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After you have done a few of these you start just writing down the remainder.
Thus the last example could be shortened to
gcd(632, 2642) = gcd(114, 632) (r = 114 when 632 is divided into 2642)
= gcd(62, 114) (r = 62 when 114 is divided into 632)
= gcd(52, 62) (r = 52 when 62 is divided into 114)
= gcd(10, 52) (r = 10 when 52 is divided into 62)
= gcd(2, 10) (r = 2 when 10 is divided into 52)
= gcd(0, 2) (r = 0 when 2 is divided into 10)
=2
where you would most likely not write down the comments about r = 144
etc.
Problem 4. Use this method (called the Euclidean algorithm) to find
the following greatest common divisors. We shall study this algorithm in
much more detail later in the term.
gcd(64, 81), gcd(6, 121), gcd(169, 273), gcd(51, 187), gcd(999, 2187).
The following is maybe the most important elementary fact about greatest
common divisors and relatively prime integers.
Theorem 6 (Bezout’s Theorem). If a and b are integers, not both zero,
then there are integers x and y such that
ax + by = gcd(a, b).
In particular if a and b are relatively prime, there are integers x, y such that
ax + by = 1.
Remark 7. The proof here is based on the fact that all ideals are principle
and shows how ideals are useful. This proof is short, but is somewhat unsat-
isfying as it does give a method for finding integers x and y. Later we will
give anther proof, based on the Euclidean algorithm, which is constrictive
in that it gives an algorithm for finding x and y.
Problem 5. Prove Theorem 6 along the following lines. Set
I = {ax + by : x, y ∈ Z}.
We have already seen that this is an ideal. We have also shown that all
ideals are principal. That is there is a d such that
I = Id = {zd : z ∈ Z}.
Note that I−d = Id , so by possibly replacing d by −d we assume that d > 0.
(a) Explain why d | a and d | b and therefore d is a common divisor of a
and b. Hint: Show that a, b ∈ I. Then use I = Id .
(b) Explain why gcd(a, b) | d. Hint: Proposition 4.
(c) Now show d = gcd(a, b).
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(d) Finish the proof by explaining why there are integers x and y with
gcd(a, b) = d = ax + by.
Corollary 8. If c is a common divisor of a and b, then
c | gcd(a, b).
Problem 6. Prove this. Hint: Combine Theorem 6 with Proposition 4.
Theorem 9. If gcd(a, b) = 1 and a|bc, then a|c.
Problem 7. Prove this. Hint: This is one of many times in the near future
we will be using the assumption gcd(a, b) = 1 by using that there are integers
x and y with ax+bx = 1. As we have a | bc there is a integer k such bc = ak.
Multiply ax + bx = 1 by c to get acx + bcx = c. Now replace bc by ak and
the result is acx + akx = c. Now it should be easy to show a | c.
The following is really a corollary to the last result, but is important
enough to get promoted to a Proposition.
Proposition 10. If p is prime and p | ab, then p | a or p|b. That is if a
prime divides a product, then it divides one of the factors.
Proof. If p | a, then we are done. So assume - a. As the only positive factors
of p are p and 1, we have that either gcd(p, a) = p, or gcd(p, a) = 1. As
p - a, we have gcd(p, a) = 1. Then p | b by the last Theorem.
Problem 8. This is to show that it is important that p is prime in the last
result. Give examples of
(a) Positive integers a and b such that 6 | ab, but 6 - a and 6 - b.
(b) Positive integers a and b such that 35 | ab, but 35 - a and 35 - b.
(c) Positive integers a and b such that 9 | ab, but 9 - a and 9 - b.
Corollary 11. If p is a prime and p divides a product of several integers,
then it divides one of the factors. That is if p | a1 a2 · · · ak , then p | aj for
some j.
Problem 9. Use induction to prove this from Proposition 10.
Lemma 12. If a and b are integers such that there are integers x and y
with ax + by = 1, then gcd(a, b) = 1.
Proof. By Proposition 4 we have that gcd(a, b)|1, which implies gcd(a, b) =
1.
