D&G Unit-1

BA(JMC) 105 Basics of Design & Graphics (UNIT-1)
FIRST SEMESTER
BASICS OF DESIGN AND GRAPHICS
Unit I: Introduction to Design and Graphics

• Basics of Design and Graphics
• Elements and Principles of Design
• Typography: Physical Form, Letter Form, Aesthetics and Classifications
• Colour: Physical Forms, Psychology, Colour Scheme and Production
UNIT-1
Introduction to Design and Graphics
Basic of Design and Graphics
Graphics
Graphics derived from Greek word graphikos, means "belonging to drawing".
The art and profession of selecting and arranging visual elements — such as typography,
images, symbols, colors and ideas to convey a message/information to an audience.
Sometimes graphic design is called "visual communications."
Graphic design occupies the intersection of the science of communication and the art of
aesthetics. In its most abstract sense, graphic design emphasizes visual communication using
a range of elements and different media to promote a specific message.
Because graphic design—sometimes also called communication design—enables more

effective storytelling, designers work from a standardized toolkit of options that have been
shaped by peer-reviewed psychological studies of human behaviour. The various techniques
that designers employ, like using specific color palettes to elicit predictable emotional
responses, are part of the science of design.
Elements of Design
1. Line
2. Shape
3. Texture
4. Color
5. Value
6. Space
Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 1|Page

Principles of Design
1. Movement
2. Balance
3. Emphasis
4. Unity
Elements of Design
1. Line
The line is usually present in every design. A line is a form with width and length, but no
depth. Artists use lines to create edges, the outlines of objects. A line is created by the
movement of the artist's pen. Lines enclose and contain the parts of a design by creating
outlines. They can be smooth, rough, continuous, broken, thick or thin.
Lines also send subliminal messages. A diagonal line, for example, has kinetic energy and
movement, while a straight line is more ordered and clean.
Lines can be used to emphasize, setting particular information off in a busy composition and
drawing the eye to a particular area. They can be formed into shapes or frames (more on both
of those a bit further down). The eye will also see lines in other places—think buildings,
branches of a tree, a horizon, or a set of train tracks—that offer a natural edge or borders.
Line Direction
The direction of a line can convey mood.
Horizontal lines are calm and quiet.
Vertical lines suggest more of a potential for

movement.

Diagonal lines strongly suggest movement and

give more of a feeling of vitality to a picture.
Contour and Gesture line
Lines used to follow the edges of forms are called contour

drawings.
Contour lines are used to define edges. The create boundaries
around or inside an object. Most lines you encounter are
contour lines. In web design these could be the borders you
add around an object or group of objects
Drawings which seem to depict more movement than actual

outline are called gesture drawings.
Gesture lines are quick and rough continuous lines used to

capture form and movement. They are generally used when
studying the shape and motion of the human form. You likely
won’t use gesture lines (based on the technical definition) in a
web design, but you could certainly create patterns of lines to
signify motion or build up a form.
2. Shape
A shape is an enclosed object.

Shapes can be created by line, or
by color and value changes which
define their edges.
Volume and Mass

Shape is considered to be a two-
dimensional element, while three-
dimensional elements have
volume or mass. Therefore, a

painting has shapes, while a sculpture has volume and mass.
Shapes, geometric or organic, add interest. Shapes are defined by boundaries, such as a lines
or color, and they are often used to emphasize a portion of the page. Everything is ultimately
a shape, so you must always think in terms of how the various elements of your design are
creating shapes, and how those shapes are interacting.
3. Texture
Texture is the surface quality of an object. We

experience texture when we touch objects and
feel their roughness, smoothness or patterns.
Texture is the artist's way of mapping these
tactile impressions on to the two-dimensional
picture. Texture is created by varying the
pattern of light and dark areas on an object.
Notice how the areas of light and dark give the
impression of depth to the image below.
4. Value
Value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a

certain area. Value can be used for emphasis.
Variations in value are used to create a focal point for
the design of a picture. A light figure on a dark
background will be immediately recognized as the
center of attention, similarly for a dark figure on a
mostly white background. Gradations of value are
also used to create the illusion of depth. Areas of light
and dark can give a three-dimensional impression,
such as when shading areas of a person's face.
5. Color
Color occurs when light in different wavelengths strikes our eyes. Objects have no color of
their own, only the ability to reflect a certain wavelength of light back to our eyes. As you
know, color can vary in differing circumstances. For example, grass can appear gray in the
morning or evening or bright green at noon. Colors appear different depending on whether

you view them under incandescent, florescent or natural sunlight. Colors also change
according to their surroundings. You can see this by looking at the color squares below - the
reddish outline box is the same color in all the examples.
6. Space
Negative space is one of the most commonly underutilized and misunderstood aspects of
designing for the page. The parts of the site that are left blank, whether that’s white or some
other color, help to create an overall image. Use negative space to create shapes as you would
any other element.
It is just as important to consider the negative space in a picture as the positive shapes.
Sometimes artists create pieces that have no distinction between positive and negative spaces.
M. C. Escher was a master at creating drawings where there was no distinction between
positive and negative space. Here are two examples of Escher's work which show the
interplay between positive and negative space:

Principles of Design
Design differs from art in that it has to have a purpose. Visually, this functionality is
interpreted by making sure an image has a centre of attention, a point of focus. The principles
of design are the rules a designer must follow to create an effective composition that cleanly
delivers a message to her audience.
The basic design principles are:

1. Movement
2. Balance
3. Emphasis
4. Unity
5. Contrast
6. Repetition
7. Rhythm
1. Balance
Never forget that every element you place on a page has a weight. The weight can come from
color, size, or texture. Just like you wouldn’t put all your furniture in one corner of a room,
you can’t crowd all your heavy elements in one area of your composition. Without balance,
your audience will feel as if their eye is sliding off the page.
To understand balance, think of the balance beam. When objects are of equal weight, they are
in balance. If you have several small items on one side, they can be balanced by a large object
on the other side. Visual balance works in
much the same way. It can be affected not
only by the size of objects, but also their
value (ie. lightness or darkness, termed
visual weight).
Symmetrical (Formal) Balance
Symmetrical balance is mirror image

balance. If you draw a line down the
centre of the page, all the objects on one
side of the screen are mirrored on the
other side (they may not be identical

objects, but they are similar in terms of numbers of objects, colors and other elements.
Sometimes they are completely identical (often seen in architecture).
Asymmetrical (Informal) Balance
Asymmetrical balance occurs when several smaller items on one side are balanced by a large
item on the other side, or smaller items are placed further away from the centre of the screen
than larger items. One darker item may need to be balanced by several lighter items.
Although asymmetrical balance may appear more casual and less planned, it is usually harder
to use because the artist must plan the layout very carefully to ensure that it is still balanced.
An unbalanced page or screen creates a feeling of tension, as if the page or screen might tip,
or things might slide off the side, just as the unbalanced balance beam would tip to one side.
Radial Balance
The third type of balance is radial balance, where all

elements radiate out from a center point in a circular
fashion. It is very easy to maintain a focal point in radial
balance, since all the elements lead your eye toward the
centre.
One method used to attract attention in the design of a page

or work of art is the use of a focal point. A focal point
draws your attention to the most important element on the
page. There are several techniques used to emphasize the
most important object on a page.
2. Unity
Classic design theory discusses unity in terms of the objects present in a piece of art.
Regarded in this way, unity discusses the need to tie the various elements of a work of art
together.
Unity is a measure of how the elements of a page seem to fit together - to belong together. A
unified work of art represents first a whole, then the sum of its parts.
Ways to Achieve Unity
 Proximity

