Chapter 4

Elementary Number Theory

4.1 Division algorithm and its applications

In this section, we study some properties of integers. We start with the ‘division algorithm’.

Lemma 4.1.1. [Division algorithm] Set a and b be two integers wi,th b > 0. Then there exist unique
integers q, r such that a —— qb + r, where 0 < r < b. The integer q i,s called the quotient and r, the
remainder.

Proof. Azi.stence: Take S —— {a + bz|z C Z} W. Then a + |n| b C S. Hence, S is a nonempty subset

of W. Therefore, by the well ordering principle, S contains its minimum, set *o So, •o + 3+o, for

contradicts the minimality of •o Hence

0 < .sp < b. Take q = —*o and r —— •o Then qb + .sp = —mph + n + hop = o, /. e., we have
obtained q and r such that n qb + r with 0 .
Uniguen,e.s.s: Assume that there exist integers' si, s2, r and 2 satisfying a = sit + ri , 0 < r i < 3,
° = qz + ^2, and 0 < < 6. Suppose rt < Thell () < ^z—*i < ñ. Notice that —^i = (qi—qz) So,
0 < (qi — sz)3 < b. This is a contradiction since (0, h) does not contain any integer which is a multiple
of b. Similarly, r 2 < r i leads to a contradiction. Therefore, r r2 Then, 0 ri f’2 (Q1 v2)
and b 0 imply that si = Q2

Definition 4.1.2. Let o, h C Z with h 0. If n = bc, for some c C H then b is said to divide o and
we write b|n (read as b divides n. ) When b|n, we also say that h is a divisor of o, and that n is a
multiple of h.

Remark 4.1.3. Let o be a nonzero integer. If h is a positive divisor of a, then 1 < fi < n|. Hence the
set of all positive divisors of a nonzero integer is a nonempty finite set.
Further, if n is a positive integer and h is a positive diviuor of n, then n = kb for some k H so
that b < n. It then follows that if n, b C H such that n|b and b|n, then n = b.

Definition 4.1.4. 1. Let a and h be two nonzero integers. Then the set S of their common positive
divisors is nonempty and finite. Thus, S contains its greatest element. This element is called
the greatest common divisor of a and h and is denoted by gcd(a, h). The gcd is also called
the highest common factor.

2. An integer a is said to be relatively prime to an integer fi if gcd(o, fi) = 1. In this case, we also
say that the integers n and ñ are coprimes.

61
62 CHAPTER 4. ELEMENTARY NUMBER 'THEORY

The next result is often stated as ‘the gcd(o. h) is a linear combination of n and h’.

Theorem 4.1.5. [Bézout’s identity] Set a and b be two nonzero integers and let d —— gcd(a, h).
7’fien th,ere eat.st, integers +o, to •iicfi that d —— axq + bid.

Proof. Consider the set S —— far. + by : z, p C Z} O H. Then, either n C S or —a C S. Thus, S is a

nonempty subset of H. By the well ordering principle, S contains its least element, say d. As d C S,
we have d —— • o + o, for some *o i o o Z. We show that d —— gcd(n, h).
By the division algorithm, there exist integers q and r such that a = dq + r, with 0 < r < d. If
r > 0, then

In this case, r is a positive integer in S which is strictly less than d. This contradicts the choice of d
as the least element of S. Thus, r —— 0. Consequently, d a. Similarly, d b. Hence d < gcd(o, h).
Now, gcd(a, h) | n and gcd(n, b) | b. Since d —— est + hyt for some sb, pb C Z, we have gcd(a, b) d.
That is, d = k x gcd(n, b) for some integer k. However, both gcd(a, h) and d are positive. Thus k is a
positive integer. Hence d > gcd(n, b).
Therefore, d gcd(a, b). •
We prove three useful corollaries to Bézout’s identity.

Corollary 4.1.6. Let u, b C P ord let d C H. Then, d —— gcd(n, b) if and only // d|n, d b, and each
common diivisor of a and b divides d.