Proposition 13. If gcd(a, b) = 1 and gcd(a, c) = 1, then gcd(a, bc) = 1.
That is if a number is relatively prime to two numbers, then it is relatively
prime to their product.
Problem 10. Prove this. Hint: (This is a good example of the fact that
in 87.5% of the proofs we will have involving the hypothesis gcd(a, b) = 1,
the way this will be used to to use that that are integers x and y with
ax + by = 1.) As gcd(a, b) = 1, Bézout’s Theorem gives us integers x and
5
(e) Put these pieces together to see m = a0 b0 d`. As m was any common
multiple of a and b explain why this shows lcm(a, b) = a0 b0 d and that
this finishes the proof.
Problem 18. Use the last proposition and the Euclidean algorithm of Prob-
lem 4 to find the following.
lcm(423, 801), lcm(354, 192), lcm(79, 129)
1.2. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. We now show that
factorization into primes is essentially unique. This seems to have first been
explicitly stated by Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae published
in 1798. But it was being used implicitly for many years before then.
Theorem 21 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). Let a ≥ 2 be a positive
integers be an integer. Then a can be factored into primes in a unique way.
Explicitly by uniqueness we mean if
a = p1 p2 · · · pm = q1 q2 · · · qn
with all of p1 , p2 , . . . , pm , q1 , q2 , . . . , qn prime, then m = n and after reorder-
ing pj = qj for j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Problem 19. Prove this. Hint: We have seen in an earlier homework set
that a is a product of primes. So we only have to prove uniqueness.
One standard proof uses induction on m. If m = 1, then p1 p2 · · · pm =
q1 q2 · · · qn reduces to p1 = q1 q2 · · · qn . If n ≥ 2, this would imply that p1 is
composite, a contradiction. Therefore n = 1 and we have p1 = q1 . This is
the base case.
The induction hypothesis is that the result is true for for m. Assume
p1 p2 · · · pm+1 = q1 q2 · · · qn+1 as in the statement of the theorem and proceed
as follows
(a) Explain why pm+1 | q1 q2 · · · qn+1 .
(b) Use Proposition 11 to show that pm+1 | qj for some j. By possibly
reordering q1 , q2 , . . . , qn+1 we assume pm+1 | qn+1 .
(c) Show pm+1 = qn+1 .
(d) Use the last step to show
p1 p2 · · · pm = q1 q2 · · · qn .
(e) Use the induction hypothesis to complete the proof.
The standard factorization of an integer is
a = pk11 pk22 · · · pk` `
where p1 , . . . , p` are the primes dividing a listed in increasing order. For
example:
5 = 5, 24 = 22 · 3, 360 = 23 · 32 · 5, 4158002 = 23 · 33 · 52 · 7 · 11.
and Table 1 gives the standard factorization of the first one hundred numbers
natural numbers.
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For example if
a = 24 · 53 · 115 · 374 · 41, b = 54 · 117 · 37
then
gcd(a, b) = 20 · 53 · 115 · 371 · 410 = 53 · 115 · 37.
9
√
Proof. The number n is a root of the polynomial f (x) = x2 − n. By the
rational root test, the only rational roots are of the form r = p/q where
q | 1. The only divisors of 1 are ±1, thus the only possible rational roots
of x2 − n are r = p/(±1) = ±p. That is the only possible rational roots of
f (x) = x2 −n are integers. But our hypothesis on√n is that it is not a perfect
square, so f (x) has no rational roots. Therefore n is irrational.
More generally
Proposition 28. If m ≥ 2 is an integer√and n is a positive integer that
√ is
not the m-th power of an integer, then m n is irrational. (That is if m n is
not an integer, then it is irrational.)
Problem 22. Prove this.
Problem 23. Here we give some basic properties of rational and irrational
numbers.
(a) If a and b are rational then so are a + b, a − b, ab, a/b (where b 6= 0 in
the last case).
(b) If a is rational and b is irrational, then a + b is irrational. If b 6= 0, then
ab is irrational.
