through each of the three pipes.

Question 2: Why is there a large difference in the time of flight for the cylinder C2 through the
aluminum and the PVC pipe?

Answer: The cylinder C2 takes more time in the aluminum than in the PVC pipe. This indicates
that in the case of the aluminum pipe there must be some upward (damping) force on C2, which
slows down the motion of C2 through the pipe and hence it takes more time.

Question 3: What is the origin of the damping force on C2 in the case of the aluminum pipe?

Answer: Since cylinder C2 is a magnet, its magnetic field as seen by every small region on the
stationary aluminum pipe changes, as the magnet moves downward. This induces an emf and
therefore eddy currents in the body of the aluminum pipe. Due to the interaction of these
currents with the magnetic field of the cylinder, the cylinder experiences an opposing force.
This opposing force tends to slow down the motion of the cylinder, which is the cause of the
Electromagnetic Damping 125

change in the magnetic field. Thus the motion of the cylinder C2 is damped. This damping is
referred to as electromagnetic damping.

Question 4: Why is the time of flight for C1 and C2 in the PVC pipe the same?

Answer: PVC is a bad conductor of an electric current. When the cylinders C1 and C2 fall
through the PVC pipe, no eddy currents are induced and hence the cylinders do not experience
any electromagnetic damping, and fall freely under gravity. Since both the cylinders fall freely
through the same distance starting with zero velocity, they take the same time.

Part C

Now drop cylinders C2 and C3 through the aluminum pipe and measure the corresponding time
of flight. It is observed that the time of flight for C3 is greater than that for C2.

Question 5: Why is the time of flight for C3 greater than that for C2 in the aluminum pipe?

Answer: There is a damping force on cylinders C2 and C3, which opposes their downward
motion in the aluminum pipe. From our observation it can be concluded that the damping force
is more for C3 than for C2. We know that the cylinders C2 and C3 are identical except possibly
with respect to their magnetic pole strength. Thus it may be inferred that the effect of
electromagnetic damping depends on the strength of the magnetic field.

Question 6: If we take a very strong and tiny magnet and drop it through the aluminum pipe, is
it possible that this magnet will never come out of the pipe?

Answer: When a magnet is dropped through an aluminum pipe, the magnet accelerates for some
time, and thereafter attains and falls with a terminal (constant) velocity. The terminal velocity
depends on the magnetic pole strength and the mass of the magnet along with some other
parameters. Thus even if we take a very strong and tiny magnet, it will definitely come out of
the aluminum pipe, since the damping force is experienced only when the magnet is in motion.

Part D

Now, drop cylinder C3 through the brass pipe and measure its time of flight. Compare this with
the time of flight for the same cylinder C3 through the aluminum pipe. It is observed that the
time taken in the aluminum pipe is more than that in the brass pipe.

Question 7: Why is the time of flight for cylinder C3 in the aluminum and brass pipes different?
126 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

Answer: Aluminum and brass are both good conductors of an electric current, but their
conductivity is different. The conductivity of aluminum is more than that of brass; hence the
damping force is more in aluminum than in brass.

Question 8: Mention some other parameters on which the time of flight for the magnetized
cylinders may depend.

Answer: The time of flight for a magnetized cylinder may depend on (i) the dimensions of the
magnetized cylinders, (ii) the dimensions of the cylindrical hollow pipes, (iii) the initial velocity
of the magnetized cylinder when it enters the pipe, (iv) the magnetic permeability of the
material of the pipe and (v) the mass of the magnetized cylinders.

References

1) Cyrus S. Maclatchy et al, Quantitative Magnetic Braking Experiment, Am. J. Phys, 61 (12),
1993, pp. 1096-1101.
2) D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended 5th Ed, John
Wiley and Sons, 1997.
3) H. D. Young, M. W. Zemansky and F. W. Sears, University Physics, 6th Indian Ed, Narosa
Pub. House, New Delhi, 1985.
4) R. A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed, Saunders College Pub., 1983.

6.2 Experimental Problem

6.2.1 Student Handout

Introduction

In this experimental problem, an aluminum disc is mounted on a horizontal axle around which a
cord is wound (Figure 6.3). A slotted mass hangs from the free end of the cord. If this slotted
mass is allowed to fall, it will accelerate due to the force of gravity. There will be a torque on
the disc and it will undergo angular acceleration. A pair of cylindrical magnets is placed
symmetrically with respect to the disc. The magnets lie along a common horizontal axis. They
produce a fairly uniform magnetic field in the cross-sectional area between them and a
decreasing field outside.
Electromagnetic Damping 127

Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of the disc and magnets assembly

If the slotted mass is allowed to fall in the presence of the magnets, the slotted mass and the disc
initially accelerate and soon the disc reaches a constant angular velocity and the slotted mass
falls with a terminal velocity. The constant angular velocity of the disc indicates rotational
equilibrium of the disc where the torque due to the weight is balanced by an opposite damping
torque. There is a frictional torque at the supports, but it is relatively small. The main opposing
torque arises due to electromagnetic damping.