Proof. Suppose d —— gcd(n, h). Then d|a and d|b. Bâzout’s identity, d —— ak + fix, for some k. m. R.
Thus, any common divisor of o and h divid aged(n, D).
Conversely. suppose d a, d b and eac c mon divisor of o and h divides d. Since d is a common
divisor of n and ñ, fly what we have just proved, d| gcd(o, b). Further, gcd(a, b) is a common divisor of
a and b; so, by assumption gcd(o, b)|d. By Remark 4.1.3, d —— gcd(o, b). •

Corollary 4.1.'Z. Se/ ‹i, h ñe n,onzero in,te.gr.re. Th,r.n gcd(o, b) 1 i,f and on,fp if there. eat.s/ in,irgers
J0 ORd p0 .9UCb UOt £tJ0 -|- bp0 == 1.

Proof. If gcd(n, h) = 1, then by Bezout’s identity, there exist integers +o nd vo such that «+o + 3vo =
Conversely, suppose there exist integers zp and to such that •*o + vo = 1. If gcd(n, h) = k, then k is
a positive integer such that k l. It follows that k < 1; consequently, k —— 1.

Proof. The positive integers nt, ... , n k at e pair wise coprimes means that if f j, then gcd(ni. ny) = 1.
Let a e Z be such that i «, k• We show by induction that i k• . For k —— 2, it is given
that 1 . 21 and gcd( 1, z) = 1. By Bézout’s identity, there exist z, p e Z such that mz + zv =
Multiplying by a, we have a = « 1 + 2v = 1 2 (*( @2 ) + $( )) •
Since 2 and 1 « , we see that 2
, 1
C Z so that (z(@ 2) + p(@)) C Z. Hence 1 2«
Assume the induction hypothesis that the statement is true for k —— m. Let each of nt, . . , «-‹-1
divide n and that they are pairwise coprimes. Let n,t r,p = /. Then gcd(é, u,p+j) = 1. By the
induction hypothesis, é|o. By the basis case, (k —— 2 as proved), we conclude that é «+i « . That

is,
4.1. DIVISION AU C ORI'THM AND US APPLICATIONS 63

The division algorithm helps to algorithmically compute the greatest common divisor of two
nonzero integers, commonly known as the Euclid’s algorithm.
Let o, and b be nonzero integers. By the division algorithm, there exists integers q and r with
0 < r < |fi| such that n = |6 q + r. We apply our observation that a common divisor of two integers
divides their gcd.
Now, gcd(|h , r) divides both |fi| and r; hence it divides n. Again, gcd(|h| , r) divides both u and |h|.
Hence gcd(|b|, r) gcd(a, |h|).
Similarly, with r —— a — b q, we see that gcd(n, |h|) divides both a and |h|; hence gcd(a, |h|) |r.
Consequently, gcd(o, |b|)| gcd(| b| , r).
Further, the gcd of any two integers is positive. Thus, gcd(a, h) = gcd(o, |b|). So, we obtain

gcd(ri, h) = gcd(ri, |fi ) = gcd(|h|, r).

Euclid’s algorithm applies this idea repeatedly to find the greatest common divisor of two given
nonzero integers, which we now present.
Euclid’s algorithm
Input: Two nonzero integers a and b; Output: gcd(o, h).

Ïf0 —|— T’Q Wlth < WQ <

rO ‹f1 —|- r1 Wlth 0< r1 < r0

0 p1 Q2 + p2 With 0< 2 < 1
ri r2 fi3 + r y i 0< 3 < *2

rp l’œil
gcd(a, h) r¿+

The process will take at most h — 1 steps as 0 < r o < b. Also, note that rt+i can be expressed in
the form rt +i = « +o + pb for integers zb, pb using backtracking. That is,

Example 4.1.9. We apply Euclid’s algorithm for computing gcd(l55, —275) as follows.

—275 (—2) 155 + 35 (so, gcd(—275, 155) = gcd(155, 35))

155 4- 35 + 15
(so, gcd(US, 35) = gcd(35, 15))
35 2- 15 + 5
(so, gcd(35, 15) = gcd(15, 5))
15 35 (so, gcd(15. 5) = 5).

