I.

3 Power Section
Since power is the heart of Communication, so that communication without power is nothing. Therefore,
for any level of communication we need power supply for devices. Harar mass media agence of power
supply can be commercial power (power from ALPA), generator, solar and backup batteries.
A. Commercial power: is the main source of power which is coming from ALPA
B. Generator power : the power used when the commercial power is lost as a choice

C. Moreover, back up batteries- this power source is, used to cover the time when the
commercial power is lost automatically the system needs to continue without any
breakdown of power to do this generator is use as a choice and the backup batteries is used
to cover the time until generator starts to some instant of time.
. harar mass media agence use -48V DC voltage.
The main reason why Ethio telecom uses DC power than AC power is that;
 Because AC is fluctuating ; the load is affected by the alternating current
 Because DC is stable; all the electronic devices performing logic operation and need to have
specific level which defines them such as memories, logic circuits, timers etc. need DC.
 Because for AC signals the positive negative cycle add up average to zero, so power is zero but for
DC signals there are no pulsing waves ,so the average power is not zero .that is why Ethio telecom
requires DC power than ac power.
In addition, the main reason why -48V is required is that:
 Because positive voltage causes more corrosion in metal than negative voltages.
 Because Negative voltages are safer for human body while doing, telecom activates.
 Because lighting may cause positive voltages (lack of electrons) neutralize positive charges and
prevent executive heat.
 Since negative voltage is safer for long telephone line for transmitting power through it.
 To avoid the nasty galvanic effect in media matera;
The source of power at power department is describe as below.
 Figure 20:Existing sites power plan diagram of power room
1) AC load center: As we can see from existing power plan diagram AC power from ALPA or
Generator given to AC load center. AC load center is place at power office and used to distribute
AC power to other devices like Air conditioner, Rectifier and so on.
2) Air conditioner: As its name indicates, it cools down the temperature of the room. There is at least
one air conditioner at each room of and they are responsible for cooling down the room
temperature and protecting the devices from hazardous hot.
3) UPS (uninterrupted power supply) UPS is a device, which used to supply AC power to required
equipment. The three Ø power supply from Ac load center will be, given to UPS and UPS will
deliver the power to rectifier and battery banks.
4) Rectifier: Rectifier is a device used to convert the Ac supply to required Dc level this process called
rectification. In harar media a full wave rectifier with required specification is used. In addition,
regulator is, used to make the rectified supply smooth.
5) Battery banks: Mainly battery banks used to deliver power to equipment when power from
commercial power (Ac or ALPA) is lost, for the time gap until the generator sands or for the time
when both commercial power and generator fail to give supply.

Figure 21: Battery banks

 3.6 Engine Generator
Generators are useful appliances that supply electrical power during a power outage and prevent
discontinuity of daily activities or disruption of business operations. Generators are available in different
electrical and physical configurations for use in different applications. In the following sections, we
will look at how a generator functions, the main components of a generator, and how a generator
operates as a secondary source of electrical power in residential and industrial applications. It is important
to understand that a generator does not actually create electrical energy. Instead, it uses the mechanical
energy supplied to it to force the movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through
an external electric circuit. This flow of electric charges constitutes the output electric current supplied by
the generator. This mechanism can, be understood by considering the generator to be analogous to a water
pump, which causes the flow of water but does not actually ‘create’ the water flowing through it. The
modern-day generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday
in 1831-32. Faraday discovered that the above flow of electric charges could be induced by
moving an electrical conductor, such as a wire that contains electric charges, in a magnetic field.
This movement creates a voltage difference between the two ends of the wire or electrical conductor,
which in turn causes the electric charges to flow, thus generating electric current.

Figure 11: diesel generators with its components

Main components of a generator

The main components of an electric generator can be, broadly classified as follows
(1) Engine: The engine is the source of the input mechanical energy to the generator. The size of the
engine is directly proportional to the maximum power output the generator can supply.