The terminal velocity, with which the mass falls, depends on different parameters like the
geometry and dimensions of the disc and the axle, conductivity and magnetic permeability of
the material of the disc, slotted mass attached, magnetic pole strength of the pair of magnets,
position of the magnets, the spacing between the magnets and the disc, and the frictional torque.

Objectives

1) To study electromagnetic damping of a rotating aluminum disc.

2) To study the variation of the terminal velocity with the mass attached.
3) To determine the ratio of the magnetic pole strength of two pairs of magnets and estimate
the frictional torque.

Description

In this problem, we will observe and study the motion of the disc and the falling mass with and
without the magnets. The necessary measurements to study the variation of the terminal velocity
of the falling mass with the value of mass attached, for a given pair of magnets will be carried
out. We will then replace the pair of magnets with another pair having a different pole strength.
We will keep all other parameters the same and note the variation of the terminal velocity with
the mass attached. Using these data, we will determine the ratio of the magnetic pole strengths
128 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

of the two pairs of magnets and the frictional torque experienced by the disc due to the friction
at the supports and the air damping.

Apparatus

1) A disc and magnets assembly

2) A digital timer unit with two detectors
3) Two pairs of magnets fixed on identical mounts
4) A set of slotted masses with a hanger
5) A micrometer screw gauge
6) A vernier caliper
7) A set of acrylic discs of different thickness
8) A meter scale and a measuring tape (200.0 cm)
9) A spirit level

Experimental Setup

The experimental setup designed for this problem consists of the two main units, (i) a disc and
magnets assembly and (ii) a digital timer unit.

Disc and Magnets Assembly

A homogeneous aluminum disc is mounted on an axle at its center (See Figures 6.3 and 6.4).
The axle is a long solid brass rod of circular cross-section. It is carefully machined and polished
to have a uniform cross-section along its length. Towards both the ends of the axle the
cross-section is narrower. The axle is mounted on ball bearings, which considerably reduce the
friction at the supports. Bakelite knobs are fixed at the ends of the axle. These knobs serve to
rotate the axle and hence the disc. A cord tied to the axle winds or unwinds as the axle is
rotated. An aluminum stand supports the axle and the ball bearings. This stand has a set of
vertically mounted clips to hold the ball bearings. It also has a cubic bosshead arrangement to
mount it on two long (120 cm), thick aluminum rods, which are fixed to the heavy iron ground
base plate of the stand. The stand is designed so as to ensure the stability of the complete
assembly.

Two thick aluminum plates fixed to the cubic bosshead support two identical microstage
holders. These microstage holders are used to mount the magnets. Each microstage holder has a
microstage, piston and post. Two pairs of magnets, with different pole strength (fixed on
identical mounts marked as X1X2 and Y1Y2), are provided. The mounts, X1X2 or Y1Y2, of the
magnets can be clamped to an appropriate piston at a suitable height. A micrometer screw is
provided to move the microstage and hence to change and measure the spacing between the
magnets and the disc. Note that, you are supposed to think of a possible method of a measuring
Electromagnetic Damping 129

the spacing between the magnet and the disc, using the given acrylic discs, but without allowing
the magnet to touch the disc. A ring screw provided with the piston serves as a reference for
alignment of the magnets.

Figure 6.4 Photograph of the experimental setup

Digital Timer Unit

The digital timer unit consists of a digital stopwatch connected to two identical C shaped
detectors through a compact interfacing circuit. Each detector consists of two identical
photogates. Each photogate has an LED and a phototransistor. The outputs of these two
photogates are combined to increase the sensing area. A compact electronic circuit is designed
130 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

to interface the detectors with a digital stopwatch. This circuit enables us to use the digital
stopwatch in an automatic timing mode. (For details of the timer unit and the interfacing circuit,
refer to Appendix E.) The interfacing circuit is fabricated on a small PCB and mounted inside
the digital stopwatch with the connections taken out for the detectors. Either of the two detectors
may be used to start or stop the timer. Thus when the object crosses one of the two detectors, the
timer starts and when the object crosses the other, the timer stops and displays the time interval
between the two events. A reset switch is provided on the front panel of the stopwatch. The least
count of the digital timer is 0.01 s and its range is 0.00-999.99 s.

