Normal Pancreatic Function

Stephen J. Pandol
Cedars-Sinai Medical Center and Department of Veterans Affairs
Los Angeles, California USA
Stephen.pandol@cshs.org
Version 1.0, June 13, 2015 [DOI: 10.3998/panc.2015.17]

1. What are the functions of the
pancreas?
The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine
function. This chapter is devoted to the exocrine
functions of the pancreas. The exocrine function
is devoted to secretion of digestive enzymes, ions
and water into the intestine of the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract. The digestive enzymes are necessary
for converting a meal into molecules that can be
absorbed across the surface lining of the GI tract
into the body. Of note, there are digestive
enzymes secreted by our salivary glands,
stomach and surface epithelium of the GI tract
that also contribute to digestion of a meal.
However, the exocrine pancreas is necessary for
most of the digestion of a meal and without it
there is a substantial loss of digestion that results
in malnutrition.
The ions and water secreted are also critical for
pancreas function as the resultant fluid is
necessary to carry the digestive enzymes through
the pancreatic ductal system into the intestine. In
addition, the pH of the pancreatic secretions is
alkaline due to a very high concentration of
NaHCO3 in the fluid. A major function of the
NaHCO3 is to neutralize the acidic pH of the
gastric contents delivered to the intestine from the
stomach. A neutral pH in the intestinal lumen is
necessary for normal digestion and absorption.
This chapter presents processes underlying the
functions of the exocrine pancreas with
references to how specific abnormalities of the
pancreas can lead to disease states.
2. Where is the pancreas located?
The illustration in Figure 1 demonstrates the
anatomical relationships between the pancreas
and organs surrounding it in the abdomen. The
regions of the pancreas are the head, body, tail
and uncinate process (Figure 2). The distal end
of the common bile duct passes through the head
of the pancreas and joins the pancreatic duct as it
enters the intestine (Figure 2). Because the bile
duct passes through the pancreas before entering
the intestine, diseases of the pancreas such as a
cancer at the head of the pancreas or swelling
and/or scarring of the head of the pancreas from
pancreatitis can block the bile duct system
resulting in jaundice in a patient. As seen in
Figure 1, the pancreas is situated deep in the
abdomen and thus is usually protected from
trauma. However, occasionally severe trauma as
might occur from a steering wheel in an auto
accident can “crush” the pancreas against the
vertebral column that sites just behind the
pancreas. Such an injury can result in
pancreatitis.

This work is subject to an International Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.

Figure 1. Cross sectional anatomy of the abdomen. This cartoon represents the anatomical features of a
“slice” of the abdomen at the level depicted in the upper right hand corner of the figure. Anterior to the pancreas
are the stomach, colon, omentum and loops of small intestine. Posterior to the pancreas are the portal vein,
inferior vena cava, aorta, superior mesenteric artery and vein, kidneys and vertebrae. The distal common bile duct
passes through the head of the pancreas. Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic
physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American
Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

Figure 2. Anatomic regions and blood vessels of the pancreas. The anatomic regions are the head, neck,
body and tail. Behind the pancreas lie the portal vein, inferior vena cava, aorta and the superior mesenteric artery
and vein. The distal common bile duct passes through the head of the pancreas. Adapted from Gorelick F,
Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal
Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

2
Figure 3. The exocrine and endocrine pancreas. The pancreas is divided into an exocrine portion (acinar and
duct tissue) and an endocrine portion (islets of Langerhans). The exocrine portion, comprising 85% of the mass of
the pancreas is composed of acinar tissue which synthesizes, stores and secretes digestive enzymes; and ductal
tissue which secretes water and NaHCO3, The endocrine portion secretes its hormones into the blood stream.
The blood flow from the endocrine pancreas passes to the exocrine pancreas before entering the general
circulation.
Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic
pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