The simplest method of making objects appear to belong together is to group them
closely together. This allows us to see a pattern.
 Repetition
Another method often used to promote unity is the use of repetition. Repetition of
color, shape, texture or object can be used to tie a work together.
3. Rhythm and Movement
Rhythm refers to the way your eye moves throughout a picture. Some pictures move you
throughout in a connected, flowing way much like a slow, stately rhythm in music. Other
pictures move you from one place to another in an abrupt, dynamic way much like a fast,
staccato rhythm in music will give you the impression of movement. Rhythm in art is created
by the repetition of elements. Similarity of elements or flowing, circular elements will give a
more connected flowing rhythm to a picture, while jagged or unrelated elements will create a
more unsettling, dynamic picture.
Look at the two images above. The painting by

Matisse is full of sweeping circular areas which
move your eye around the picture (it is a good
example of optical movement). The elements are
flowing and circular and give you the impression of
a calm quiet rhythm. The line drawing on the right is
more dynamic due to its incomplete nature and the
feeling of motion is much more evident.
Movement is controlling the elements in a

composition so that the eye is led to move from one
to the next and the information is properly

communicated to your audience. Movement creates the story or the narrative of your work: a
band is playing, it’s at this location, it’s at this time, here’s how you get tickets.
4. Emphasis
Also known as dominance. This condition exists when an element or elements within a visual
format contain a hierarchy of visual importance. The focal point should dominate the design
with scale and contrast without sacrificing the unity of the whole.
Say you’re creating a poster for a concert. You should ask yourself: what is the first piece of
information my audience needs to know? Is it the band? Or the concert venue? What about
the day and the cost of attending?
Make a mental outline. Let your brain organize the information and then lay out your design
in a way that communicates that order. If the band’s name is the most essential information,
place it in the center or make it the biggest element on the poster. Or you could put it in the
strongest, boldest type. Learn about color theory and use strong color combinations to make
the band name pop.
Like writing without an outline or building without a blueprint, if you start your composition
without a clear idea of what you’re trying to communicate, your design will not succeed.
Ways to Create a Focal Point
Emphasis by Contrast
In realistic art the focal point is usually quite

easy to spot. Larger figures, usually found in
the foreground, provide a focal point. Even in
non-realistic art, it is usually easy to spot the
focal point. If most of the figures are
horizontal, a vertical element will stand out as a
focal point.
If the rest of the elements are irregular, a

geometric shape will stand out.

If most of the elements are dark, a splash of light color will

catch the eye.
Emphasis by Isolation
If most of the elements in a work of art are

grouped closely together, an object by itself
stands out as a focal point.
Emphasis by Placement
An object placed in the centre will often be

perceived as a focal point. If all eyes in the
painting look at one object, or if an object is
placed at the center of the lines of perspective,
that object will be perceived as the focus of
the work.
5. Contrast
Contrast is an important design principle because it

lets you draw out the most important elements of a
design and add emphasis. Contrast happens when
two design elements are in opposition to each
other, like black and white, thick and thin, modern
and traditional, etc. High contrast can help guide
the viewer’s eyes to the most important parts of
your design first. Whether you’re using contrasting
colors or pairing bold typefaces with delicate fonts,
using this principle of design helps to create
Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 10 | P a g e

variety in your graphic that allows you to strategically

emphasize parts of your design.
6. Repetition
Repeating colors, fonts, words, or shapes can help tie your

design and overall look together–it also helps people
remember your brand or other important information.
Employ repetition in your overall content strategy by using
consistent colors, fonts, and brand imagery to help people
recognize your brand.
7. Rhythm
The spaces between repeating elements can cause a sense of rhythm to form, similar to the
way the space between notes in a musical composition create a rhythm. There are five basic
types of visual rhythm that designers can create: random, regular, alternating, flowing, and
progressive. Rhythms can be used to create a number of feelings. They can create excitement
(particularly flowing and progressive rhythms) or create reassurance and consistency. It all
depends on the way they are implemented.

Color
1. Physical Forms,
2. Psychology,
3. Color Scheme and
4. Color Production
Color is a function of the human visual system. Objects don't have a color, they give off light
that appears to be a color. Spectral power distributions exist in the physical world, but color
exists only in the mind of the beholder. Color occurs when light in different wavelengths
strikes our eyes. Objects have no color of their own, only the ability to reflect a certain
wavelength of light back to our eyes. As you know, color can vary in differing circumstances.
For example, grass can appear gray in the morning or evening or bright green at noon.
Colors appear different depending on whether you view them under incandescent, florescent
or natural sunlight. Colors also change according to their surroundings. You can see this by
looking at the color squares below - the reddish outline box is the same color in all the
examples.
A color circle, based on red, yellow and blue, is traditional in the field of art is known as the
color wheel. Sir Isaac Newton developed the first circular diagram of colors in 1666. Since
then scientists and artists have studied and designed numerous variations of this concept.

Primary, secondary and tertiary colors
Primary Colours
These are colours that cannot be created through the mixing of other colours. They are
colours in their own right. The three primary colours can be seen below
RED - YELLOW - BLUE.
Secondary Colors
The colors produced by mixing any two

primary colors of light are called
secondary colors or composite colors.
YELLOW+BLUE=GREEN
BLUE+RED=PURPLE
RED+YELLOW=ORANGE
Tertiary Colors
Tertiary colors are created by mixing primary and

secondary colors. There are six tertiary
colors present in a color wheel.

Warm and Cool Colors
Warm Colors Cool Colors
Warm colors are made with orange, Cool colors are typified by blue, green
red, yellow and combinations of these and light purple. They have the
and similar colors. As the name ability to calm and soothe. Where
indicates, they tend to make you warm colors remind us of heat and
think of warm things, such sunlight sunshine, cool colors remind us of
and heat. Visually, warm colors look water and sky, even ice and snow.
as though they come closer, or Unlike warm colors, cool colorslook
advance (as do dark colors), which is as though they recede, making them
why they're often used to make large great for small rooms you want to
rooms seem cozier. If you have a appear larger. If you have a tiny
huge bedroom that you want to look bedroom or powder room that you
more intimate, try painting it a warm want to visually enlarge, try painting
color such as terra cotta or brown to a color such as light blue to make it
make it feel cosier. seem more spacious.
Properties of Color
1. Hue
Hue refers to the color itself. Each different hue is a different reflected wavelength of light.
White light broken in a prism has seven hues: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. White light occurs when all the wavelengths are reflected back to your eye, and black
light occurs when no light is reflected to your eye. This is the physics of light.