The Complete Setup

The complete experimental setup is as shown in Figure 6.4. It consists of a disc and magnets
assembly and a digital timer unit. A set of calibrated slotted masses with its hanger is attached to
the free end of the cord. The two detectors are mounted on a long retort stand. A stainless steel
pointer which can be used as a reference for releasing the mass is also clamped to the same
retort stand. A set of acrylic discs of different thickness (0.30 cm to 0.60 cm) is provided for the
adjustment and measurement of the spacing between the magnets and the disc. A meter scale
and a measuring tape (200.0 cm), a micrometer screw gauge, a vernier caliper and a spirit level
are also provided.

Useful Data and Dimensions

1) Material of the disc is aluminum

2) Thickness of the disc = 1.22 cm
3) Diameter of the disc 2R = 20.9 cm
4) Material of the axle is brass
5) Diameter of the axle 2r = 1.492 cm
6) Length of the axle = 60.0 cm
7) Shape of the magnets is cylindrical
8) Material of the magnets is ceramic/rare earth
9) Diameter of the magnets = 0.988 cm
10) Height of the magnets = 2.00 cm
11) Material of the cord is Terylex
12) Diameter of the cord = 0.059 cm

Warning

1) Use the measuring tape carefully to avoid any injury. The tape is metallic and the edges are
sharp.
2) The slotted mass, after its release, should fall smoothly and straight without oscillations.
Electromagnetic Damping 131

3) Do not touch the disc or the axle; you should use only the bakelite knobs to wind or unwind
the cord on the axle.
4) Wind the cord on the axle carefully so that the coils/turns do not cross or overlap each
other. Instead, the successive coils should touch each other.

Theory

Let, m be the slotted mass attached to the free end of the cord, r the radius of the axle, T the
tension in the cord, R the radius of the disc, ω the angular velocity of the disc,  the angular
acceleration of the disc, g the acceleration due to gravity, a the linear acceleration of the falling
slotted mass, I the moment of inertia of the disc, B the magnetic strength of pair of magnets, Mf
the moment of frictional force Ff , i.e. frictional torque and MB the moment of electromagnetic
force FB , i.e. electromagnetic torque.

From the free body diagram of the rotating disc (Figure 6.5) we have,

ma  mg T or T  mg  ma 6.1

The equation for the unbalanced torque on the

disc may be written as,

I  T r  M f  MB  6.2 

Consider the disc rotating in a magnetic field

B, which is confined to a small portion of the
disc and is perpendicular to the plane of the
disc. An emf is induced in the small element
moving across the field as a result of which
eddy currents are set up in the disc as shown in
Figure 6.6.

The interaction between the eddy currents and

the magnetic field results in a damping force
on the disc. To understand this in a heuristic
Figure 6.5 Free body diagram of the
rotating disc
way we proceed as follows (detailed treatment
is available in the references).
132 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

We take the magnetic field to be confined to small circular region of radius rm, rm << R
(Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.6 Schematic of the eddy current Figure 6.7 Forces acting on the disc
loops
We may take magnetic field to be uniform over a distance 2rm. Consider the path along the
diameter of the circular region of length 2rm. It moves perpendicular to itself with a linear
velocity, ν = rb ω, where rb is the distance between the axis of rotation of the disc and the center of
the circular region. The emf Eb, induced on account of the rotation of the disc along this path is,

Eb  rb  B  2 rm 

This emf Eb will give rise to a current i (the eddy current) in a closed conducting path within the
disc (of which the path in the circular region is a part),

Eb 2 rm ( rb ) B
i  *

R R*

where, R* is the resistance offered by the closed conducting path.

Due to the magnetic field, this current i experiences a force Fb given by,

4 rm 2 ( rb ) B 2
Fb  B i (2 rm ) 
R*
Electromagnetic Damping 133

⎛ 4r 2 r ⎞
Fb  ⎜ m * b ⎟  B 2  6.3
⎝ R ⎠
Note that the direction of the current element is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Hence the
moment of the force Fb about the axis of the disc is,

M b  rb Fb

⎛ 4 rm 2 rb ⎞ ⎛ 4 rm 2 rb 2 ⎞
M b  rb ⎜ * ⎟ B  ⎜
2
* ⎟  B2  C ' B2
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠
4 rm 2 rb 2
where, C' .
R*

In the above derivation we considered a conducting path along the diameter of the circular
region of radius rm. Not necessarily all the paths will have a length 2rm and be strictly radially
directed. The effect will however be to give an average factor C with dependence of  and B as
given in the above equation for Mb. The effective electromagnetic torque MB may be written as,