The pancreas receives blood from two major
arterial supplies (Figure 2). Because of the dual
blood supply, ischemia to the pancreas from
vascular obstruction is uncommon. Venous blood
leaving the pancreas is via the splenic vein as the
spleen is contiguous to the tail of the pancreas;
this vein empties into the portal vein which carries
blood from the GI tract to the liver. Diseases such
as pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer can cause
thrombosis and/or blockage of the draining of the
spleen and pancreas. In this case the spleen
becomes engorged with blood causing its
enlargement which results in several undesirable
consequences.
The pancreas is connected by the nervous
system containing both sensory neurons and
effector neurons. The sensory neurons function
for pain perception so that diseases of the
pancreas cause significant pain while the effector
neurons are involved in regulating the secretions
of both the exocrine and endocrine pancreas.
Although this chapter is devoted to the exocrine
pancreas, it is important to point out that there are
important inter-relationships between the
endocrine (Islets of Langerhans) and exocrine
pancreas. As shown in Figure 3 the blood flow
from the endocrine pancreas enters the capillaries
of the exocrine tissue surrounding each of the
islets before entering the general circulation (4).
Thus, the exocrine pancreatic tissue surrounding
the islets is exposed to very high concentrations
of hormones such as insulin coming from the
islets. Normally, the islet hormones promote the
function of the exocrine gland including the
regulation of digestive enzyme synthesis (13, 14,
32). However, this arrangement may also be
detrimental in patients with diabetes accounting
for a greater risk of pancreatitis and pancreatic
cancer.
3. What are the cells of the exocrine
pancreas?
The two major cell types of the exocrine pancreas
are the acinar cell and the ductal cell. The acinar
cells are formed into a unit called the acinus
which is connected to the ductal system
composed of ductal cells (Figure 3). The two
types of cellular units are combined to direct

3
digestive enzymes into the duodenum where
digestion is initiated.
The acinar cells are specialized to synthesize,
store, and secrete digestive enzymes into a lumen
space that is connected to the ductal system
(Figure 4). The acinar cell has receptors for
hormones and neurotransmitters that regulate the
secretion of digestive enzymes into the lumen
space (40). The acinar cell contains abundant
rough endoplasmic reticulum for digestive enzyme
synthesis (Figure 4). Beneath the lumen are
zymogen granules, the storage depot of digestive
enzymes.
The duct cells form the ductal system and contain
abundant mitochondria necessary for energy
products (ATP) needed for ion transport (see
Figure 4). Two other types of cells of importance
for the exocrine pancreas are the centroacinar cell
and the stellate cell. Centroacinar cells have
ductal cell characteristics and are also likely stem
cells for populating the different cell types for the
pancreas.
The pancreatic stellate cell (PaSC) is important
because of its role in pathologic states (1-3, 23,
26, 36). The stellate cell is a very slender star-
shaped (hence the name stellate) cell that drapes
itself around the acini, ducts and the Islets of
Langerhans. In normal function PaSCs are
involved in directing proper formation of the
epithelial structures. In pathologic states such as
chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer the
PaSC is transformed into a proliferating
myofibroblastic cell type that synthesizes and
secretes extracellular matrix proteins, pro-
inflammatory cytokines and growth factors. In this
transformed state PaSCs promote the
inflammation and fibrosis of both chronic
pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer that are key
characteristics of these diseases.
4. How does the acinar cell operate?
The acinar cells of the pancreas produce more
protein than any of our organs. As such, the cells
have a highly developed and large endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) system where the digestive
enzymes and other proteins are synthesized
(Figure 5). The ER also is a store for calcium
which when released into the cytoplasm is the
mediator of regulated secretion of stored digestive
enzymes into the pancreatic ductal system (30).
Each protein molecule synthesized in the ER
must undergo specific secondary modifications as
well as folding in order for it to be properly
transported to destination organelles such as
Golgi where further processing takes place and
zymogen granule for storage of digestive
enzymes. The zymogen granule stores digestive
enzymes that are released by exocytosis with
stimulation by nerves and hormones activated
during a meal. Also, the systems for both protein
synthesis and processing must be able to adapt
because of variation in the demand for protein
synthesis as a function of diet; and because
protein processing in the ER could be adversely
affected by environmental factors such as alcohol,
smoking, altered metabolism and even
medications.
5. What digestive enzymes are
synthesized by the acinar cell?
The human pancreas and its acinar cells have the
largest capacity for protein synthesis of any organ in
the human body. Much of the capacity is devoted to
synthesis of the digestive enzymes that are secreted
in the intestinal lumen where they are necessary for
digesting and assimilating the nutrients in a meal.
The enzymes fall into four classes- proteolytic,
amylolytic, lipolytic, and nuclease digestive enzymes
(5, 33, 39). Some of the enzymes are present in
more than one form (e.g., cationic trypsinogen,
anionic trypsinogen, and mesotrypsinogen). Many of
the digestive enzymes are synthesized and stored in
the acinar cells as pro-enzymes that have no
enzymatic activity.
4
Figure 4. Ultrastructure of acinar and duct cells of the exocrine pancreas. The pancreatic acinar cell has
prominent basally located rough endoplasmic reticulum for synthesis of digestive enzymes (and other proteins)
and apically located zymogen granules for storage and secretion of digestive enzymes. The zymogen granules
undergo exocytosis with stimulation of secretion. The secretion is into the lumen of the acinus formed by the
apical surfaces of the acinar cells. Pancreatic duct cells contain abundant mitochondria for energy generation
needed for its ion transport functions. The ductal cells also project microvilli into the luminal space. Adapted from
Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis.
Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