2. Color Value
Color value refers to the lightness or darkness of the hue. Adding white to a hue produces a
high-value color, often called a tint. Adding black to a hue produces a low-value color, often
called a shade.
3. Intensity
Intensity, also called chroma or saturation, refers to the brightness of a color. A color is at full
intensity when not mixed with black or white - a pure hue. You can change the intensity of a
color, making it duller or more neutral by adding gray to the color. You can also change the
intensity of a color by adding its complement (this is the color found directly opposite on the
traditional color wheel). When changing colors this way, the color produced is called a tone.
When you mix complementary colors together, you produce a dull tone. However, when you
put complementary colors side by side, you increase their intensity. This effect is called
simultaneous contrast - each color simultaneously intensifies the visual brightness of the
other color.
Optical Color Mixing
When small dots of color are placed adjacent to each other, your eye will combine the colors
into a blended color. This is the principle used when printing color in magazines. Dots of
cyan, magenta, yellow and black are distributed in a pattern on the paper, and depending on
the quantity of a certain dot, you will see a specific color on the page. Paul Signac used a
technique called pointillism that involved creating art using the combination of dots to form
images.
RGB & CMYK Colors
CMYK (short for cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black) and often referred to as process

color or four color) is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, also used to describe
the printing process itself. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer
and press run, ink is typically applied in the order of the abbreviation.
The CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking certain colors on the typically
white background (that is, absorbing particular wavelengths of light). Such a model is called
subtractive because inks “subtract” brightness from white.
In additive color models such as RGB, white is the “additive” combination of all primary
colored lights, while black is the absence of light. In the CMYK model, it is just the opposite:
white is the natural color of the paper or other background, while black results from a full
combination of colored inks. To save money on ink, and to produce deeper black tones,
unsaturated and dark colors are produced by substituting black ink for the combination of
cyan, magenta and yellow.
Why black ink is used
The “black” generated by mixing Cyan, Magenta and Yellow primaries is unsatisfactory, and
so four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primaries. Common
reasons for using black ink include:
 Text is typically printed in black and includes fine detail (such as serifs), so to
reproduce text or other finely detailed outlines using three inks without slight blurring
would require impractically accurate registration (i.e. all three images would need to
be aligned extremely precisely).
 A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink,
making it slower to dry, and sometimes impractically so.
 A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks often results in a muddy dark
brown color that does not quite appear black. Adding black ink absorbs more light,
and yields much darker blacks.
 Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored
inks.
When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY “bedding” is applied first, then a
full black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black; this is called rich black. A black
made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black.
The amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice
depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under

color addition, and gray component replacements are used to decide on the final mix;
different CMYK recipes will be used depending on the printing task.
Comparison with RGB
Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult, since the color
reproduction technologies and properties are so different. A laser or ink-jet printer prints in
dots per inch (dpi) which is very different from a computer screen, which displays graphics in
pixels per inch (ppi). A computer screen mixes shades of red, green, and blue to create color
pictures. A CMYK printer must compete with the many shades of RGB with only one shade
of each of cyan, magenta and yellow, which it will mix using dithering, halftoning or some
other optical technique; this dithering produces a lower level of detail than the printer’s dpi
(dots per inch) suggests.
Conversion
Since RGB and CMYK spaces are both device-dependent spaces, there is no simple or
general conversion formula that converts between them. Conversions are generally done
through color management systems, using color profiles that describe the spaces being
converted. Nevertheless, the conversions cannot be exact, since these spaces have very
different gamut’s.

Computer Colors Printer Colors

Computer colors are produced by Things get even dicier on computers when you go
combining the three colors of red, to print out these colors. Printing uses the CYMK
green and blue together. Believe convention which takes cyan (light blue), yellow,
it or not, you can get yellow by magenta (pinky red) and black inks and tries to
combining these colors. recreate the color that your computer created with
red, green and blue light.
Color Psychology
Colors often have different meanings in various cultures. The meanings of various colors
have changed over the years. But the following are generally found to be accurate. Colors in
the red area of the color spectrum are known as warm colors and include red, orange, and
yellow. These warm colors evoke emotions ranging from feelings of warmth and comfort to
feelings of anger and hostility.
Colors on the blue side of the spectrum are known as cool colors and include blue, purple,
and green.
These colors are often described as calm, but can also call to mind feelings of sadness or
indifference.
Black
Black is the color of authority and power. It is popular in fashion because it makes people
appear thinner. It is also stylish and timeless. Black also implies submission. Priests wear
black to signify submission to God. Some fashion experts say a woman wearing black
implies submission to men. Black outfits can also be overpowering, or make the wearer seem
aloof for evil. Villains, such as Dracula, often wear black.
White
Brides wear white to symbolize innocence and purity. White reflects light and is considered a
summer color. White is popular in decorating and in fashion because it is light, neutral, and

goes with everything. However, white shows dirt and is therefore more difficult to keep clean
than other colors. Doctors and nurses wear white to imply sterility.
Red
The most emotionally intense color, red stimulates a faster heartbeat and breathing. It is also
the color of love. Red clothing gets noticed and makes the wearer appear heavier. Since it is
an extreme color, red clothing might not help people in negotiations or confrontations. Red
cars are popular targets for thieves. In decorating, red is usually used as an accent. Decorators
say that red furniture should be perfect since it will attract attention.
The most romantic color, pink, is more tranquilizing. Sports teams sometimes paint the locker
rooms used by opposing teams bright pink so their opponents will lose energy.
Blue
The color of the sky and the ocean, blue is one of the most popular colors. It causes the
opposite reaction as red. Peaceful, tranquil blue causes the body to produce calming
chemicals, so it is often used in bedrooms. Blue can also be cold and depressing. Fashion
consultants recommend wearing blue to job interviews because it symbolizes loyalty. People
are more productive in blue rooms. Studies show weightlifters are able to handle heavier
weights in blue gyms.
Green
Currently the most popular decorating color, green symbolizes nature. It is the easiest color
on the eye and can improve vision. It is a calming, refreshing color. People waiting to appear
on TV sit in "green rooms" to relax. Hospitals often use green because it relaxes patients.
Brides in the Middle Ages wore green to symbolize fertility. Dark green is masculine,
conservative, and implies wealth. However, seamstresses often refuse to use green thread on
the eve of a fashion show for fear it will bring bad luck.
Yellow
Cheerful sunny yellow is an attention getter. While it is considered an optimistic color,

people lose their tempers more often in yellow rooms, and babies will cry more. It is the most
difficult color for the eye to take in, so it can be overpowering if overused. Yellow enhances
concentration, hence its use for legal pads. It also speeds metabolism.
Purple

The color of royalty, purple connotes luxury, wealth, and sophistication. It is also feminine
and romantic. However, because it is rare in nature, purple can appear artificial.
Brown
Solid, reliable brown is the color of earth and is abundant in nature. Light brown implies
genuineness while dark brown is similar to wood or leather. Brown can also be sad and
wistful. Men are more apt to say brown is one of their favourite colours.
Color Schemes
The color scheme, or the way we combine colors in a design, should reflect the purpose of
our design. A color wheel containing all the twelve colors, which helps in deciding on a color
scheme. Different color schemes are:
1. Complementary scheme
2. Analogous scheme
3. Split complimentary scheme
4. Triad scheme
5. Monochromatic scheme
6. Soft scheme
7. Dark scheme
Monochromatic
This color scheme involves the use of only one

hue. The hue can vary in value, and black or
white may be added to create various shades or
tints.