To write o = gcd(l55, —275) in the form l 55* o + (—27 5)vo. notice that

5 35 —- 15 35 —2(155 — -4 35) -9 35 —- 155 9(—275 -2 155) —- 155 -9 (—275) + 1- 1o5.

2 2 2 6

Also, note that 275 = - 55 and 155 = - 31 and thus, 5 = (9 + (—275) + (16 + 55a-) 155, for all
5 5 31a-)
z C Z. Therefore, we see that there are infinite number of choices for the pair (z, p) C Z2, for which
d = az + hp.
EXERCISE 4.1.10. 7. Let a, b C H with gcd(a, h) = d. Then gcd( , ¿) = 1.
2. Pro oe that the system I 6:s + 12d = 6 do.s a .so/ution for :r., y C B if and only i/ 3 divides b.
64 CHAPTER 4. ELEMENTARY NUMBER 'THEORY

$. [Linear Diophantine equation] Set o, b, c C Z \ (0}. Then the linear system an + by —— c, in

the un,known,s :s, y C d has a softi/ion i f and only z/ gcd(n, b) divides c. Furthermore, delermin,e
all pairs (x.. y) C B x B such that az. + by is indeed c.
. Prove thai gcd(n, bc) = 1 i/ and only i/ gcd(n, b) = 1 and gcd(n, c) = 1, for end three nonzero
integers a, b and c.
6. Euclid’s algorithm cnn .sometimes be applied to check whether limo numbers which are dependent
on an unknown trite.yer n, are relatively pri.me or n,ot. For example., we can use the alyonithm to
prove that gcd(2s + 3, 5s + 7) = 1 for ever y n C d.
6. Suppose a milkman has only 3 cans of .size.s 7, 9 and 16 liters. What i,s the m,inimum number of
operati,ons reguired to deli,ver 1 liter of mi,lk to a customer? Explain.

To proceed further, we need the following definitions.

Definition 4.1.11. 1. The integer 1 is called the unity (or the unit element) of Z.
2. An integer p > 1 is called a prime. if p has exactly two positive divisors, namely, 1 and p.
3. An integer r > 1 is called composite if r is not a prime.

We are now ready to prove an important result that helps us in proving the fundamental theorem
of arithmetic.

Lemma 4.1.12. [Euclid’s Lemma] Let a, b P and let p be a prime. If p ub then p a or p b.

Proof. Suppose p ah. If p a, then there is nothing to prove. So, assume that p n. As p is a prime,
gcd(p, a) = 1. Thus there exist integers z. p 1 = nz + py. Then b = ribs + php. Since p at
un6 p pb, we see that p b. •
One also has the following result.

Proposition 4.1.13. Set n, h, n C H be such trot n|ah. If gcd(n, a) = 1, then n b.

Proof. Suppose gcd(n, n) = 1. There exist +o, vo Z such that zoo + «vo = 1. Thell b = vo + =o-
Since n|ah and n|nh. we have n|b.
Now, we are ready to prove the fundamental theorem of arithmetic that states that ‘every positive
integer greater than 1 is either a prime or is a product of primes. This product is unique, except for
the order in which the prime factors appear’.

theorem 4.1.14. [Fundamental theorem of arithmetic] Let n, C H w/tfi n > 2. them thet-e exist
prime numbers p > p2 > > rk and positive integers n , n2 •!k •!uch that n —— p11 p -2- - p h , for
2 k
t2
some k > 1. Moreo her, i/ n, also eguo/.s ti V2 q¿

Proof. Se,e, Example 2.2.6 for a proof. •

Theorem 4.1.15. [Euclid: Infinitude of primes] The number of primes i,s ‹narrate.

Proof. On the contrary assume that the number of primes is finite, say p —— 2, H2 = 3, . . Pk Consider
the positive integer N —— rirz Ok + 1. We see that none of the primes pi , rz, rk divides N. This
contradicts Theorem 4.1.14.