(c) Given an example where a and b are both irrational and a+b is irrational.
(d) Given an example where a and b are both irrational and a+b is rational.
(e) Given an example where a and b are both irrational and ab is irrational.
(f) Given an example where a and b are both irrational and ab is rational.
√ √
In light of the last problem, it is not clear immediately if 2 + 3 is
rational or irrational. We will show that it is irrational by showing that it
is the root of a polynomial with integer coefficients and using the rational
roots test. To start let
√ √
α = 2 + 3.
Then
√ √ √
α2 = ( 2 + 3)2 = 5 + 2 6.
Rearrange and square to get
√
(α2 − 5)2 = (2 6)2 = 24.
Therefore
α4 − 10α2 + 1 = 0.
This shows α is a root of f (x) = x4 − 10x2 + 1. The rational root test
yields that the only possible rational roots of f (x) are ±1. But f (±1) =
(±1)4 − 10(±1)
√
2 + 1 = −8 6= 0, and therefore f (x) has no rational roots.
√
Thus α = 2 + 3 is irrational. (A shorter, and possibly more √ natural
2
proof, would be to assume that α is rational. Then (α − 5)/2 = 6 would
be rational, contradicting Proposition 27.)
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While this method is good for showing that roots of integers an some
closely related numbers are irrational, it quickly gets complicated. For ex-
ample consider the number
√ √ √
β = 2 + 3 + 5.
We would like to believe, and it is true, this is irrational. This can be shown
by the rational root test. First you work very hard and show β is a root of
the polynomial2
f (x) = x8 − 40x6 + 352x4 − 960x2 + 576.
By the rational root test any rational root of this is an integer and a factor
of 576 = 26 · 32 . This has 21 positive factors and if you test all of them you
do find that β is irrational. There are proofs which are more transparent
and less computational based on ideas from abstract algebra. If you take an
algebra class where you study field theory and Galois Theory you will see
these proofs.
1.4. Some well known numbers that are irrational. This is a bit of
an aside, but because it came up in class and because it is interesting, here
are proofs that well e and π are irrational. Recall that one way to compute
the number e is with the series
∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1
e= = 1 + 1 + + + + + + ···
k! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
k=0
We will need anther calculus fact:
Proposition 29. If |r| < 1 then
∞
X a
ark = a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · = .
1−r
k=0
Proof. One of the formulas we proved in the first week of class was that for
r 6= 1
a − arn+1
a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · · + arn = .
1−r
If |r| < 1 then limn→∞ arn+1 = 0. So the result follows by letting letting
n → ∞ in the last displayed formula.
Theorem 30. The number e is irrational.
Problem 24. Prove this along the following lines (This argument seems to
be due to Euler). Assume, towards a contradiction, that e is rational, say
e = p/q.
p 1 1 1 1
= e = 1 + 1 + + + ··· + + + ···
q 2! 3! (q − 1)! q!
2I did this with the computer package Sage which is an open source alternative to the
commercial software packages Maple and Mathematica. Sage can be down loaded for free.
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(e) Set
Z 1
N := b `2n+1 e`x f (x) dx
0
While this is formally an infinite sum, not f (x) has degree 2n and therefore
f (k) (x) = 0 for k > 2n. Thus this is really only a finite sum.
(a) Use Lemma 32 and π 2 = a/b to show both F (0) and F (1) are integers.
(b) Show F satisfies
(d) Set
Z 1
N= πan f (x) sin πx dx
0
Then by (c)
Z 1
1 d
F 0 (x) sin πx − πF (x) cos πx dx.
N=
π 0 dx
Use this to show
N = F (0) + F (1)
and therefore N is a positive integer. Hint: For showing N is positive
note πan f (x) sin πx is positive for 0 < x < 1 and N is an integral of this
function.
(e) Use Lemma 32 to show
Z 1
1 2an
N< πan sin πx dx = .
0 n! n!
(f) We have yet to choose n. Show that it is possible to choose n such that
2an
<1
n!
which leads to the contradiction that N is an integer between 0 and 1.
This finishes the proof.