2
MB  C B  6.4 
Using Equations 6.1 and 6.4 in Equation 6.2, we obtain,

I   (m g  m a) r  M f  C  B 2  6.5 

Some time after the release of the slotted mass, the disc may reach its final constant angular
velocity  t and the falling slotted mass its terminal velocity vt. For this case,  = 0 and a = 0.
Equation 6.5 then gives,
⎛ g r 2 ⎞ ⎪⎧ ⎫
Mf ⎪
 t  t r  ⎜
⎜CB ⎟ 2 ⎟ ⎨ m  ⎬  6.6 
⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎩ gr ⎪
⎭

This is the expression for the terminal velocity vt of the falling slotted mass. Note vt is directly
proportional to the mass m.
134 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

Procedural Instructions

Part A

Attach a slotted mass of 200 g to the free end of the cord. Wind the cord around the axle.
Release the mass from an appropriate position and observe carefully, the motion of the mass
with respect to the change in its velocity as it falls.

Now clamp a pair of magnets fixed on their mounts, X1X2, onto the microstage holders. Adjust
the mounts so that the axes of the magnets are aligned and are perpendicular to the disc. Adjust
and measure (as accurately as possible) the distance between the magnets and the disc, which
should be exactly the same on both the sides and may vary from 0.050 cm to 0.150 cm. (For this
purpose, you may use a suitable acrylic disc and the micrometer screw gauge.) The distance
between the disc and the magnets and the alignment and position of the mounts once adjusted
should be kept the same throughout your experimental work.

Question 1: Why should the distance between the disc and the magnets, the alignment and
position of the magnets be kept the same for each pair of magnets?

Part B

Wind the cord on the axle with the slotted mass of 200 g attached to the free end of the cord.
Release the mass from an appropriate position, which should be kept the same throughout the
experiment. You may use a pointer fixed on the retort stand as a reference point. Carefully
observe the fall of the mass and note the difference between the fall with the magnets and
without the magnets, which was observed earlier. In this case, you will observe that the slotted
mass first gets accelerated but within a small distance of fall, attains and thereafter falls with a
constant ‘terminal’ velocity. (Note that the distance at which the mass attains the terminal
velocity will depend on a set of parameters and the mass m.)

Using the digital timer unit, measure the time taken by the slotted mass to fall through a known
distance. Adjust the first detector to a convenient distance (10.0 to 50.0 cm) below the point of
release. Keep a suitable distance between the two detectors, measure this distance and note the
time displayed by the timer as the mass is released. Repeat this for at least three more values of
the mass (ranging from 200 g to 600 g). Increase the distance between the two detectors by
keeping the upper detector at the same position and moving down the lower detector by suitable
increments. Record the corresponding time taken in each case for the same mass used earlier.
(You are expected to take at least four sets of readings within the last 50 cm of the fall of the
slotted mass.).

Question 2: Why should the point of release of the slotted mass be kept the same?
Electromagnetic Damping 135

Part C

Plot an appropriate graph to show the variation of velocity of the falling mass with distance for
each value of the mass attached. Explain the variation of velocity of the falling mass with
distance as observed from the graph. From the graph, calculate the average velocity for the last
40 cm of the fall (which should be the terminal velocity vt) for each value of the mass attached.

Part D

Replace the pair of magnets fixed onto the mounts X1X2 with Y1Y2, keeping the arrangement
and the spacing exactly the same as before. Repeat parts B and C for this pair of magnets.

Plot a graph of the terminal velocity vt of the falling mass versus the value of the mass for both
pairs of magnets. Comment on the variation of the terminal velocity with the mass for both pairs
of magnets.

Question 3: Why is there a variation in the terminal velocity with the mass (for a particular pair
of magnets)? Why is the terminal velocity (for the same mass) different for the two pairs of
magnets?

Part E

Using the above graph alongwith the necessary data and dimensions, determine the ratio of the
magnetic pole strengths BXo/BYo for the two pairs of magnets fixed onto the mounts X1X2 and
Y1Y2. (Note: BXo and BYo are the respective magnetic pole strengths for the two pairs X1X2 and
Y1Y2. The magnetic fields experienced by the disc, BX and BY are proportional (under identical
conditions) to the pole strengths of each pair of magnets fixed onto the mounts X1X2 and Y1Y2,
respectively).

Using the same graph estimate the value of the moment of frictional force (frictional torque) Mf.
Explain the method adopted.

Question 4: Describe at least two situations, where (i) an object falls with a terminal velocity
and (ii) the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping is employed.