(2) Alternator: The alternator, also known as the ‘greenhead’, is the part of the generator that
produces the electrical output from the mechanical input supplied by the engine. It contains an assembly
of stationary and moving part encased in a housing. The components work together to cause relative
movement between the magnetic and electric fields, which in turn generates electricity.

(3) Fuel System: The fuel tank usually has sufficient capacity to keep the generator operational for 6 to 8
hours on an average. In the case of small generator units, the fuel tank is a part of the generator’s skid base
or is, mounted on top of the generator frame.

(4) Cooling Systems: Continuous usage of the generator causes its various components to get, heated up. It
is essential to have a cooling and ventilation system to withdraw heat produced in the process.

(5) Lubricating System: Since the generator comprises moving parts in its engine, it requires
lubrication to ensure durability and smooth operations for a long period of time. The generator’s engine
is, lubricated by oil stored in a pump. You should check the level of lubricating oil every 8 hours of
generator operation. You should also check for any leakages of lubricant and change the
lubricating oil every 500 hours of generator operation.

(6) Battery Charger: the start function of a generator is battery-operated. The battery charger keeps the
generator battery charged by supplying it with a precise float voltage. If the float voltage is very
low, the battery will remain undercharged. If the float voltage is very high, it will shorten the life of the
battery.

(7) Control Panel: This is the user interface of the generator and contains provisions for electrical
outlets and controls. The following article provides further details regarding the generator control
panel. Different manufacturers have varied features to offer in the control panels of their units. Some of
these are mention below.

(a) Electric start and shut-down – Auto start control panels automatically start the generator during a
power outage, monitor the generator while in operation, and automatically shut down the unit when no
longer required.
(b) (d) Other controls – Phase selector switch, frequency switch, and engine control switch (manual mode,
auto mode) among others.

(8) Main Assembly / Frame: All generators, portable or stationary, have customized housings that
provide a structural base support. The frame also allows the generated to be earth for safety.

3.7 LCD (liquid crystal display)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically displaying information such as
text, images and moving pictures. Its uses include monitor for computers, televisions, instrument panels
gamin device etc. using polarization of light to display object. Atypical liquid crystal producing degree
shift in the polarization of the light passing through when there is no

Electric field present. When a voltage is applied, an electric field is produced in the liquid,
affecting the orientation of the molecules. This causes the polarization shift to be, reduced.

Fig 12: LCD internal working principle

Liquid crystal material emit no light of their own. For illumination of light -backlight and
reflective method used. Reflective: it uses external light reflected by reflector behind the display.
Example: watch, calculator, this is achieved by combining a reflector with rear polarizer
Backlight: light source is from a back light, and viewed from the front. Example: computer
display built in fluorescent tubes above, besides and sometimes behind the LCD.
 3.7.1 LCD pin description for interfacing with Arduino

Pin 1 (VSS): is a ground pin and it is certainly need that this pin should be ground for LCD to work
properly.

VEE and VDD: are, given +5 volts normally. However, VEE may have a potentiometer voltage
divider network to get the contrast adjusted. However, VDD is always at +5V.

RS, R/W and E: These three pins are numbered 4, 5 and 6 as shown above. RS is, used to select
between data and command register. For RS=0, command register is selected and for RS=1 data
register is selected. R/W gives us the choice between writing and reading. If set (R/W=1) reading
is enabled. R/W=0 when writing.

D0-D7: The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, areused to send information to the LCD or read the contents of
LCD's internal register.
An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is a device that automatically transfers a power supply from its primary source
to a backup

How does an automatic transfer switch work?

An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is a self-acting, intelligent power switching device governed by
dedicated control logic. The principal purpose of an ATS is to ensure the continuous delivery of electrical
power from one of two power sources to a connected load circuit (electrical equipment – lights, motors,
computers, etc.).

The control logic or automatic controller is typically microprocessor-based and constantly monitors the
electrical parameters (voltage, frequency) of primary and alternate power sources. Upon failure of the
connected power source, the ATS will automatically transfer (switch) the load circuit to the other power
source (if it is available). As a general rule, most automatic transfer switches seek connection to the
primary power source (utility) by default and will only connect to the alternate power source (engine-
generator, backup utility) when required (primary source failure) or requested to do so (operator
command).