Proposition 4.1.16. [Primality testing] Let n C H iritfi n > 2. If no pri,me p < divides n, then
n is pi-ime.
4.2. MODULAR ARITHME III 65

Proof. Suppose n = zp, for 2 < z, p < n. Then, either z < or p < . Without loss of generality,
assume z < . Ifs is a prime, we are done. Else, take a prime divisor p of s. Now, p < and p
divides n. •

EXERCISE 4. l.l'Z. 7. Pro oe that the.re nre i,nfinit.ely sung prices of t,lie form 4n — 1.
2. Fix N H, N > 2. Then, there ezi.sfis n con.secutire set o/ N nnturol wtishers thu/. are. composite.

Definition 4.1.18. The least common multiple of integers n and h, denoted as lcm(a, h), is the
smallest positive integer that is a multiple of both n and h.

Lemma 4.1.19. be/ n, b C Z out Tel é C H. Then, £ —— lcm(a, b) i/ end on,/y i/ n|/, b|é end / diciJes
each common m,ultiple of u and b.

Proof. Let é = lcm(o, h). Clearly, n|é and b|é. Let z be a common multiple of both n and h. If é z,
then by the division algorithm, z = / q + r for some integer q and some r with 0 < r < £. Notice that a|
z and a|é. So, a|r. Similarly, b r. That is, r is a positive common multiple of both o and h which is less
than lcm(n, fi). This is a contradiction. Hence, é = lcm(a, h) divides each common multiple of u and b.
Conversely, suppose n|é, b|é and é divides each common multiple of o and b. By what we have
just proved, lcm(n, b)|é. Further, lcm(a, b) is a common multiple of n and b. Thus é| lcm(n, h). By
Remark 4.1.3, we conclude that é = lcm(o. h).

Theorem 4.1.20. Let a, b C H. 7’fien gcd(n, lcm(n, b) = at. In particular, lcm(n, b) = ah i/ and
b-)
only t/ gcd(o, h) = 1.
ome
Proof. Let d —— gcd(a, h). Then n = nod and h = hid ct, fit C H. Further.

ah = a d b d b d-) gcd(o. h).

Thus, it is enough to show that lcm(n, b) a b d.

Towards this, notice that at bt d = 1 ' rich, that is, a a b d and b 131d. Let c C H be any
common multiple of n and h. Then , ¿ C Z. Further, by Bézout’s identity, d —— as -I- ht for some

Hence 131d|c. That is, 131d divides each common multiple of o and b. By Lemma 4.1.19,
a bid —— lcm(o. ñ).

4.2 Modular arithmetic

Definition 4.2.1. Fix a positive integer n. Let u, b C H. If n divides n — h, we say that o is congruent
to h modulo n, and write n b (mod n).

Example 4.2.2. 1. Notice that 2|(2£ — 2rn) and also 2 (2k — 1) — (2m — 1)a . Therefore, any two
even integers are congruent modulo 2; and any two odd integers are congruent modulo 2.
2. The numbers CIO and 22 are congruent modulo 4 as 4|(22 — 10) and 4|(22 — (—10)).
3. Let n be a fixed positive integer. Recall the notation n — 1] := (0, 1, 2, ... , n — 1}.
(a) Then, by the division algorithm, for any n C Z there exists a unique h C n — 1] such that
n — b (mod n,). The number b is called the residue of n modulo n.
66 CHAPTER 4. ELEMENTARY NUMBER 'THEORY

n—1
(b) Further Z U I• + kn : k C Z}, i. e., every integer is congruent to an element of n — 1].
&=0
The set n — I] is taken as the standard representative for the set of residue classes
modulo n.

Theorem 4.2.3. Fi,+. n C H, an,d lr.t u, b, c, ñ C H. Th,r.n t,hr. /offomin,p arr. t,rur.:
1. If a — b (mod n) and b — c (mod n), then a — c (mod n).
2. If a — b (mod n), then a + c — b + c (mod n), n — c — b — c (mod n) and nc bc (mod n).
3. If a —— b (mod n,) on4 c —— d (mod n,), then, a c b + d (mo4 n), a — r ñ — d (mcd n,) and
ac —— bd (mod n). in pal ti.cular, a —— b (mod n) ’implie.s a” —— b” (mod n) for all m E R.
. If ac — be (mod n) for nonzero a, b, c, and d —— gcd(c, n), then a — b (mod n/d). In parti,cular,
i/ nc bc (mod n) for nonzero a, h, c, and gcd(c, n) = 1, them n b (mod n).