References

1) H. D. Wiederick et al, Magnetic Braking: Simple Theory, Am. J. Phys, 55 (6), 1987,
pp. 500-502.
2) Mark A. Heald, Magnetic Braking: Improved Theory, Am. J. Phys, 56 (6), 1988,
pp. 521-522.
136 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

3) D. Atkinson et al, XXI International Physics Olympiad: Groningen, The Netherlands-1990,

Am. J. Phys, 60 (2), 1992, pp. 118-127.
4) J. M. Aguirregabiria et al, Magnetic Braking Revisited, Am. J. Phys, 65 (9), 1997,
pp. 851-856.
5) W. R. Smythe, Static and Dynamic Electricity, Mc-Graw Hill Book Co., New York, 1950,
pp. 390-420.
6) D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended 5th Ed, John
Wiley and Sons, 1997, pp. 760-761.
7) H. D. Young, M. W. Zemansky and F. W. Sears, University Physics, 6th Ed (Indian Ed),
Narosa Pub. House, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 642-643.
8) R. A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed, Saunders College Pub., 1983,
pp. 714-716.
9) J. W. Kane and M. M. Sternheim, Physics, 3rd Ed, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978,
p. 475.
10) A. F. Abbot, Ordinary Level Physics, 4th Ed, Arnold Heinemann Pub. (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, pp. 491-493.
11) R. L. Weber, et al, College Physics, 5th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi,
1977, p. 720.

6.2.2 Model Answer

Part A

A slotted mass of 200 g was attached to the free end of the cord. The cord was wound around
the axle and the slotted mass was released from an appropriate position. It was observed that the
velocity of the falling mass increased as it fell. Thus we inferred that the motion of the slotted
mass and hence the disc was accelerated.

A pair of magnets fixed on mounts X1X2 was clamped onto the microstate holders such that the
axes of the magnets were perpendicular to the surface of the disc. Both the magnets were
positioned symmetrically on both the sides of the disc. The spacing between each magnet and
the disc was adjusted to 0.100 cm. This adjustment was carried out using an acrylic disc of
thickness 0.332 cm. Using this disc, a non-zero reference was fixed with respect to which the
spacing was adjusted and measured using the micrometer screw of microstage holders.

Question 1: Why should the distance between the disc and the magnets, the alignment and
position of the magnets be kept the same for each pair of magnets?

Answer: Both the pairs of magnets have identical dimensions, however their magnetic pole
strengths are different. Here, we are interested in studying the effect of the change in the
magnetic field experienced by the disc, keeping the other parameters constant. Hence the
Electromagnetic Damping 137

distance between the magnets, their position with respect to the disc and the alignment should
be kept the same for both pairs.

Part B

A slotted mass of 200 g was attached to the free end of the cord. The cord was wound around
the axle and the slotted mass was released from an appropriate position. It was observed that in
the presence of the magnets, the slotted mass falls with constant velocity i.e. zero acceleration.
This was unlike the earlier case where the slotted mass fell with a constant non-zero
acceleration. From this observation, we inferred that, a damping force was acting on the disc in
this case. This force was due to the eddy currents set up in the disc and was directed so as to
oppose the motion of the disc.

Now the upper detector was fixed 25.4 cm below the point of release, which was marked and
fixed using the pointer. The lower detector was clamped at different distances below the upper
detector. The distance between the detectors and the time was measured and recorded as shown
in the Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Readings of distance and time for the pair X1X2

Time /(s) for mass m

Sr. Distance
No. /(cm) 200 g 300 g 400 g 500 g 600 g

1 10.0 8.86 6.00 4.66 3.89 3.38

2 20.0 11.59 7.70 5.96 4.94 4.28
3 30.0 14.30 9.48 7.27 6.01 5.17
4 40.0 16.96 11.16 8.53 7.01 6.02
5 50.0 19.77 12.98 9.84 8.04 6.87
6 55.0 21.05 13.76 10.45 8.52 7.27
7 60.0 22.52 14.69 11.10 9.05 7.71

Question 2: Why should the point of release of the slotted mass be kept the same?

Answer: The slotted mass is accelerated for some distance after its release and then falls with a
terminal velocity. The distance at which the falling mass attains a terminal velocity depends on
the mass attached. To study the motion of the falling mass, we clamp the upper detector (which
starts the timer) 25.4 cm below the point of release and thereafter keep its position fixed. We
clamp the lower detector (which stops the timer) 10.0 cm below the upper detector and move
the lower detector down each time by 10.0 cm. If the slotted mass attains the terminal velocity
before it crosses the upper detector then shifting of the point of release by a small distance may
138 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

not affect the readings. However, if it has not attained the terminal velocity before crossing the
upper detector then with a different point of release the slotted mass will cross the upper
detector with a different (initial) velocity. Thus to avoid any error, introduced due to the
different initial velocities, in the measurement of time, the point of release of the slotted mass
should not be changed.