A typical transfer sequence includes:

1. The normal utility power source fails.
2. The transfer switch shifts the load to the emergency power source when power from the generator
or backup utility feed is stable and within prescribed voltage and frequency tolerances. Depending
on a facility’s needs and preferences, the transfer process is self-acting or manually-initiated.
3. The transfer switch returns the load from the emergency power source to the normal power source
when utility power is restored. The retransfer process is self-acting or manually-initiated.

What ATS arrangements are available?

A variety of arrangements are available utilizing two power sources and three power sources.
Two power sources
Utility-Generator

The standard transfer switch configuration includes an electric utility service and a generator for normal
and emergency power sources. This system arrangement is typically referred to as an emergency standby
generator system. The single generator shown may be several engine-generator sets operating in parallel.

Utility-Utility

This use case employs two utility sources that provide redundancy in the distribution system and allows for
quick restoration of service to the load if an upstream equipment failure occurs. The two sources can be
independent of each other, requiring the public utility company to provide dual electric services, or they
can originate from a single electric service that is distributed through redundant paths within the facility. 
Generator-Generator

Transfer switches, at times, are applied between two generator sets for prime power use, often at remote
installations. In such cases, the generator may be required to provide continuous power 24/7.  To equally
share run-time, source power is periodically alternated between the generator sets.

Three power sources

Utility—Generator—Generator

Critical facilities with an emergency standby generator system will often include provisions for a second
generator connection to serve as a redundant emergency backup that can be used during periods of
inclement weather, or when scheduled maintenance is being performed on the first generator.

As shown, in some cases, the first generator is permanently installed onsite whereas the second generator
will be a portable roll-up type that is deployed when needed. 
Utility—Utility—Generator

This configuration expands on the redundancy provided by a dual utility arrangement and includes an
emergency standby generator source.  As shown, the generator can be dedicated for use by a single transfer
switch or shared among multiple transfer switches employing a priority control scheme.  
 Different ATS transition types
Transfer switches transition loads between normal and emergency power sources with open or closed
options. The specific functions performed by a given load and the importance of those functions to safety
or security play an important role in determining which kind of transition is required.

Open transition

An open transition is a break-before-make transfer. The transfer switch breaks its connection to one power
source before making a connection to the other. Open transitions include open-delayed and open in-phase.

Closed transition

A closed transition is a make-before-break transfer. The transfer switch makes a connection to a second
power source before breaking its connection with the first power source. As there’s no gap between
disconnection and connection, downstream loads receive continuous power throughout the transfer
process. 
 ATS modes of operation
Manual Transfer initiation and operation are performed manually, typically by pushing a
button or moving a handle; initiation occurs locally
Non-automatic Manually initiate a transfer by pressing a button or rotating a switch to cause an
internal electromechanical device to electrically operate the switching mechanism;
initiation can occur locally or remotely
Automatic Transfer switch controller is self-acting and completely manages both initiation and
operation; initiation is triggered when the automatic controller senses an
unavailability or loss of source power followed by operation of the switching
mechanism

What types of switching mechanisms are available? 

The switching mechanism is the part of a transfer switch that is physically responsible for carrying the
rated electrical current and shifting the load connection from one power source to another. These include: 

Contactor type

This is the most common and typically most economical switching mechanism type. Contactors are
constructed as an electrically-controlled, double-throw switch where a single operator opens one set of
power contacts while closin.
Molded case type

Routinely used for closing and interrupting a circuit between separable contacts under both normal and
abnormal conditions, molded case switches feature simple designs and are capable of supporting either a
mechanically operated, over-center toggle or a motor operator.

Power frame type

Power frame switches are larger, faster and more powerful than molded case switches, and are capable of
handling up to 5,000 amps.  A two-step stored energy technology is utilized that permits manual and
electrical operation under load.  
   uninterruptible power supply

uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a
short time when incoming power is interrupted. As long as utility power is flowing, it also replenishes
and maintains the energy storage.