Proof. We will only prove two parts. The readers should supply the proof of other parts.
3. Note that ac — bd —— ac — bc + bc — bd —— c(a — b) + b(c — d). Thus, n ac — bd, whenever n a — b
and n|c — d. In particular, taking c = o and d —— h and repeatedly applying the above result, one has
a‘ — b‘ (mod n), for all m C H.
4. Let gcd(c, n) = d. Then. there exist nonzero ct. my C Z with c = 1d, n —— std. Then n|nc — hc
implies n, d| c. 1d(a #), which implie 1 i( b). By Proposition 4.1.13, n,1|a b, ‹. e. yg d ) ’

Example 4.2.4. 1. Note that -3 9 + 13- (—2) 1 (mod 13). If z satisfies 9z 4 (mod 13) then

z, —— z-. 1 z- (3- 9 + 13- as 3- 9 + 13- (—2) 1 (mod 13)

(—2)) as 13 0 (mud 13)
3- 9z as 9z 4 (mod 13)
a3.4
e12 (mod 13)a

To verify, if a 12 (mod 13), then 9z 108 (13 x 8 + 4) 4 (mod 13). Therefore, the
congruence equation 9s 4 (mod 13) has solution z 12 (mod 13).
2. Verify that 9- (—5) + 23- (2) = 1. Hence, the equation 9s 1 (mod 23) has the

solution z — z 1 — z (9 (—5) —I— 23 (2)) — (— ) (9z) — —5 x 1 — 18 (mod 23).

3. Verify that the equation 3z 15 (mod 30) has solutionss = 5, 15, 25; where as the equation
7z, —— 15 (mod 30) has only one solution z = 15; and that the equation 3z 5 (mod 30) has no
solution.

theorem 4.2.5. [Linear Congruence] Let n be a posi,tine integer and let a, b be nonzero i,ntegers.
then the congruence equation as — b (mod n) has at least one solution if and only if gcd(n, n)|b.
Moreover, i/ d —— gcd(n. n)|b, then nz b (mod n) lie.s exactly d number of .so/utioncs T J, . . d
(0, 1, 2, ... , n — I}, where ri r j (mod n/d) for all i, j —— 1, 2, ... , d.

Proof. Write d —— gcd(o. n). Let o be a solution of nz b (mod n). Then, by definition, • o — = s.
for some q C H. Thus, b = nzb — sq. Since d a and d|n, we have d axq — nq b.
Conversely, suppose d b. Then, h = did , for some 3i o H. By Brzout’s identity, there exist
+o, vo o Z such that «+o + vo = d. Hence,

drM)—#(•o)—#( o+"V)—#*—# (* ")

4.2. MODULAR ARITHME III 6T

That is, o t is a solution of nz h (mod n). This proves the first statement.
To proceed further, assume that d b. By what we have just proved. there exists a solution zt of
as — b (mod n). By the division algorithm, there exist p, r C D with 0 < r < n such that +i = p +
Now, nr «( 1 — Q ) 1 b (mod n). Thus, r is also a solution of us b (mod n), i.e., there
exists r C (0, 1 ... , n — 1} satisfying ar — b (mod n).
If 2 (0, 1, .... n, 1} is any other solution of us b (mod n,), then *2 ar (mod n,).
Thus, by Theorem 4.2.3.4, 2 (mod n/d). Conversely, if +2 (mod n/d), then *2' + m(n/d)
‹i
for some m c Z. Then +z = « + ( / d) = ar + mn(a Jd). us cl| a, the number n/d is an integer.
Hence, «+z ar (mod n) so that *2 is a solution of nz b (mod n).
Therefore, all solutions of na h (mod n) in {0, 1, ... , n — 1} are of the form r + k(n/d) for k C R.
However, there are exactly d number of integers in (0, 1, ... , n — 1} which are congruent to r modulo
(n/d). Hence there are d number of solutions of nz b (mod n) in (0, 1, ... , n — 1}. •

Remark 4.2.6. Observe that a solution of the congruence us h (mod n) is a number in (0, 1, ... , m—
l}. This set is not to be confused with the congruence class n — 1]. When d —— gcd(n. n), we may write
the distinct solutions in n — 1] in increasing order as r = r. r z = r + n/d, p3 = r + 2n/d, . . d
r + (d — l)n/d. It means that the solutions are zi rt (mod n) for / = 1, 2, ... , d.