To avoid this, we may clamp the lower detector at the lowest possible position and keep this
position fixed. Here, we can move the upper detector each time to increase the distance between
the two detectors and measure the corresponding time. The only disadvantage of this method is
that, the measurements and the data collection will require more time.

Part C

From the readings shown in Table 6.1, we felt that a graph of time (which the mass takes to fall
through the distance between the two detectors) versus the distance should be plotted, to explain
the variation of velocity of the slotted mass as it falls through different distances, A set of
graphs of time versus distance was plotted as shown in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8 Graph of time versus distance for the pair X1X2

The graphs of time versus distance for different masses (200 g to 600 g) were straight lines.
Thus, we inferred in all these cases, that after some distance the slotted mass attained and
thereafter fell with a terminal velocity. The terminal velocity was determined from the slope of
the straight lines (the inverse of the slope gave the terminal velocity). The values of the terminal
velocities for different masses are given in the Table 6.2.
Electromagnetic Damping 139

Table 6.2 Values of the mass m and the terminal velocity vt for the pair X1X2

Sr. Mass Terminal velocity

No. m /(g) vt /(cm/s)
1 200 3.67
2 300 5.75
3 400 7.87
4 500 9.89
5 600 11.9

Part D

A similar set of adjustments and measurements were carried out and a set of distance and time
data was recorded for the other pair of magnets fixed on to the mounts Y1Y2 as shown in
Table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Readings of distance and time for the pair Y1Y2

Time /(s) for mass m

Sr. Distance
No. /(cm) 200 g 300 g 400 g 500 g 600 g

1 10.0 12.48 8.19 6.14 4.99 4.25

2 20.0 16.75 10.76 8.05 6.50 5.49
3 30.0 20.85 13.34 9.96 7.99 6.75
4 40.0 24.94 15.97 11.87 9.51 7.98
5 50.0 29.45 18.65 13.79 11.01 9.22
6 55.0 31.36 19.99 14.76 11.79 9.85
7 60.0 33.31 21.15 15.64 12.50 10.47

A set of graphs of the time versus the distance was plotted as shown in Figure 6.9. In this case
also, the graphs were straight lines. The terminal velocity in each case was determined as given
in Table 6.4.
140 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

Figure 6.9 Graph of time versus distance for the pair Y1Y2

Table 6.4 Values of the mass m and the terminal velocity vt for the pair Y1Y2

Sr. Mass Terminal velocity

No. m /(g) vt /(cm/s)
1 200 2.41
2 300 3.84
3 400 5.28
4 500 6.66
5 600 8.02

Now, the graphs of the terminal velocity vt versus the mass m for both the pairs X1X2 and Y1Y2
were plotted and we obtained straight lines as shown in Figure 6.10. For both the pairs X1X2 and
Y1Y2, we observed from the graph, that the terminal velocity varied linearly with the mass.
Electromagnetic Damping 141

Figure 6.10 Graph of terminal velocity vt versus the mass m

Question 3: Why is there a variation in the terminal velocity with the mass (for a particular pair
of magnets)? Why is the terminal velocity (for the same mass) different for the two pairs of
magnets?

Answer: The expression for the terminal velocity is,

⎛ g r2 ⎞ ⎧ M ⎫
t  ⎜ 2⎟ ⎨
m f ⎬
⎝CB ⎠⎩ gr ⎭

In this expression, the term (gr2/CB2) is a constant for a particular arrangement of the setup and
a pair of magnets. Thus as the mass m increases, the gravitational force mg increases. As a result
of this the angular velocity  of the disc will increase. The damping force is proportional to ,
hence the damping force also increases. Since the disc moves under the influence of these two
forces and as rotational equilibrium is attained, the heavier mass falls with a higher terminal
velocity. Thus assuming Mf to be almost a constant, if the mass increases, the terminal velocity
increases linearly for a particular pair of magnets. As can be seen from the above expression the
damping force depends on the square of the strength of the magnetic field B. Hence for the same
mass if the magnetic field is changed, then the terminal velocity will change. The pole strength
of the two pairs is different. Hence the terminal velocity for the same mass is different for the
two pairs X1X2 and Y1Y2.
142 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

Part E

The strength of the magnetic field produced by the pair of magnets fixed onto the mounts X1X2
and Y1Y2 was BX and BY respectively. This field was proportional to the respective pole strength
BXo or BYo. Since both the pairs were identical in all respects except for their pole strengths, the
ratio BX/BY was the same as the ratio BXo/BYo.