Analogous
This color scheme involves the use of colors that are

located adjacent on the color wheel. The hues may
vary in value. The color scheme for this site is
analogous, with the colors varying only slightly from
each other.
Complementary
This color scheme involves the use of colors that

are located opposite on the color wheel such as red
and green, yellow and purple, or orange and blue.
Complementary colors produce a very exciting,
dynamic pattern.

Triadic
This color scheme involves the use of colors that

are equally spaced on the color wheel. The primary
colors of yellow, red and green could be used
together in a color scheme to produce a lively
result.
Split-Complementary
The split-complementary color scheme is a

variation of the complementary color scheme. In
addition to the base color, it uses the two colors
adjacent to its complement.
Color schemes can be visualized without pure hues or with colours beyond the colour wheel.
When grey is added to a pure hue, the characteristics of the colour change.

Grey makes the color soft and muddy. Like a monochromatic scheme, it creates a dull and
passive atmosphere. Soft color schemes help reduce tension and create an almost dreamy
mood.
Soft Schemes
Colour schemes can be visualized without pure hues

or with colours beyond the colour wheel. When grey
is added to a pure hue, the characteristics of the colour
change. Grey makes the colour soft and muddy. Like
a monochromatic scheme, it creates a dull and passive
atmosphere. Soft colour schemes help reduce tension
and create an almost dreamy mood.
Dark Schemes
A dark colour scheme creates a feeling of

heaviness and a serious effect. It represents
contrast in nature, such as that of day and night.
Dark schemes are created by mixing black or
some dark hue with the basic hues. It helps the
basic colours retain their identity when it is used
as a background. Dark colours are most visible
on a light complementary. Therefore, dark colour schemes can be selected in order to give
accent to design elements and type.
Color Discord
While monochromatic, analogous,

complementary or triadic color schemes
are considered to be harmonious, there
are some color schemes considered
dissonant. Discordant colors are visually
disturbing - we say they clash. Colors
that are widely separated on the color wheel (but not complementary or triadic) are
considered to be discordant. Discordant colors can be eye-catching and are often used for
attention-getting devices in advertising.

Typography
Typography is the art and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging
type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration
techniques. The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length,
leading (line spacing) and letter spacing.
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art

directors, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized
occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay
users.
History
Typography (from the Greek words type = “to strike” “That by which something is
symbolized or figured...” and graphia = to write).
Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currency in
ancient times. The first known movable type printing artifact is the Phaistos Disc, dating
between 1850 BC and 1600 BC. The item dates back to Minoan age and is now on display at
the archaeological museum of Herakleion in Crete, Greece.
Typography with moveable type continued in 11th-century China, and modular moveable
metal type began in 13thcentury China and Korea, was developed again in mid-15th century
Europe with the development of specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap
copies of letter punches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts.
Scope
In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects
of letter design and application, including: typesetting and typeface design; handwriting and
calligraphy; graffiti; inscriptional and architectural lettering; poster design and other large
scale lettering such as signage and billboards; business communications and promotional
collateral; advertising; word marks and typographic logos (logotypes); apparel (clothing);
vehicle instrument panels; kinetic typography in motion picture films and television; and as a
component of industrial design—type resides on household appliances, pens and
wristwatches, for example.

Since digitization typography’s range of applications has become more eclectic, appearing on
web pages, LCD mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games. The ubiquity of type has
led typographers to coin the phrase “Type is everywhere”.
Typography generally follows four principles, using repetition, contrast, proximity, and
alignment.
Text typography
In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually

satisfying whole that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution
with a minimum of distractions and anomalies are aimed at producing clarity and
transparency.
Choice of font(s) is perhaps the primary aspect of text typography—prose fiction, non-fiction,
editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual and commercial writing all have differing
characteristics and requirements. For historic material, established text typefaces are
frequently chosen according to a scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of
accretion, with considerable overlap between historical periods.
Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art seriffed “text romans” or
“book romans” with design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based
on traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who
created the model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond.
With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact,
tightly-fitted text romans specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility,
readability and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text fonts are often used for
introductory paragraphs, incidental text and whole short articles. A current fashion is to
pair sans serif type for headings with a high-performance serifed font of matching style for
the text of an article.
The text layout, tone or color of set matter, and the interplay of text with white space of the
page and other graphic elements combine to impart a “feel” or “resonance” to the subject
matter. With printed media typographers are also concerned with binding margins, paper
selection and printing methods.
Typography is modulated by Orthography and linguistics, word structures, word frequencies,

morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography also is subject to specific
cultural conventions. For example, in French it is customary to insert a non-breaking space
before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not.
Readability and legibility

Readability and legibility are often confused. Readability is most often and more properly
used to describe the ease with which written language is read and understood – it
concerns the difficulty of the language itself, not its appearance. Factors that affect
readability include sentence and word length, and the frequency of uncommon words.
In contrast, legibility describes how easily or comfortably a typeset text can be read. It is
not connected with content or language, but rather with the size and appearance of the printed
or displayed text.
Studies of legibility have examined a wide range of factors including type size, type design
(for example, comparing serif vs sans serif type, italic type vs roman type), line length, line
spacing, colour contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification (straight
right-hand edge) vs ranged left, and whether hyphenated). Legibility research was published
from the late nineteenth century on, but the overall finding has been that the reading process
is remarkably robust, and that significant differences are hard to find.
So comparative studies of serif vs sans serif type, or justified vs unjustified type, have failed
to settle the argument over which is best. (Serifs are the small cross strokes at the end of
letters in fonts such as Times; sans serif fonts, such as Arial, lack these cross strokes).
Unfortunately, the fashion for legibility research was over by the time that revolutionary
changes in printing and display technology (ie, laser printing and PC display screens) made it
actually of potential interest.
Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to
check for effectiveness (ie, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who
published numerous studies from the 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that
required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness filter.
These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific
design solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical
issues include typefaces (also called fonts) for people with visual impairment, and typefaces
for highway signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make a key difference.
Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat a theoretical - various factors were
tested individually or in combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are
interdependent), but many tests were carried out in the absence of a model of reading or
visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape is very important in
readability, and that letter by letter recognition (sometimes known as parallel letter wise
recognition) is either wrong, less important, or not the entire picture. Studies that distinguish
between the two models have favoured parallel letter wise recognition, and the letter is
widely accepted by cognitive psychologists.

Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include: text set in lower case is more
legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably because lower case letter
structures and word shapes are more distinctive, having greater saliency with the presence of
extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts); regular upright type (roman) is
found to be more legible that italics, contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been
found to be important, with black on yellow/cream being most effective; positive images (eg,
black on white) are easier to read than negative or reversed (eg, white on black); the upper
portions of letters play a stronger part than the lower portions in the recognition process;
legibility is compromised by letterspacing, word spacing and leading that are too tight or too
loose. Generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the eye to
distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed fonts and those that are
too tightly or loosely fitted can also result in poor legibility.
Periodicals
Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical publications, especially

newspapers and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive
appearance, to aid readers in navigating the publication, and in some cases for dramatic
effect. By formulating a style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively small collection
of typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use
of type sizes, italic, boldface, large and small capital letters, colours, and other typographic
features. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to
commission a type designer do create bespoke typefaces for their exclusive use.
Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to

achieve a particular tone or style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colourful, and
comparatively modern style through their use of a variety of typefaces and colours; type sizes
vary widely, and the newspaper’s name is placed on a coloured background. In contrast, the
New York Times use a more traditional approach, with fewer colours, less typeface variation,
and more columns.
Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines are often set in
larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.
Display typography
Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there is less concern for
readability and more potential for using type in an artistic manner. Type is combined with
negative space, graphic elements and pictures, forming relationships and dialog between
words and images.
Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text typography. Most
display typography exploits type at larger sizes, where the details of letter design are

magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject
matter.
Display typography encompasses: posters; book covers; typographic logos and wordmarks;
billboards; packaging; on-product typography; calligraphy; graffiti; inscriptional and
architectural lettering; poster design and other large scale lettering signage; business
communications and promotional collateral; advertising; wordmarks and typographic logos
(logotypes), and kinetic typography in motion pictures and television; vending machine
displays; online and computer screen displays.
The wanted poster for the assassins of Abraham Lincoln was printed with lead and woodcut
type, and incorporates photography.
Advertising
Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers
often use typography to set a theme and mood in an advertisement; for example using bold,
large text to convey a particular message to the reader. Type is often used to draw attention to
a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes and images. Today,
typography in advertising often reflects a company’s brand. Fonts used in advertisements
convey different messages to the reader, classical fonts are for a strong personality, while
more modern fonts are for a cleaner, neutral look. Bold fonts are used for making statements
and attracting attention.
Basic Typeface Anatomy
Learning about serifs, strokes, counters, and other bits and pieces that make up the letters in a
typeface is not something of interest only to font fanatics and type designers. The shape and
size of certain elements are generally consistent throughout any given typeface and can help
you identify and categorize typefaces.
It’s not absolutely necessary for most font users to know the precise difference between a
spur and a beak or a tail and a leg, but it is fun and can make you feel and sound smart.
Instead of resorting to terms such as “that little round thingamajig at the top of the f” or “the
curvy connector bit in the middle of the funny-looking g” you can use real terms like ball
terminal or the link in a double-storey g. Take a look at three broad terms with which most
designers should have at least a nodding acquaintance and several related elements that help
define a typeface.
1. Strokes

Think about the strokes you make with a pen when printing letters and you’ll have an idea
what the broad meaning of stroke is for a font.
Most letterforms are made up of several specific types of strokes:
 Stems - In a way, it’s like a flower stem.
Definition: The stem is the main, usually vertical stroke of a

letterform.
Also Known As: stroke
Examples: Not all letters have a stem, such as C or S. The vertical, non-curved portions of L,
l, d, B, and p are examples of stems. H, N, and M have two stems each. Some letterforms
such as y and A may have a sloped or diagonal stem.
 Extenders - Reach for the sky or touch your toes. In

typography, an extender is that part of a letter that extends
above the x-height or below the baseline.
 Ascender: An ascender and a descender are extenders.
Definition: In typography, the upward vertical stem on some lowercase letters, such as h and
b, that extends above the x-height is the ascender. The height of the ascenders is an
identifying characteristic of many typefaces.
The ascenders of some letters may touch or almost touch letters in

the line above causing awkward or distracting patterns. This is
most likely to happen or be obvious when a line of text with tall
ascenders is below a line of text with long descenders. To resolve
the problem of touching ascenders and descenders you can:
Increase the leading (line spacing) between lines of type; Choose a
different typeface; For headlines and subheads, some careful
editing/re-wording can eliminate the problem; Changing the
alignment of the text may also help.
 Descender
Definition: The portion of some lowercase letters, such as g

and y, that extends or descends below the baseline is the
descender. The length and shape of the descender can affect
readability of lines of type and is an identifying factor for some
typefaces.

The descenders of some letters may touch or almost touch letters in the line below causing
awkward or distracting patterns. This is most likely to happen or be obvious when a line of
text with long descenders is above a line of text with tall ascenders and capital letters. Some
solutions include: Increase the leading (line spacing) between lines of type; Choose a
different typeface; For headlines and subheads, some careful editing/re-wording can
eliminate the problem; Changing the alignment of the text may also help.
 Arms - If a letter were a person, these would be like arms.
Definition: The arm of a letter is the horizontal stroke on some

characters that does not connect to a stroke or stem at one or both
ends. The top of the capital T and the horizontal strokes of the F and
E are examples of arms. Additionally, the diagonal upward stroke
on a K is its arm. Sometimes arm is used interchangeably with bar
or crossbar or cross stroke.
Arm is often also used to describe the mostly horizontal top stroke of C, double-storey a, G,
and other glyphs, to include the finial, terminal, spur, or other elements of the stroke.
Also Known As: crossbar, cross stroke
Examples: The arms of an uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end and the arm of an
uppercase T sits at the top of the stem and doesn’t connect at either end. In contrast a cross
stroke intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f and the cross bar connects the diagonal strokes
of an uppercase A or the vertical stems of an H.
 Crossbars - Think of them as connecting strokes.
Definition: The (usually) horizontal stroke across the middle of uppercase A and H is a
crossbar. The horizontal or sloping stroke enclosing the
bottom of the eye of an e is also a crossbar. Although often
used interchangeably, the crossbar differs from an arm and a
cross stroke because each end connects to a stem or stroke
and doesn’t (usually) intersect/cross over the stem or stroke.
The varying positioning, thickness, and slope of the bar is an
identifying feature of many type designs.
Also Known As: bar, arm, cross stroke

Alternate Spellings: cross bar (two words)

Examples: The cross bar connects the diagonal strokes of an uppercase A or the vertical
stems of an H. In contrast, the cross stroke intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f while the
arms of an uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end.
 Cross Strokes - Cross your t’s.