EXERCISE 4.2.7. 1. 'omplete the proof of Theorem .2.8.

2. Determ,ine the .softi/‹on,.s of the .sp.s/etn 3z. 5 (mod 55).
S. De.terini.ne th,e soluti.one o/ t,h,r. ystr.m, 5z 95 (mo 100).
/. Prove that the system 3z — 4 (mod 28) /.s equ/e t o the .sy.stem z 20 (mod 28).
5. C!onsider the congruence pair 3z 4 (mod d 4z 2 (mod 27).
(a) Prove that the given pair i,s equi,val the port z 20 (mod 2S) ord z 14 (mod 27).
(b) Prove that Vol iny the congruence pair i,n (a) is eguirafent to solving one. of the congruences
20 + 28£ — 14 (mod 27) or 14 + 27k — 20 (mod 2S) for the un,known quoniitp k.
(c) Veri,fy that k —— 21 i.s the .sofu//on for the first case in (b) and k —— 22 /oi the .second case.
(d) Conclude that x, —— 20 + 2- 21 = 14 + 2- 22 35 O SOlHti,on for the given congruence pai,r.
8 7

6. Pro oe that if ii is a prime, then p|C!(p, k) : for 1 < k < p — 1.

k!(p — k)!

1. Set p be a prime. Wri,te Up : —— {0, 1, 2, ... , p — 1} and Bp* :—— (1, 2, ... , p — 1} = Zp \ (0}. Show
that Up has lhe foIIom’ing properties:
(a) For all a, b C Up, a + h (mod p) C Up.
(b) For all a, b C Up, a + b —— b + a (mod p) .
(c) For all n, b, c C Up, a + (h + c) (o + h) + c (mod p) .
(d) For all a C Bp, a + 0 n (mod p).
(e) For all a C Up, a + (p — n) 0 (mod p).
(f) For all a, b C Up, u- b (mod p) C Up.
(g) For all a, b C Up, a- h - a (mod p).
b
c) (n- c (mod p).
(h) For all a, b, c C Up, a- h-)
(-b
(i) For all a C Up, a- 1 a (mod p) .
) For each, a C Up, there exists b Up s uch that a - b — I (mod p) .
68 CHAPTER 4. ELEMENTARY NUMBER 'THEORY

(k) For all a, b, c G Up, a- (b —|— c) (a- b) —|— (a - c) (mod p) .

Any nonempty set containing at least two elements such as 0 and 1, in which ‘addition’ and
‘multiplication’ can be defined in such a way that the above properties are satisfied, is called a
field. So, Zp = (0, 1, 2, ... , p — I} is an example of a field. The well known examples of fields
are:
(a) Q, the set of rational numbers.
(b) R, the set of real numbers.
(c) C, the set of complex numbers.

8. Let p be an odd prime. Prove the following:

(a) The equation z.2 1 (mod p) /ze.s exactly two solutions i,n Up.
(b)'orresponding to any a C (2, 3, ... , p — 2}, if there exists b C Up such that -a b — 1 (mod p),
the.n b C (2, 3, ... , p — 2} an,d b -/- n.

(d) Let p > 3. Write q —— (p — 3)/2. There exist two- element sets fa , bi i, 2i 2 i • • •i qi q$
fi
that are pairwise di.sjoi’nt sau’.sfyi’ng a-, b, — 1 (mod p) for 1 < i < q, and U I•‹. *81
(2, 3, ... , p — 2}.
(e) If p > 3, then 2 3- --- - (p — 2) 1 (mod p).

9. [Wilson’s Theorem] If p i,s ring prime, then — 1)! —1 (mod p).

10. [Primality Testing] Any ln,teger n > 1 i ri,me. if and only i,f (n — 1)! —1 (mod n).