Learn more about power system design basics

Learn about

Fig.2.1: Block diagram of basic UPS system

Features Uninterrupted Power Supply

 Regulated sinusoidal output voltage with low total harmonic distortion (THD)
independent of the changes in the input voltage or in the load, linear or nonlinear,
balanced or unbalanced.
 An input current with low total harmonic distortion and unity power
 High level reliability and efficiency.
 Bypass switch as a redundant source of power in the case of internal failure.
 A low degree of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and acoustic noise.
 Electric isolation of the battery, output, and input
 Relatively low cost, weight, and size requirements.
 Low maintenance.
 Safeguard sensitive equipment against damaging and costly power anomalies including
blackouts, brownouts, spikes, surges, over voltages, line noise and frequency variations.
 Minimal transition times between normal and backup operations

UPS systems serve two main purposes:

 To provide office equipment for backup power as quickly as possible in the

event of power loss without interruption whenever the main power goes and

 To offer some degree of industrial protection from power quality issues that may
damage equipment. UPS systems will fulfill these goals to varying degrees
depending on their design and features, which ultimately affect cost.

Classifications of Uninterruptible Power Supply

This chapter contains in depths literature review on types of ups systems. The mostly
chapter shows the evolution of static ups systems. Also the advantages and applications
of different UPS systems are critically reviewed.UPS can be classified into DC and AC
UPS systems as shown in Fig.2.2. DC UPS is well used in the communication industry,
while the AC types are mainly used within the power industry. In both types the main
source is AC. In DC UPS systems the mains supply is rectified and filtered in order to
provide the required DC supply. Both types are discussed in the following sections in
more details.

Fig.2.2: Main classification of UPS systems

Direct Current Uninterruptible Supply system
DC UPS is mainly designed for communication devices such as hubs, switches and
modems. It provides 24v DC supply from the 240VAC mains. The main aim is to ensure
a stable and Uninterrupted DC power to critical loads.

Alternative Current Uninterruptible Supply system

They are mainly used to supply to critical AC loads. They could vary from a single unit
which can operate as a back-up for single computer to a whole system which can be used
as a back-up for an entire building (banks, hospitals, power ,control rooms, etc ) . AC
UPS system can also be classified in to three categories based on which of the above
electric power disturbance problems they address and some manufacturers categorize
their products in accordance with the number of power related problems they address.

Fig.2. 3: classification of AC UPS systems

Rotary UPS systems:

This UPS Systems is used for higher level power requirement application. S ystems use a
form of motor-generator as a source for continuous clean power and to charge batteries
for back up service in the event of a power outage

A rotary UPS uses the inertia of a large, high- mass spinning flywheel to provide short-
term energy to the critical load in the event of power supply loss. The flywheel also acts
as a buffer against power spikes and sags. It is traditionally used in conjunction with
stand-by diesel generators, where the flywheel provides the back- up power only for the
brief period of time required for the rotating systems to start up or be brought into circuit
and stabilize its output.

The rotary UPS is generally reserved for applications that require more than 100kVA of
protection, for example where high power is required such as industrial or military
applications. Rotary UPS systems are normally extremely large and heavy power systems
that can only be transported by forklift or crane. A larger flywheel or multiple flywheels
operating in parallel will increase the reserve running time or capacity.

Fig.2. 4 Rotary UPS system

Hybrid (Static/Rotary) UPS systems

Hybrid UPS systems are usually used in very high-power applications, that is several
hundred KVA. They employ a regulating device during normal operation that, upon loss
of utility power or low power conditions, transfers the load to the inverter which operates
from a battery. In this system the AC motor is fed from the AC supply and drives the
generator. The AC generator supplies the load. The bidirectional convertor, which
behaves as rectifier, charges the battery. In case of power failure the battery supplies the
AC generator via the bidirectional convertor, which operates as an inverter. The AC
motor drives the AC generator which feeds the load.