Definition: The horizontal stroke across the stem of a
lowercase t or f is a cross stroke. Although often used
interchangeably, the cross stroke differs from an arm
and a crossbar because it intersects/crosses over the
stem. The varying positioning, thickness, and slope of
the cross stroke is an identifying feature of many type
designs.
Also Known As: arm, crossbar

Alternate Spellings: cross bar (two words)
Examples: The cross stroke intersects the stem of a lowercase t or f. In contrast, the cross bar
connects the diagonal strokes of an uppercase A or the vertical stems of an H while the arms
of an uppercase F connect to the stem only at one end and the arm of an uppercase T sits at
the top of the stem and doesn’t connect at either end.
 Tail - A few letters love to wag their tails.
Definition: In typography, the descending, often decorative stroke

on the letter Q or the descending, often curved diagonal stroke on K
or R is the tail. The descender on g, j, p, q, and y are also called
tails.
 Leg - Most letters don’t have one to stand on.
Definition: The lower, down sloping stroke of the K and k is

called a leg. The same stroke on R as well as the tail of a Q is
sometimes also called a leg.
Also Known As: tail
 Bowls - Not for soup or cereal, they hold nothing.
Definition: In typography, the curved part of the character

that encloses the circular or curved parts (counter) of some
letters such as d, b, o, D, and B is the bowl. Some sources call
any parts of a letter enclosing a space a bowl, including both

parts of a double-storey g and the straight stem on a D or B. The curved strokes of a C are
sometimes also referred to as bowls although they aren’t closed. The shape and size of the
counter and bowl can affect readability and is also an identifying factor for some typefaces.
Examples: The bowl usually refers to the main, enclosed circular portion of some characters
and not usually the curved loops that may be a part of the extenders or other flourishes on
letters such as the double-storey g, cursive y, or cursive d.
2. Counters
This part of a letter is what’s inside the bowl. It’s white space or negative space, not a stroke
at all.
Definition: In typography, the enclosed

or partially enclosed circular or curved
negative space (white space) of some
letters such as d, o, and s is the counter.
The term counter may sometimes be used
to refer only to closed space, while
partially enclosed spaces in m, n, or h are
the aperture. The shape and size of the counter and bowl (curved stroke enclosing the
counter) can affect readability and is also an identifying factor for some typefaces.
Also Known As: aperture, inner space, enclosed space
Examples: Fonts with very small or thin counters may not reproduce well at very small font
sizes. Depending on the size and the printing method the counters may close up (fill with
ink).
There are other more specific terms for some of the negative space that defines a letterform:
 Eye - I spy a special counter.
Definition: Much like a counter, the eye refers specifically to the

enclosed space in a lowercase e.
Also Known As: counter
Examples: At very small sizes the eye of some fonts could fill with
ink making the letter e appear as a c or blob of ink.
 Aperture - This space could escape.

Definition: The aperture is the partially enclosed, somewhat rounded

negative space in some characters such as n, C, S, the lower part of e,
or the upper part of a double-storey a.
Also Known As: counter

Common Misspellings: aperature
Examples: One identifying characteristic of some fonts is the even
or uneven shape of the rounded part of the aperture of letters such as h, n, and u.
2. Serifs
Probably the most familiar characteristic of type, serifs come in three basic shapes and fall
into one of two groups.
Definition: In typography, a serif is the

little extra stroke found at the end of main
vertical and horizontal strokes of some
letterforms. Serifs fall into various groups
and can be generally described as hairline
(hair), square (slab), or wedge and are
either bracketed or unbracketed.
Hairline serifs are much thinner than the
main strokes. Square or slab serifs are thicker than hairline serifs all the way up heavier
weight than the main strokes. Wedge serifs are triangular in shape.
Unbracketed serifs attach directly to the strokes of the letterform, sometimes abruptly or at
right angles. Bracketed serifs provide a curved transition between the serif and the main
strokes. Within these divisions serifs can be blunt, rounded, tapered, pointed, or some hybrid
shape.
Similar to serifs, each of these letter parts may be understated or may form a distinctive,
readily identifiable element of a typeface:
 Ears - Gee, why can’t I hear you?
Definition: Typically found on the lower case g, an ear is a

decorative flourish usually on the upper right side of the bowl.
Similar to a serif, the ear can be a distinctive, identifying element of
some typefaces.
 Spurs- Not just for cowboys.

Definition: Similar to but generally smaller

than a serif or beak, a spur is a small bit at
the end of certain curved portions of a
letterform such as the end(s) of a C or S or
the middle of G.
Also Known As: serif, barb, cat’s ear
 Beaks - No birds here.
Definition: A beak is a type of decorative stroke at the end of the

arm of a letter, connected to the arm by the terminal. Similar to a
spur or serif, it is usually more pronounced.
 Chins - Some letters have a strong one.
Definition: The right angled stroke on the capital letter G is its

chin.
Examples: The horizontal arm and the vertical spur of the G meet
to form the chin.
Baseline
Definition: In typography, the baseline is the imaginary

line upon which a line of text rests. In most typefaces,
the descenders on characters such as g or p extend down
below the baseline while curved letters such as c or o
extend ever-so-slightly below the baseline. The baseline
is the point from which other elements of type are
measured including x-height and leading. The baseline is also significant in the alignment of
drop caps and other page elements.

Examples: The amount of space between the baselines of two lines of type — the leading —
combined with how far below the baseline that descenders go (and how high ascenders go),
can affect the readability of the text.
You may need to adjust the baseline alignment between your initial cap and the rest of the
text. Your initial cap should share a baseline with the adjacent text. Ideally the top of your
initial cap should be even or above the top of the top line of text in the paragraph. Move it or
resize it to get the right balance.
Reading (the space) between the lines
Leading
Definition: Leading is the space between lines of text. Pronounced ledd-ing, its name comes
from the practice of using metal strips (usually lead) of varying widths to separate lines of
text in the days of metal type. Leading is also called line spacing. Some programs offer
multiple ways to specify leading which can lead to some confusion.
Although it refers to the space between lines of text, leading measurements are generally
specified as the amount of space from
baseline to baseline. Leading is
normally measured in points, just like
type.
How much leading?
One rule of thumb suggests adding

about 20% or around 2 points to the point size of your text as a starting point for adjusting
line spacing. Less is generally too crowded.
Changing the leading of text affects its appearance and readability. When starting a new
project, experiment with the amount of leading to find what works best. Increased line
spacing is also another way to combat gray pages and introduce more white space into a page
layout.
Do all programs set leading the same way?

