Lecture 4E

Basic Components of Power

Systems
Control Center and Protective
Relaying

ECE 316 Introduction to Electric Energy

Systems
Fall Term 2022
 Things to Remember
• Purpose of Component covered:
• Power factor correction capacitors
• Busbars
• Purpose of Control Centers
• Purpose of Protective relaying
• Definitions
• Reasons and primary objectives
• Types of relays

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 Terms
• Power Factor Correction Capacitor
• Busbar
• Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA)
• Protective relaying
• Control center.

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 Main Components of Substation
• Protection equipment
• Surge protection
• Grounding system
• Measurement Equipment
• Current Transformers CT
• Potential Transformers PT
• Control Equipment.
• Power factor correction capacitors
• Voltage regulators

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Capacitor Bank

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Pole Mount Capacitors

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 Busbars

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Auxiliary Power

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Control Centers

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 Control Centers
• Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) using
computers, networked data communications and graphical user
interfaces for high-level process supervisory management.
• Controls power plants
• Controls transmission line flow
• Controls distribution flow.
• Detects faults and disturbances
• Protects powert systems, and plants either automatically or through
operator input.

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Grid Control Center

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North American Power Pools

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 Protective Relaying
• Measurement and actuation devices used to protect the power system
by measuring system quantities and actuating relays to open and close
switches to avert trouble,
• Measurements, examples:
• Voltage-steady state and transient
• Current-steady state and transient
• Frequency-Over and under
• Speed
• Temperature

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 Protection Definition
Protection is the science, skill, and art of applying and setting relays or
fuses, or both, to provide maximum sensitivity to faults and
undesirable conditions but to avoid their operation under all
permissible or tolerable conditions
Key task is to define the tolerable and intolerable conditions that may
exist and look for defined differences (handles) the the relays and fuses
can sense.

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 Definitions
What is a Relay?
• “an electric device that is designed to
respond to input conditions in a
prescribed manner and, after specified
conditions are met, to cause contact
operation or similar abrupt change in
associated electric control circuits.”
• A note adds: “Inputs are usually
electric, but may be mechanical,
thermal, or other quantities or a
combination of quantities. Limit
switches and similar simple devices
are not relays” (IEEE C37.90, 1989).
ECE 316: Introduction to Electrical Energy Systems 2022
What is a Protective Relay? What is a
fuse?
• “a relay whose function is to detect
defective lines or apparatus or other
power system conditions of an
abnormal or dangerous nature and to
initiate appropriate control circuit
action” (IEEE 100, 2000).
• “an over-current protective device
with a circuit-opening fusible part that
is heated and severed by the passage
of the overcurrent through it” (IEEE
100, 2000).
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 Why Do We Need a Relay System?
• Protective relays and their associated equipment are compact units of
analog, discrete solid-state components, operational amplifiers, and
digital microprocessor networks connected to the power system to
sense problems.
• They are used in all parts of the power system, together with fuses, for
the detection of intolerable conditions, most often faults.
• A nonprofit, nonrevenue-producing item that is not necessary in the
normal operation of an electric power system until a fault—an
abnormal, intolerable situation—occurs.

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 Primary Objective
A primary objective of all power systems is to maintain a very high
level of continuity of service, and when intolerable conditions occur, to
minimize the outage times. Loss of power, voltage dips, and
overvoltages will occur, however, because it is impossible, as well as
impractical, to avoid the consequences of natural events, physical
accidents, equipment failure, or misoperation owing to human error.
Many of these result in faults: inadvertent, accidental connections and
flashovers between the phase wires or from the phase wire(s) to the
ground.

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 Faults

Natural Events Accidents

• Natural events that can cause short • Accidents include faults resulting from
circuits (faults) are: • vehicles hitting poles or
• lightning (induced voltage or direct • contacting live equipment,
strikes), • unfortunate people contacting live
• wind, equipment,
• ice, • digging into underground cables, and
• earthquake, • human errors.
• fire,
• explosions,
• falling trees,
• flying objects,
• physical contact by animals, and
• contamination.

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 Fault Occurrence Percentage
• These faults include the following, with very approximate percentages of
occurrence:
• Single phase to ground: 70%–80%
• Phase to phase to ground: 10%–17%
• Phase to phase: 8%–10%
• Three phase: 2%–3%
• Series unbalances, such as a broken conductor or a blown fuse, are less
common and are more prevalent on lower-voltage systems that use fuses in
three-phase circuits for protection.
• Fault occurrence can be quite variable, depending on the type of power
system (e.g., overhead vs. underground lines) and the local environmental
or weather conditions.

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 System Faults
• System faults usually, but not always, provide significant changes in the system quantities, which
can be used to distinguish between tolerable and intolerable system conditions.
• These changing quantities include
• overcurrent,
• over- or undervoltage power,
• power factor or phase angle,
• power or current direction,
• impedance,
• frequency,
• temperature,
• physical movements,
• pressure, and
• contamination of the insulating quantities.
• The most common fault indicator is a sudden and generally significant increase in the current;
consequently, overcurrent protection is widely used.

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 Types of Relays
• Electromechanical (Traditional): Historical. High response time.
Not very dynamic. Gets the job done. They will not disappear for a
long time because there are so many installed.
• Analog electronic (Transitional): Was state of the art. Better
response time. Better dynamics than electromechanical.
• Microprocessor-Based (State of the Art): Most advanced
technologically. Best response time that we can get. Excellent
dynamics.

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 Microprocessor Based Relays
• higher accuracy,
• reduced space,
• lower equipment and installation costs, and
• wider application and setting capabilities,
• Enables control logic,
• remote and peer-to-peer communications,
• data acquisition,
• event recording,
• fault location,
• remote setting, and
• self-monitoring and checking.

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 Protective Relaying
• More of an art than a science
• Each power company have their way of setting relays even though
they may be using the same hardware.
• Employs the Christmas tree light effect to protect equipment upstream
and down stream of the fault point.

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