Figure 5. Electron micrograph of the pancreatic acinar cell. This electron micrograph shows the key cellular
structures involved in synthesis, processing, and storage of digestive enzymes. On the left is the rough
endoplasmic reticulum; in the middle is the Golgi complex; and on the right are zymogen granules. Adapted from
Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis.
Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

5
Figure 6. Intestinal digestive enzyme activation. Inactive proenzymes called zymogens enter the
duodenum where enterokinase which is attached to the intestinal surface enzymatically cleaves
trypsinogen activating it to trypsin. Trypsin, in turn, converts zymogens including trypsinogen itself to their
activated enzyme forms through enzymatic cleavage.
Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic
pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

This is important as the active enzymes are
capable of digesting the cell causing injury that
can lead to pancreatitis. Other mechanisms to
prevent these enzymes from potentially digesting
the pancreas include the storage and packing the
enzymes into acidic zymogen granules; and
including trypsin activity inhibitors in the zymogen
granules. Pro-enzymes are activated when they
enter the duodenum.
As illustrated in Figure 6, activation of these
enzymes takes place on the surface of the
duodenal lumen, where a brush-border
glycoprotein peptidase, enterokinase, activates
trypsinogen by removing an N-terminal
hexapeptide fragment of the molecule resulting in
an enzymatically active form (5, 31, 39). The
active form, trypsin, then catalyzes the activation
of the other inactive proenzymes. Of note, many
key digestive enzymes such α-amylase and
lipase are present in the pancreas in their active
forms. Presumably, these enzymes would not
cause pancreatic cellular damage if released into
the pancreatic cell/tissue because there is no
starch or glycogen (substrates for α-amylase) or
triglyceride (substrate for lipase) for these
enzymes in pancreatic tissue. However, obesity
may enhance pancreatitis as a result of increase
triglyceride in and around the pancreas.
6. What do acinar cell digestive
enzymes accomplish in the
gastrointestinal tract?
Digestion of food occurs in the alimentary tract.
Although the pancreatic acinar cell digestive
enzymes are critical, they do not account for all of
the processes needed from complete digestion
and absorption of the nutrients in a
meal.Examples of additional digestion include
amylase secreted from the salivary glands that
can accomplish up the 50% of the intraluminal
digestion of starch and glycogen, especially in
newborns. Further, the action of both salivary and
pancreatic amylase is to hydrolyze every other
junction between the glucose molecules of starch
and glycogen. Thus, there remains products that
need further digestion to single glucose molecules
that can be absorbed.
6
Figure 7. Regulation of exocytosis. Digestive enzymes are stored in zymogen granules at the apical surface of
the acinar cell. Regulated secretion occurs through exocytosis stimulated by neurohumoral agents. These agents
include gastrin releasing peptide (GRP), cholecystokinin (CCK), acetylcholine (Ach), secretin and vasoactive
intestinal polypeptide (VIP). Each acts to mediate secretion through interacting with its specific receptor. For
example, specific interaction of CCK with its receptor (CCK1 receptor) leads to activation of intracellular signaling
systems that mediate the exocytosis response. Interactions of GRP, CCK and Ach with their receptors lead to
changes in intracellular calcium (Ca+2) which, in turn, mediates exocytosis. On the other hand, secretin and VIP
increase intracellular cAMP which, in turn, mediates the exocytosis response. Of note, an increase in both
calcium and cAMP simultaneously results in synergistic response. That is, the response with both is greater than
the expected additive effect.
Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M. Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic
pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project, American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