Fig .2.5: Hybrid (static/rotary) UPS system

Static UPS systems

Static UPS systems are employed where a reliable high-quality power supply is necessary for
sensitive loads, Static UPS systems are the most commonly used UPS systems. They have a
broad variety of applications from low-power personal computers and telecommunication
systems, lighting systems to medium-power medical systems and to high-power utility systems.

The basic static UPS system consists of a rectifier-charger, inverter, static switch, and
battery as shown in figure 2.5 below. The rectifier receives the normal alternating current
(ac) power supply, provides direct current (dc) power to the inverter, and charges the
battery. The inverter converts the dc power to ac power to supply the intended loads. The
dc power will normally be provided from the rectifier, and from the battery upon failure
of the primary ac power source or the rectifier. The inverter will supply the loads under
normal conditions. In the event of the failure of the inverter, the static switch transfers the
load to an alternate ac source.
 Fig 2.6: simple static UPS system.

1. A rectifie r/battery charger: - This changes the mains supply AC voltage and current
into the levels of DC voltage and current needed in order to charge the battery and
power the inverter.

2. A storage unit: - This is normally a battery which stores DC electrical energy and
power for periods from several minutes to many hours. The most common battery used
by UPS manufacturers is the sealed or valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA). This is
because it is seen as environmentally friendly, has low maintenance requirements, and is
self-contained and reasonably inexpensive. Energy storage for UPS can come from
batteries, very high speed flywheels, or a combination of both. They can provide the
electrical supply to a critical load through the inverter for a short period.

3. A static converter (inverter): - This converts the stored DC supply into an AC

voltage wave form- stabilized, filtered and regulated to supply the connected load(s).

Static UPS are classified into different number of categories. Some are classified
according to power rating; some are classified according to the presence or absence of a
short interruption time and some according to the state of the inverter within the UPS

There are three main types of static UPS as specified by standard IEC 62040-3.2.
  Offline (IEC 62040-3.2.20)
 Line interactive (IEC 62040-3.2.18)
 On line UPSs (IEC62040-3.2.16)
 Offline UPS

It is more commonly known as standby passive UPS. It is a voltage and frequency dependent
(VFD), which is a UPS where the output tracks the power supply in terms of voltage and
frequency. Standby power supply, activates only when it senses a drop or loss of utility power. A
power loss occurs during transfer, usually it lasts for a certain cycles and here is no power
conditioning and it has a momentary cut-off that could affect the protected loads during the
transition. The inverter in off- line UPS systems is off during the normal operating mode. Hence,
this topology does not provide any power conditioning via its inverter during this mode.

Note. The inverter is connected in parallel and acts simply to back up utility power.

 Line interactive:

It is a voltage independent (VI), which is a UPS where voltage is stabilized and regulated
by built- in passive/electronic devices. It is similar to the off- line system except that it
offers a higher performance by adding voltage regulation features in the by-pass system
(sometimes known as „buck-boost‟). In line- interactive UPS systems, the inverter
is connected in parallel with the load and, during the normal mode of operation, provides
only limited power conditioning to the load.

 On line UPS:

It is also commonly considered as a voltage and frequency independent (VFI) system.

For this type of UPS the output is independent of any fluctuation in the power supply
voltage (mains) or frequency variations.

The components of an on-line UPS are always active, and therefore need to be much
more robust than those used for an off- line UPS which is only asked to provide output
intermittently.

The most common UPS is the VFI on-line system because it is the only true provider of
power without interruption. This type of UPS is the most appropriate type to use for
computers and data centers applications, lighting system as it is independent of both
variations in mains supply voltage and frequency.

This project is focused on an on- line UPS. Online systems are preferred where highly
reliable uninterruptible power supply is required It is more reliable, continuously supplies
the critical load with completely regulated and clean sine wave output and has high level
of efficiency. A bypass switch transfers the load to the mains when the output converter
is unable to supply the load. That is the reason why we have selected this UPS
configuration type for Kombolcha institute of technology campus.