The expression for the terminal velocity is,

⎛ g r2 ⎞ ⎧ M ⎫ ⎛ g r2 ⎞ M r
t  ⎜ 2⎟ ⎨
m f ⎬ or t  ⎜ 2⎟
m f 2
⎝CB ⎠⎩ gr ⎭ ⎝CB ⎠ CB

This expression is of the form y = P x + Q with y = vt and x = m, which is the equation of a

straight line with P as the slope and (–Q) as the Y-intercept. Thus, in the graph of terminal
velocity vt versus the mass m, the slope of the straight line was (gr2/CB2) and the negative
Y-intercept was (Mf r/CB2).

For the determination of the ratio BX/BY, we wrote two equations,

g r2 Mf r g r2 M r
 tX  2
m and  tY  m f 2
C BX C BX 2 C BY 2
C BY
Note that one can use either the slopes or Y-intercepts for the determination of the ratio. The use
of slope is always more reliable than the Y-intercept, hence we wrote,
BX PY

BY PX

From the graphs, PY = 0.0139 cm/s g and PX = 0.0205 cm/s g

BX 0.0139
Thus,   0.823
BY 0.0205

The ratio BXo/BYo of the magnetic pole strengths of two pairs of magnets was found to be 0.823.

Now to estimate Mf, we took the ratio of the Y-intercept to the slope for both pairs of magnets.
Electromagnetic Damping 143

Mfr g r2
Y-intercept Q  and slope P 
C B2 C B2
Q Mf ⎛ Q⎞
Thus,  or M f  gr⎜ ⎟
P gr ⎝ P⎠

(i) For the pair X1X2, g = 980 cm/s2, r = 0.746 cm, QX = 0.40 cm/s and PX = 0.0205 cm/s g.
Hence, Mf = 1.4 × 104 g cm2/s2 = 1.4 × 104 dyne cm = 1.4 × 10−3 N m

(ii) For the pair Y1Y2, QY = 0.30 cm/s and PY = 0.0139 cm/s g
Hence, Mf = 1.5 × 104 g cm2/s2 = 1.5 × 104 dyne cm = 1.5 × 10−3 N m

Thus the value of Mf was found to be between 1.4 × 10−3 N m and 1.5 × 10−3 N m.

[Note that one can also use the positive X-intercept for the determination of Mf using
Equation 6.6 with the condition υt = 0]

Question 4: Describe at least two situations, where (i) an object falls with a terminal velocity
and (ii) the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping is employed.

Answer:
1) The situations where an object falls with terminal velocity are, (i) when a small metallic
sphere is dropped in a long container filled with a highly viscous liquid, (ii) a raindrop that
falls from a large height and (iii) a skydiver or a parachutist.
2) The situations where the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping is employed are
(i) magnetic braking systems used for vehicles, (ii) measuring instruments, which use
rotational motion of some part of the instrument and (iii) spindle motors used in disc
drivers.

6.2.3 Salient Features

This problem is designed to study the phenomenon of electromagnetic damping and its
dependence on various parameters. Necessary procedural instructions are given through the
student handout. Also, four questions are asked, (to make students think on different finer
procedural details) which involve conceptual understanding, cognitive synthesis and application
of concepts in different situations. This problem involves skill and investigation types of
experimental activities.
144 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

Learning Outcomes

We describe below important aspects of conceptual understanding, procedural understanding

and experimental skills, which we expect students to get introduced to and develop through this
problem.

Conceptual Understanding

Magnetic field produced by a cylindrical magnet, electromagnetic induction, eddy currents set
up in the body of a conductor, electromagnetic damping (its dependence on different
parameters), rotational motion of a disc, torque due to friction, air-resistance/drag, unbalanced
torque on a disc rotating about its axis, moment of inertia of a disc, tension in the string, linear
velocity, angular velocity, linear acceleration, angular acceleration, terminal velocity.

Procedural Understanding

Associated with design

1) Choosing a value for the distance between the disc and the magnets.
2) Identifying the dependent (time), independent (distance) and the control variables.
3) Understanding the number of readings for the time (dependent variable) to be taken for
distance (independent variable), to minimize the errors in the measurement.
4) Choosing the proper mass (independent variable) to obtain suitable and distinct values of
corresponding time (dependent variable).

Associated with measurements

1) Selecting the proper range of the mass and the distance.
2) Choosing appropriate intervals for the measurement of distance between the two detectors
and choosing the values of the mass.
3) Choosing the proper instrument to be used for measuring the distances
4) Understanding the importance of initial conditions (at the time of release) so that each
reading is the same if the measurement is repeated.