The final processes of digestion of starch and
glycogen involves enzymes attached to the
surface of the small intestine which complete
hydrolysis of the products of amylase digestion to
glucose.
Then, glucose is transported across the intestinal
+
absorptive epithelial cell by a Na -coupled
transport (11, 41). In the case of proteases,
gastric secretion of pepsin accomplishes a small
portion of protein digestion in the lumen of the
alimentary tract and a complement of several
pancreatic proteases (each catalyzing cleavage at
specific sites in the meal protein) further act on
protein to provide oligopeptides, di- and tri-
peptides as well as amino acids. The
oligopeptides, di- and tri-peptides are further
digested by enzymes on the lumenal surface of
the small intestine. Then free amino acids and
some small peptides are transported across the
+ +
intestinal mucosa by a group of Na - and H -
coupled transporters (10).
Lipases are secreted mainly by the pancreas in
contrast to amylase where there is a significant
salivary contribution. There are lingual and gastric
lipases but these contribute to fat digestion in only
a minor fashion. Major lipases secreted by the
pancreas are lipase (or triglyceride lipase) and
prophospholipases. Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes
a triglyceride molecule to two fatty acid molecules
released from carbons 1 and 3 and a
monoglyceride with a fatty acid esterified to
glycerol at carbon 2 (7). These components are
then absorbed by specific transporters on the
surface of the small intestinal mucosa.