Note. The inverter is in series between the AC input and the load. Power for the load
flows continuously through the inverter. It offers a large number of advantages in
meeting the needs of sensitive loads at the required power ratings, due primarily to the
position of the UPS connected in series with utility power. Main advantages are:

 Continuous conversion of the power supplied at the inverter output for the load
 Isolation of the load from the upstream distribution system
 Very wide input-voltage tolerances and precise regulation of the output voltage
 precise regulation of the output frequency
 transfer and stored electrical energy
 Much superior performance levels under steady-state and transient conditions
 Fig.3.1: Online UPS topology.

The basic components of on- line UPS systems are:

1. Rectifier

2. Storage battery

3. Inverter

4. Static switch
Rectifiers
The converter circuit which converts AC into DC is called as rectifiers. The first stage of
an AC frequency converter is the conversion of a 1-phase AC power supply to a smooth
DC voltage and current. Simple bi-stable devices, such as the diode and thyristor, can
effectively be used for this purpose. Rectifiers that special type of converter which
converts AC to DC. The purpose of an AC/DC rectifier in a UPS system is to produce
DC voltage with quality sufficient for proper operation of the DC/AC inverter at the back
end of the UPS system.

Figure: 3.2 rectification process

Rectifiers can further be classified into two categories i.e. controlled and uncontrolled
rectifier. The dc output always remain constant if ac input voltage is constant in an
uncontrolled rectifier. Whereas the output voltage can be controlled in a controlled
rectifier. Rectifiers are widely used in non linear loads which are connected with
distribution systems which plays an important role in power system network ( UPS,
discharge lamp, television, computer, fax machines, ferromagnetic devices, arc furnaces,
energysaversetc).

Battery storage
The most important features of the UPS systems are their reliability and availability. The
component that influences this characteristic most considerably is the battery. Batteries
must carry the power supply to the load when the AC line fails. If they are not capable of
doing this, the whole UPS system fails, regardless of how well designed the power
electronic circuit is. In addition, batteries usually determine where the UPS systems will
be placed because they requiremore space and have a weight greater than all the oth
components of UPS systems. In many cases, batteries constitute considerable parts of the cost
of the whole systems.

There are a variety of batteries in use, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
There are two main categories of batteries:

(1) Primary Batteries, sometimes also called single-use, or “throw-away” batteries

because they have to be discarded after they run empty as they cannot be recharged for
reuse. Examples of primary batteries are:

 Carbon Zinc (aka. „Heavy Duty‟)

 Alkaline
 Lithium Cells
 Silver Oxide Cells
 Zinc Air Cells

(2) Secondary Batteries: The batteries are normally a secondary type which means these are
electrically rechargeable, mostly called rechargeable batteries because they can be re-
energized (recharged) for reuse. Examples of rechargeable batteries are:

 Lead-Acid battery
 Rechargeable Alkaline battery
 Nickel-Cadmium battery
 Nickel-Metal Hydride battery
 Lithium Ion battery
The table compares the characteristics of the six most commonly used rechargeable
battery systems in terms of energy density, cycle life, exercise requirements and cost. The
figures are based on average ratings of commercially available batteries at the time of
publication (see Appendix -A).

Lead-acid batteries are about 50 percent less expensive than an equivalent other rechargeable
battery. For UPS application, the choices are between two battery types namely the wet and
gelled cell batteries. The wet batteries are available in two types; lead acid and nickel cadmium
batteries. For this project, Lead acid battery has been chosen due to their low cost, reliability, and
excellent performance in characteristics in float application.