Depending on the software, leading can be a point measurement (10 pt, 12 pt, 29.5 pt, etc.) or
a percentage of the typesize (10 pt type set with 120% leading). Some software programs
give multiple options.
Three methods of specifying leading are described here:
 In the PageMaker control palette select a point measurement for leading from the drop
down menu or type in a number. Choosing Auto will calculate leading for each line
based on the
 percentage set for Autoleading (described below).
 In some programs, to get 10 point type with 12 point leading don’t put 12 points for line
spacing — tell the program to add 2 pts to the point size of the type (10+2=12).
 CorelDRAW allows the user to specify an exact point amount or to use a percentage of
the type size.
There are other options associated with leading. Page layout programs will generally provide
greater control over these options. For example, in PageMaker the user can select a Leading
method — proportional, top of caps, or baseline. It simply changes the way the software
allocates or measures the leading between lines of text.
Normally the leading is measured from the baseline of one line of text to the baseline of the
next. Or, the user could measure it from the top of the caps (Capitals) of one line to the top of
the caps of the next. The amount of space is the same, but it affects the space between the
first line of text and the text frame.
If text frames that have the same leading throughout don’t seem to line up line for line with
each other — check the leading method. A change from one paragraph to the next can also
account for unexplained gaps or tight spaces between paragraphs.
Kerning & Tracking

Kerning and tracking are two related and frequently confused typographical terms. Both refer
to the adjustment of space between characters of type.
Kerning is the adjustment of

space between pairs of letters.
Some pairs of letters create
awkward spaces. Kerning adds
or subtracts space between
letters to create more visually
appealing and readable text.
Tracking is Overall Letterspacing,
Tracking differs from kerning in

that tracking is the adjustment of
space for groups of letters and entire
blocks of text. Use tracking to change
the overall appearance and readability
of the text, making it more open and
airy or more dense.
(Leading is the space between lines of type. Tracking refers to the distance between letters
in general, while kerning refers to the spatial relationship between a set of two letters. )
X-Height
Definition: In typography, x-height is the distance between the baseline of a line of type and
tops of the main body of lower case letters (i.e. excluding ascenders or descenders). The x-
height is a factor in typeface identification and readability.
Typefaces with very large x-

height relative to the total height
of the font have shorter
ascenders and descenders and
thus less white space between
lines of type. Sans Serif
typefaces typically have large x-
heights. In typefaces with small
x-heights, other letter parts such as ascenders and descenders may become more visually
noticeable.
Typefaces with large x-heights may appear darker, heavier, crowded, and more difficult to
read at body copy sizes.

If changing to a typeface with a smaller x-height is not an option, open up the lines of type by
adding more leading (line spacing), and not using fully justified alignment.
Also Known As: x height
Alignment
In typesetting and page layout, alignment or range is the setting of text flow or image
placement relative to a page, column (measure), table cell or tab. The type alignment setting
is sometimes referred to as text alignment, text justification or type justification.
Basic variations
There are five basic typographic alignments:

 flush left— the text is aligned along the left margin or gutter, also known as ragged
right;
 flush right—the text is aligned along the right margin or gutter, also known as ragged
left;
 justified— text is aligned along the left margin, and letter- and word-spacing is adjusted
so that the text falls flush with the right margin, also known as full justification;
 centered—text is aligned to neither the left nor right margin; there is an even gap at the
end of each line.
 Force justified - Stretches a single line of text to fill a page or column width.
Note that alignment does not change the direction in which text is read; however text
direction may determine the most commonly used alignment for that script.
Flush left
In English and most European languages where words are read left-to-right, text is often
aligned ‘flush left’, meaning that the text of a paragraph is aligned on the left-hand side with
the right-hand side ragged. This is the default style of text alignment on the World Wide
Web.
Quotations are often indented.
Flush right
In other languages that read text right-to-left, such as Arabic and Hebrew, text is commonly
aligned ‘flush right’. Additionally, flush-right alignment is used to set off special text in

English, such as attributions to authors of quotes printed in books and magazines, and is often
used when formatting tables of data.
Justified
A common type of text alignment in print media is ‘justification’, where the spaces between
words, and, to a lesser extent, between glyphs or letters, are stretched or compressed to make
the align both the left and right ends of each line of text. When using justification it is
customary to treat the last line of a paragraph separately by simply left or right aligning it,
depending on the language direction. Lines in which the spaces have been stretched beyond
their normal width are called loose lines, while those whose spaces have been compressed are
called tight lines.
Some modern typesetting programs offer four justification options: left justify, right justify,
center justify and full justify. These variants specify whether the last line is flushed left,
flushed right, centered or fully justified (spread over the whole column width). In programs
that do not offer this extra functionality, justify is equal to left justify.
Centred
Text can also be ‘centred’, or symmetrically aligned along an axis in the middle of a column.
This is often used for the title of a work, and for poems and songs. As with flush-right
alignment, centred text is often used to present data in tables. Centred text is considered less
readable for a body of text made up of multiple lines because the ragged starting edges make
it difficult for the reader to track from one line to the next.
Force-Justified
For a special effect, use the “Force justify” alignment option to stretch a single line of text—a
headline, for instance—to fill a page or column width. If you want the spacing to be more
evenly distributed, create non breaking spaces so that the line of text would be treated as one
long word.

Classification of Typefaces
An abundance of typefaces has been created over the centuries; they are commonly
categorized according to their appearance. Roman types are in the most widespread use
today, and are sub-classified as serif, sans serif, and script types. Historically, the first
European fonts were blackletter, followed by Roman serif, then sans serif and then the other
types. Typefaces may be mono spaced regardless of whether they are Roman, or Blackletter.
Most typefaces can be classified into one of four basic groups: those with serifs, those
without serifs, scripts and decorative styles. Over the years, typographers and scholars of
typography have devised various systems to more definitively categorize typefaces – some of
these systems have scores of sub-categories.
A classification system can be helpful in identifying, choosing and combining typefaces.

While four categories are clearly inadequate for design professionals, dozens become self-
defeating.
1. Serif Type Styles

 Old Style
 Transitional
 Modern
 Slab
Serif Type Styles
Serif, or Roman, typefaces are named for the features at the ends of their strokes. Times
Roman and Garamond are common examples of serif typefaces. Serif fonts are probably the
most used class in printed materials, including most books, newspapers and magazines.
A serif is the little extra stroke found at the end of main vertical and horizontal strokes of
some letterforms. Some are subtle and others may be quite pronounced and obvious. In some
cases serifs may aid in the readability of a typeface. Serif refers; in general, to any style of
type that has serifs. Fonts without serifs are called sans serif. Serifs fall into various groups
and can be generally described as hairline (hair), square (slab), or wedge and are either
bracketed or unbracketed.
Old Style
This category includes the first Roman types, originally created between the late 15th and
mid 18th centuries, as well as typefaces patterned after those designed in this earlier period.
The contrast in character stroke weight is not dramatic, and hairlines tend to be on the heavy

side. Serifs are almost always bracketed in old style designs and head serifs are often angled.
Some versions, like the earlier Venetian old style designs, are distinguished by the diagonal
cross stroke of the lowercase e.
Also Known As: Antiqua, Ancient, Renaissance, Baroque, Venetian, Garalde’
Examples: Garamond, Centaur, Goudy Oldstyle, Century Oldstyle, Palatino, Sabon
Transitional
Definition: The Antiqua or Old Style of type of the 16th and

17th centuries evolved into a style known as Transitional.
The primary characteristics of Transitional type is medium
contrast between thick and thin strokes, less left inclined
stress than earlier Old Style faces, and a triangular or flat tip
where diagonal strokes meet (such the base of a W).
Modern
Definition: In typography, Modern is a style of typeface developed in the late 18th century
that continued through much of the 19th century. Characterized by high contrast between
thick and thin strokes and flat serifs, Modern fonts are harder to read than previous and later
typestyles. Some later variations include the Slab Serifs with bolder, square serifs and the
related Clarendon style with less contrast and softer, rounded shapes.