Associated with data handling

1) Understanding the use of observation tables for organizing the data and the results.
2) Graphs:
a) Choosing the proper axes for the variables (X-axis should be used for independent
variables and Y-axis should be used for dependent or derived variable). For the plot of
time versus distance, the distance should be plotted on the X-axis and time on the
Y-axis. To study the variation of terminal velocity with mass, the mass should be taken
on the X-axis and terminal velocity on the Y-axis.
Electromagnetic Damping 145

b) Choosing the scale so that the maximum portion of the graph paper is utilized and all
the points lie on the graph sheet.
c) Selecting the proper type of graph sheet according to the range of values of the
parameters that are to be plotted.
d) Selecting the correct ranges to determine the slope of a straight-line graph.

Experimental Skills

1) Adjusting the magnets such that their axes coincide and are perpendicular to the plane of the
disc (skill of alignment and judgement).
2) Measuring a small distance between the magnet and the disc, using the micrometer screw
and an acrylic sheet of known thickness i.e. the use of micrometer screw without zero
reference stopper (skill of using an instrument in a novel way).
3) Winding the cord on the axle (skill of handling).
4) Exercising care to maintain the point of release the same in each case by keeping the line of
sight the same throughout the experiment (skill of alignment and judgement).
5) Use of a digital timer unit (skill of using a new instrument).
6) Measuring the distance between the two detectors without disturbing the alignment of the
detectors (skill of measurement and control).
7) Aligning the detectors so that the slotted mass completely obstructs the light falling on the
phototransistor of the detectors (skill of alignment and control).
8) Replacing the pair of magnets without altering their positions and alignment (skill of
alignment and control).
9) Exercising care to keep the setup undisturbed throughout the experiment (i.e. the position of
the retort stand on which the detectors are clamped should not be disturbed, the slotted mass
should not oscillate or rotate at the time of release, the setup should be steady and perfectly
stable while the measurements are being performed) (skill of alignment and control).
10) Drawing best-fit straight-line graphs (skill of drawing graphs).

6.2.4 Possible Modifications

We present below a list of possible modifications, which may be tried out and incorporated in
the existing problem.

1) One can change the position of the magnets with reference to the axis of the disc and study
how the damping depends on the distance rb between the magnets and the axis of the disc.
2) Instead of arranging the magnets so that they attract one another (N-S pole arrangement)
one can try arranging them so that they repel one another (N-N or S-S pole arrangement),
and study the difference in observations, data and results.
 146 Training in Experimental Physics through Demonstrations and Problems

3) An axle having the shape shown in Figure 6.11 can be used in the disc and magnets
assembly. With such an axle one can record the data for different values of the radius r of
the axle and study the variation of terminal velocity.

Figure 6.11 Possible shape of the axle of the disc and magnets assembly
4) One can use the simplified design for the disc and magnets assembly. A traditional, wall
mount type of flywheel arrangement can be used with a suitable holder for the magnets.
5) In the present experimental setup, we have used the digital timer unit for the measurement
of time. However, we feel that this is not absolutely essential. One can use a digital
stopwatch with a suitable least count, if the terminal velocity is small enough. For this, one
may have to use a thick aluminum disc, strong magnets, a small distance between the
magnets and the disc and small radius of the axle.
6) With the same experimental set up but without the magnets, one can introduce viscous
damping instead of electromagnetic damping. For this one should replace the slotted mass
with spherical balls of the same dimensions but made of different materials. These spherical
balls can be made to fall through a viscous medium. One can study the viscous damping and
thereby determine the coefficient of viscosity of the medium. One can also use the
Atwood’s machine type of arrangement where the spherical ball can be made to move up.
7) One can use a strong horseshoe magnet and measure the terminal velocity and study its
variation with the position of the magnet.
8) One can use a small, calibrated electromagnet and study the variation of terminal velocity
with the magnetic field B.
9) One can use an advanced measurement system to study the variation of angular velocity of
the disc with time or distance after the release of the slotted mass. This study can be carried
out with and without the magnets. This will also give the time and distance at which the
slotted mass attains the terminal velocity after its release.
10) One can carry out a study on the energy loss of the rotating system. One can use the disc
and magnets assembly (without the magnets) and note down the height of fall and rise (on
its own). One can obtain an estimate of the moment of the frictional force.
11) One can demonstrate and study an electromagnetic braking system using the present setup
with the addition of a motor and a variable power supply. One can study the variation of the
braking force and braking time with the angular velocity of the rotating system.
12) One can perform an experiment to study the variation (if any) of moment of frictional force
Mf with the angular velocity. Here, one can use a DC motor coupled to the disc assembly.

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