Fig. 3.4 BB -Free Rechargeable Sealed Lead Acid Battery

Lead acid battery can be charge manually even with a commercial power supply featuring
voltage regulation and current limiting. This process can be done by connecting the battery to the
power supply that is set to deliver same voltage as the battery can hold when it is fully charge.
This procedure is called float voltage and it will charge the battery until it is fully charge and
would not overcharge the battery. Even though this procedure can perform as a charging system,
the battery will slowly sulfate if it was leave on float forever. That is why specification of the
battery needs to be considered in order to preserve the battery performance even with the
continuous charging process. From the specification of the battery, the required charging time is
different for each condition of the battery.
 Advantages

 Inexpensive and simple to manufacture: in terms of cost

per watt hours, the Lead Acid is the least expensive.
 Has good over charge tolerance
 Mature, reliable and well- understood technology: when
used correctly, the Lead acid is durable and provides
dependable service.
 Low self-discharge: the self-discharge rate is among the
lowest in rechargeable battery systems.
 Capable of high discharge rates.
 Efficiency – The electrochemical efficiency, expressed
as a percent, of the ratio of the ampere-hour output of
the battery, to the ampere-hour input required to restore
the initial state of charge.
Methods of Charging Lead-Acid Batteries
Proper recharging between discharges is an important key to obtaining optimum life from
any lead-acid battery. The charging methods of lead acid batteries are commonly given
the following names

1. Constant potential

2. Modified constant potential with constant initial current

3. Modified constant potential with a constant finish rate

4 .Modified constant potential with a constant start and finish rate

5. Taper charge (Ferro-resonant type chargers)

Charging method number 2 is found in on the uninterruptible power system, road

vehicles, utility, and telephone applications. The charge circuit has a current limit and this
value is maintained until a predetermined voltage is reached. Then the voltage is
maintained constant until the battery is called on to discharge. Decisions must be made
regarding the current limit and the constant voltage value. This is influenced by the time
interval when the battery is at the constant voltage and in a 100 percent state-of-charge.
For this “float” type operation with the battery always on charge, a low charge current is
desirable to minimize overcharge, grid corrosion associated with overcharge, water loss
by electrolysis of the electrolyte, and maintenance to replace this water.
  DC-DC Converters (Choppers)

A chopper is a power electronics converter used to obtain fixed or variable DC voltage from a
fixed DC source. A chopper which outputs a voltage greater than the source is called boost
converter (step up chopper).The principle behind step up chopper is the energy storage property
of inductors and capacitors. In the boost mode, the power transfer is from the battery to the DC
bus.

Fig.3.5 DC-DC converter (chopper)

Inverter

Electrical power is usually transmitted and used in the form of alternating current.
However, some kinds of electrical generation and storage devices produce direct current,
examples being PV modules and batteries. An inverter is a power electronic apparatus
which converts DC to AC, allowing the DC power from these generators to be used with
ordinary AC appliances, and/or mixed with the existing electrical grid.
 Fig.3.6: Conversion of DC to AC

A DC-AC power inverter is a circuit which modifies an input varying or non-varying

direct current (DC) to an alternating current (AC) of a specified voltage and frequency,
and a regulated DC voltage.

The inverter output voltage should be pure sinusoidal. But, the out voltages of inverter
are none sinusoidal being square or quasi square wave forms and hence contain much
harmonic components. Filters may be used to reduce harmonic components. A better
means of harmonic reduction is to use pulse width modulation (PWM) of switches in the
voltage controlled storage.

Inverter classification:

1. Based on the source current &voltage

 Current Source Inverter (CSI), which is connected to large inductor.

 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI), which is connected to large capacitor.

2. Based on the output phase

 Single phase inverter

 Three phase inverter

3. Based on switching configuration

 Half bridge inverter

 Full bridge inverter
 Some of the applications of an inverter are listed below:
 Uninterrupted power supplies
 Emergency lighting systems
 AC variable speed drives
 Frequency converters
 Fig 3.10: Overall Block diagram of the proposed online UPS system

On Line UPS operation modes

There are three operating modes related to this topology: normal mode, stored energy
mode (back up), and bypass mode.