Also Known As: Didone, New Antiqua

Examples: Bodoni, Didot, Bernhard Modern Roman
Slab Serif
Definition: A Slab Serif is a type of serif font that evolved from the Modern style. The serifs
are square and larger, bolder than serifs of previous typestyles. Considered a sub-
classification of Modern, Slab Serif is further divided into Clarendon, Typewriter, and Slab
Serif (a separate sub-category of Slab Serif) styles.
Also Known As: Square Serif, Clarendon, Typewriter

Examples: Clarendon, American Typewriter, Rockwell
2. Sans Serif Type Styles

 Grotesque
 Humanistic
 Geometric
Sans Serif
Definition: Type which does not have serifs — the little extra strokes found at the end of
main vertical and horizontal strokes of some letterforms — are called sans serif (without
serif). Within sans serif there are five main classifications: Grotesque, Neo-Grotesque,
Geometric, Humanist, and Informal. Typefaces within each classification usually share
similarities in stroke thickness, weight, and the shapes of certain letterforms.
Grotesque Sans Serif
These are the first commercially popular sans serif typefaces. Contrast in stroke weight is
most apparent in these styles, there is a slight “squared” quality to many of the curves, and

several designs have the “bowl and loop” lowercase g

common to Roman types. In some cases the R has a
curled leg, and the G usually has a spur. This category
also includes more modern, sans serif designs patterned
after the first grotesques. Stroke contrast is less
pronounced than earlier designs, and much of the
“squareness” in curved strokes has been rounded.
Normally the most obvious distinguishing characteristic
of these faces is their single bowl g and more monotone
weight stress.
Geometric Sans Serif
Simple geometric shapes influence the construction of

these typefaces. Strokes have the appearance of being
strict monolines and character shapes are made up of
geometric forms. Geometric sans tend to be less
readable than grotesques.
Humanistic Sans Serif

These are based on the proportions of Roman
inscriptional letters. Frequently, contrast in stroke
weight is readily apparent. Typographic experts claim
that these are the most legible and most easily read of
the sans serif typefaces. Humanistic sans serif typefaces
also closely match the design characteristics and
proportions of serif types, often with a strong
calligraphic influence.

3. Script Type Styles

 Formal
 Casual
 Calligraphic
 Blackletter
Script Type Styles
This font family emulates handwriting or calligraphy. They take inspiration from historical
practice in which most logo designs, headlines and shop fronts used custom-designs by
engravers and sign painters.
Formal
These elegant typefaces are oftentimes
used in diplomas and invitations. The
majority of these types are inspired by
letter forms from the 17th and 18th
century, by writing masters like George
Shelley, George Bickham and George
Snell. Formal scripts include Snell
Roundhand, Helinda Rook, Young
Baroque, Elegy and Bickham Script.
Blackletter
These types are also known as

Textura, Gothic Script or Gothic
minuscule. They were popular scripts
in western Europe from the 12th to
the 17th century. Blackletter was
patterned after old-fashioned
manuscript lettering that was used
before the invention of the movable
type. Blackletter is a style of typeface
based on early written forms that
features elaborate thick to thin strokes

and serifs. The Gutenberg Bible, the first book ever printed with movable type, was set in a
Blackletter typeface to mimic the manuscript writing of the time. Blackletter type is most
often seen on diplomas, certificates, formal invitations, and in the nameplates of some
newsletters and newspapers.
Examples: Black Forest, Linotext, Goudy Text, and Wedding Text are some types of
Blackletter fonts.
Calligraphic Scripts
This family simulates calligraphy. Calligraphic

scripts that originally appeared in religious
books, ancient edicts and historical writings
inspired modern-day typographers to come up
with a digital counterpart. This family includes
Bell Trap, Blaze and Vivaldi.
Casual Scripts
This family has a less formal and more
active hand. The strokes vary in width and
appear to have been created by a wet brush
rather than a pen nib. They became the top
pick for advertising designs in Europe and
North America in the 1970s.
This typeface style is designed to look
informal, as if it were written in haste. This
family includes Brush Script, Mistral,
Kaufmann, Limehouse Script, Nadianne
and Freestyle Script.

Decorative Styles
This is the largest category and also the most

diverse. Rarely used for lengthy blocks of text,
decorative typefaces are popular for signage,
headlines and similar situations were a strong
typographic statement is desired. They frequently
reflect an aspect of culture – such as tattoos or
graffiti – or evoke a particular state of mind, time
period or theme. Many – such as psychedelic or
grunge designs – are time-sensitive and fall out of
fashion. Some decorative typefaces use unorthodox
letter shapes and proportions to achieve distinctive
and dramatic results. Some even appear three-
dimensional.

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D&G Unit-1

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BA(JMC) 105 Basics of Design & Graphics (UNIT-1)

Unit I: Introduction to Design and Graphics

Basic of Design and Graphics

Graphics derived from Greek word graphikos, means "belonging to drawing".

Because graphic design—sometimes also called communication design—enables more

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 1|Page

The direction of a line can convey mood.

Horizontal lines are calm and quiet.

Vertical lines suggest more of a potential for

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 2|Page

Diagonal lines strongly suggest movement and

Contour and Gesture line

Lines used to follow the edges of forms are called contour

Drawings which seem to depict more movement than actual

Gesture lines are quick and rough continuous lines used to

A shape is an enclosed object.

Volume and Mass

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 3|Page

painting has shapes, while a sculpture has volume and mass.

Texture is the surface quality of an object. We

Value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 4|Page

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 5|Page

The basic design principles are:

Symmetrical (Formal) Balance

Symmetrical balance is mirror image

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 6|Page

Asymmetrical (Informal) Balance

The third type of balance is radial balance, where all

One method used to attract attention in the design of a page

Ways to Achieve Unity

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 7|Page

3. Rhythm and Movement

Look at the two images above. The painting by

Movement is controlling the elements in a

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 8|Page

Ways to Create a Focal Point

In realistic art the focal point is usually quite

If the rest of the elements are irregular, a

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 9|Page

If most of the elements are dark, a splash of light color will

If most of the elements in a work of art are

An object placed in the centre will often be

Contrast is an important design principle because it

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 10 | P a g e

variety in your graphic that allows you to strategically

Repeating colors, fonts, words, or shapes can help tie your

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 11 | P a g e

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 12 | P a g e

Primary, secondary and tertiary colors

RED - YELLOW - BLUE.

The colors produced by mixing any two

Tertiary colors are created by mixing primary and

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 13 | P a g e

Warm and Cool Colors

Warm Colors Cool Colors

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Optical Color Mixing

RGB & CMYK Colors

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Why black ink is used

Department of Journalism & Mass Communication, KRCHE, GGSIPU, Delhi 16 | P a g e

Comparison with RGB