7
7. How is secretion of digestive
enzymes from the acinar cell
regulated?
Digestive enzymes that are synthesized and
stored in the zymogen granule are available for
release into the lumen of the pancreatic acinus
and passage through the pancreatic ductal
system into the intestine. The process of
transporting zymogen granule contents into the
lumen of the acinus is called exocytosis (25). The
regulation of release of the zymogen granule
contents occurs through signals arriving at the
acinar cell coming from both hormones and
nerves that act through receptors on the cell
resulting in an increase in intracellular
messengers cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cyclic AMP) and ionic calcium (Ca+2) shown in
Figure 7 (22).
8. What are the environmental and
genetic stressors of the acinar cell
that promote diseases of the
pancreas?
The most common diseases of the exocrine
pancreas are pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer.
Gallstone disease uniquely underlies a large
proportion of cases of pancreatitis. Alcohol abuse,
smoking and diabetes are key risk factors in the
epidemiology of both diseases (27, 42). How
these environment factors mediate these
disorders is incompletely understood. An
important and unexplained observation is that
only a small proportion of heavy drinkers,
smokers and diabetics develop pancreatic
diseases (29). Although the reason for the lack of
development of pathology in the majority of those
who have these disorders is unknown, it is likely
that an adaptive and protective response is
mounted to adjust the processes in the acinar cell
to prevent failure of function and disease
formation (18, 28).
Genetic causes of pancreatic diseases related to
the acinar cell are due to mutations in the
digestive enzymes. The best studied of these are
mutations in cationic trypsinogen which result in
inappropriate conversion of the pro-enzyme
trypsinogen to active trypsin in the acinar cell (37,
38). As noted above, activation of digestive
enzymes within the cell can lead to damage and
disease. Mutations lead to both pancreatitis and,
over time, to pancreatic cancer as a result of the
chronic inflammatory process.
9. How does the pancreatic ductal
system transport the digestive
enzymes to the intestine?
The ductal system creates a large flow of fluid to
carry to carry the acinar cell secretions to the
–
intestine. The fluid is rich in bicarbonate (HCO3 )
which is necessary to neutralize the gastric acid
that enters into the intestine during a meal. The
neutralization of gastric acid is necessary
because the pancreatic enzymes have optimal
activity at neutral pH. At the acid pH of gastric
secretions pancreatic digestive enzymes are
ineffective in digesting a meal. The water and
bicarbonate secretion are created by a complex
set of interacting ion transport pathways in the
ductal cells as illustrated in Figure 8. As is
discussed below, disorders of water and ion
secretion lead to pancreatic tissue damage and
exocrine failure as occurs in cystic fibrosis.
The regulation of water and ion secretions is
largely mediated by the hormone secretin and the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine stimulation of the
pancreatic ductal cell. Binding of secretin to its
receptor results in an increase in cAMP.
Acetylcholine binding to its receptor raises Ca2+.
As illustrated in Figure 8, these intracellular
messengers regulate transporters in the ductal
cell. The key transporter in the ductal cell is the
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance
regulator (CFTR). CFTR transports both chloride
– –
(Cl ) and HCO3 .
8
Figure 8. The transporters of the pancreatic duct cell. The central purpose of the pancreatic ductal system is
–
to secrete a large volume of water with a high concentration of HCO3 . The pancreatic duct cell is equipped with
–
transporters and mechanisms to accomplish this task. First of all, delivery of large amounts of HCO 3 is
accomplished by two mechanisms. In one large amounts of carbonic anhyrdrase in ductal cells converts CO 2
– + + –
rapidly to HCO3 and H . A second mechanism involves a Na and HCO3 co-transport on the basolateral surface
of the cell. The secretion is mediated by cAMP and Ca2+ intracellular signaling activated by secretin and
acetylcholine, respectively. These signals either directly or indirectly have effects on multiple transports that effect
the secretory response as described in detail in the text. Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M.
Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project,
American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