Normal operation

During normal operation, the rectifier converts the ac input power to dc power with
regulated voltage. The rectifier output is normally set at the battery float voltage to
charge the battery while supplying dc power to the inverter. The rectifier output voltage
is periodically set at the battery equalize voltage to maintain the battery capacity. The dc
filter (inductor) is provided for smoothing out the rectifier output current to reduce the
current ripple content. The battery acts as a capacitor and in conjunction with the filter,
smoothes out the output voltage and reduces the dc voltage ripple content. The inverter
converts the dc power to ac power with regulated voltage and frequency. An internal
oscillator maintains the inverter frequency by controlling the timing of the silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR) firing signals and matches the ac input frequency. The filters at
the output transformer secondary are provided to filter out the harmonics in the inverter
output. Tuned L-C filters are used - when required - to filter out the 5th and 7th harmonics
while a capacitor is adequate for filtering out the higher order harmonics.
 The inverter supplies the load with power all the times and at the same time conditions
the power delivered to the load. When the input power fails, the inverter draws power
from the battery .Note that the switch does not operate when going to battery backup.

Stored-Energy (back up) Mode of Operation

When the AC input voltage is outside the preset tolerance, the inverter and battery
maintain continuity of power to the load. The duration of this mode is the duration of the
preset UPS backup time or until the AC line returns within the preset tolerance. When the
AC line returns, a phase- locked loop (PLL) makes the load voltage in phase with the
input voltage and after that the UPS system returns to the normal operating mode.

Bypass mode of operation

An On-Line UPS has a third mode of operation (that a Standby UPS does not have). Fig.
3.10 below illustrates the bypass mode and would be used if the UPS fails, for
maintenance or if the output voltage sags as a result of starting a load with a high inrush
current. In bypass mode the switch has activated and if the UPS is ok, the switch will
automatically return the load to inverter power.

In some cases, there can be a maintenance bypass using a transfer switch in case of:

a) UPS failure

b) Load current transients (inrush currents or fault clearing currents).

c) Overload

d) Maintenance
Arrangement of Batteries

Sixty numbers of lead acid batteries required for both computers and lighting systems of the UPS
is arranged with carefully identifying of the battery terminals in the following figure.

Fig 4.1 Arrangement of Batteries

 Lighting Techniques by Location –
There are two "types" of basic lighting locations to
understand and use:
1Studio Lighting
.2Field (outdoor) Lighting
Studio Lighting: Allow studio lights 1-3 minutes to warm up before bring them up to
full power. Three Point (triangle) - Key light, fill light and back light Key (spotlight); fill
(flood); back (spotlight) Three Point plus background light (background light will illuminate
the area behind the scene)
Field (outdoor) Lighting: Outdoor lighting usually will be dependent on the
available light. You can apply the principles of studio lighting to outdoor lighting. Bright
sunlight will create high contrast and deep shadows. Reflectors may be needed to fill in the
dark shadow areas. Avoid shooting against any bright background. Anything in front of it
will be nothing more than a dark silhouette. Use reflector boards to fill in dark areas. In a
medium shot the person speaking can hold their own reflector board at waist level to fill
under the chin and highlight the face.
THREE POINT LIGHTING
Three-point lighting consists, as you might imagine, of three lights: the key, the fill and
the back. Together, these serve to wrap your subject in light, creating shadows that define
the subject like a person's face, but do not overpower it.
The key light
The key light is vital for video production lighting: it is placed about 45 degrees to the
subject, either left or right, usually above and aimed down between 30 and 45-degrees. It is
the dominant light. Position this light as you would if it were the only light you had. From
this, you'll have defining shadows on the face which would be lost if the light were on a
similar axis to the camera, but you'll notice that, in a room with no other lighting, it will
create deep, dark shadows. Toning down those shadows is the job of the next light
The Fill
The fill is usually two or three stops dimmer than the key light, and its placement is at a
near 45-degree angle on the opposite side of the camera, often on a level with the subject's
face. The fill light is a reaction to the key light, and its ultimate placement depends on the
function of the fill - what shadows does it create? Where do you need to reduce them for
better video production lighting?
back light
. The back light, sometimes called a rim or shoulder light, is aimed at the subject's back,
and, like the key light, it is usually 45-degrees off the axis and shines down upon the
subject. This creates a bright rim around part of the subject, creating an outline which then
appears to separate the shoulders from the background. The back light can be as bright as
the key, or lesser or brighter, depending upon the requirem