4.3 Chinese Remainder Th rem

Theorem 4.3.1. [Chinese remainder theorem] Fix a positive integer m. Let ni, , , np be
paii•wi.se coprime po.sitive in,leger.s. Wc//e M = i - n,p. Then„ the .sycs/em of congruence.s

<z (mod z)

lie.s a unique solution modulo M.

Proof. For 1 < k < rn, define M k . Then, gc6 (Mk › k) 1 and hence there exist integers *i. ’Jb
k
such that M k k + k!4k — 1 for 1 < k < m. Let 1 < 7, j < rn. Then

Now, z 0 : Z M k xk ak —— M;x;a; 1- ni ai (mod ni). That is, z 0 is a solution to the given

k——1
system of congruences.
If vo is any solution to the system of congruences, then for each integer k with 0 < k < rn, we have
00 — •k (mod • k) so that v0 — 0 — >k — >k — 0 (mod k) Since n. , . • k are pairwise coprimes and
their product is M, Corollary 4.1.8 implies that Up — zp 0 (mod M). Therefore, *o is the unique
solution of the system of congruences module M.
4.8. C!HINESE REMAINDER THEOREM 69

Example 4.3.2. Consider the system of congruences z 20 (mod 28) and z 14 (mod 27) in
Exercise 4.2.7.5. In this case. 1 = 20, = 14, nt = 28 and = 27 so that M —— 28 27 = 756, 1
1
27 and 2' 28. Them +i = — and +2 = 1 show that 1 1 + 2 2' 2- —1 2- 1 = 1. Hence
7 8

*o == 2f • —1 • 20 + 26 • 1 • 14 —540 + 392 —148 608 (mod 756).

EXERCISE 4.5.3. 1. Find the smallest positive integer which when divided by 4 le.ave.s a remainder
1 an,d wh,en, dioi,dr.d buy 9 lr.arr.s a rem,ai,n,dr.r 2.
Find the smalle.st, positive i,nteger which when divided by 8 leaves a remained 4 and wh,en, divided
hp 15 leaves a reminder 10.
3. Does there exist a positi,oe. integer n such that n — 4 (mod 14) and n — 6 (mod 18)? Glide
reasons /or your answer. What if we replace 6 or 4 m/tfi as odd number?

Let n be a positive. integer. Show that th,e set Bp : —— (0, 1, 2, ... , n— 1} has the followi,ng properties:

(a) For all a, b Pp, o + b (mod n) C Zq.

(b) For all a, b C Zp, a + b = h + a (mod n).
(c) For all a, b, c C Zq, a + (h + c) (n h) + c (mod n).
(d) For all a C Zq, n + 0 n (mod n).
(r.) For all a C Zq, n + (n — u) 0 (mod n).
(f) For all n, b C Zq, n- b (mod n) C Hq.
(g) For all n, b C Zq, o- b a (mod n)
—— -b
c) (n- b od n).
(h) For all n, b, c C Zq, n-
(-h

) For all a, b, c G Zm, a- (b -|- c) (a- b) -|- (a- c) (mod n) .

Any set, say R, with 0, 1 C R. 0 1, in which ‘addition’ and ‘multiplication’ can be defined in
such a way that the above properties are satisfied, is called a commutative ring with unity.
So, Hq (0, 1, 2, ... , u, 1} is an example of a commutative ring with unity. The well known
examples of commutative ring with unity are:
(a) H, the set of integers.
(b) Q, the set of rational numbers.
(c) IR, the set of real numbers.
(d) C, the set of complex numbers.

5. Let m and n be two copiñme positive integers. By Exercise }.8.8.}, the sets Pp, dp, end Hpq are
commutat,ioe. rings with nudity. Now, define addition and multiplication i.n dp dp component-
wi,se. Also, define the functi,on

'Then, pi one the following:

(a) dq x dp is a commutatioe ring with unity. What are the ñ and 1 here?
70 CHAPTER 4. ELEMENTARY NUMBER 'THEORY

Such a function / is called a ring isomorphism, and thus, the two rings Hp x Hq and Zpq are
isomorphic.