–
Moreover, the Cl secreted by CFTR exchanges
– –
with HCO3 so that the concentration of HCO3 is
very high in the secretion. Finally, sodium (Na+)
and water follow into the ductal space to
counteract the charge and ionic force caused by
–
the HCO3 secretion.
10. What is the importance of
pancreatic ductal secretion?
The role of ion and water secretion in maintaining
normal exocrine pancreatic function is clear. Loss
of function mutations in CFTR as occurs in cystic
fibrosis result in severe exocrine pancreatic
pathology with fibrosis of the gland associated
with loss of exocrine pancreatic tissue. This
occurs because the lack of ion and water flow
resulting in protein plugging of the pancreatic
ducts which leads to inflammation and destruction
of functional exocrine tissue. In fact, because
patients with cystic fibrosis loose functional
exocrine pancreatic tissue, they require life-long
treatment with oral preparations of commercially
prepared digestive enzymes to digest meals and
prevent malnutrition. These observations
demonstrate the critical importance of the ion and
water secretory pathways in maintenance of
normal physiology.
11. How does ingestion of a meal
activate the pancreatic secretory
response?
Human exocrine pancreatic secretion occurs both
during the fasting (interdigestive) state and after
ingestion of a meal (digestive). The interdigestive
pattern of secretion begins when the upper
9
gastrointestinal tract is cleared of food. In an
individual who eats three meals per day, the
digestive pattern begins after breakfast and
continues until late in the day, after the evening
meal is cleared from the upper gastrointestinal
tract. This secretion occurs along with a pattern of
movements in the intestine that are designed to
sweep out material that are remaining in the
intestine after the meal keeping the intestine clean
to prevent overgrowth of bacteria which can be
harmful.
Digestive secretion is divided into 3 phases which
are the cephalic, gastric and intestinal phases.
The reason for this division is that the network of
regulatory systems responsible for effecting
secretion shifts as a function of location of the
meal and its effect on sensory inputs.
The cephalic phase of the meal represents the
time before swallowing of food and considers
several stimuli that have inputs during this period.
Such stimuli include emotional state, anticipation
of the meal, auditory stimuli associated with the
meal as well as the smell and taste of the meal
and even chewing. The extent of cephalic
stimulation of exocrine pancreatic secretion in
humans has been evaluated through
measurement of exocrine secretions stimulated
by sham feeding (chewing and spitting out the
food) (8, 9). The input from these sensory stimuli
is integrated in the central nervous system
nervous system at the dorsal vagal complex and
output is transmitted to the exocrine pancreas by
the vagus nerve. The cephalic phase can account
up to 50% of the pancreatic secretion during a
meal. The vagal nerve releases neurotransmitters
especially acetylcholine at the pancreatic tissue to
cause the secretory responses. Other
neurotransmitters released include GRP,
substance P and VIP.
The gastric phase of pancreatic secretion results
from the effects of the meal in the stomach. The
meal in the stomach causes distension which, in
turn, activates neural pathways that cause
pancreatic secretion (15). When gastric juice and
contents of a meal enter the duodenum, a variety
of intraluminal stimulants can act on the intestinal
mucosa to stimulate pancreatic secretion through
both neural and hormonal mechanisms. Three
gastric processes—secretion of acid, secretion of
pepsin and lipase and emptying—are tightly
coupled to the mechanisms of the intestinal phase
of pancreatic secretion. Gastric acid entering the
duodenum has an effect on bicarbonate secretion
from the pancreas. The partial digestion of the
protein and carbohydrate of the meal by salivary
amylase and gastric pepsin, respectively, create
nutrient stimulants that activate pancreatic
secretion when delivered to the intestine.
The intestinal phase of pancreatic secretion
continues for the duration of the digestive period.
It is mediated by both hormones and
enteropancreatic vagovagal reflexes. During the
intestinal phase the contribution of pancreatic
ducts and their secretion of fluid with high
concentrations of bicarbonate contribute
significantly to the exocrine pancreatic output. The
stimulant of this ductal secretion is the acid from
the stomach in the duodenum which causes
release of secretin from the secretin-containing S
cell into the blood (12). The secretin, in turn,
interacts with its receptor on the pancreatic ductal
cell to cause the fluid and bicarbonate secretion.
Secretion of digestive enzymes during the
intestinal phase is mediated by intraluminal fatty
acids more than eight carbons in length,
monoglycerides of these fatty acids, peptides,
amino acids, and, to a small extent, glucose (6,
17, 19-21). The pancreatic enzyme secretory
response during the intestinal phase is mediated
by both neural and hormonal pathways (Figure
9). Both removing the vagus nerve and
administration of the cholinergic antagonist
atropine markedly inhibit the digestive enzyme
(and bicarbonate) responses to low intestinal
loads of amino acids and fatty acids as well as
infusion of physiologic concentrations of the
hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) (16, 24, 34, 35).
10
Figure 9. CCK Stimulates Pancreatic Enzyme Secretion by Both Neural and Hormonal Pathways. This
cartoon shows the several pathways mediating meal-stimulated pancreatic secretion that involve CCK. First, meal
nutrients such as fatty acids, amino acids and peptides delivered from the duodenum stimulate the release of
CCK from the CCK-containing I cell to the area around the basolateral surface of the I cell. The CCK released can
activate vagal afferent neurons that carry the signal to the dorsal vagal complex where the sensory information is
integrated and vagal efferents are activated. Vagal efferents synapse with neurons in the pancreatic ganglia. In
turn, via the neurotransmitters, acetylcholine (Ach), gastrin releasing peptide (GRP) and vasoactive intestinal
polypeptide (VIP) effector neurons in the pancreatic ganglia activate secretion by pancreatic acinar cells. In
addition to activating the neural pathway, CCK released by the I cell enters the general circulation and may act as
a hormone on the pancreatic acinar cells to cause secretion. Adapted from Gorelick F, Pandol, SJ, Topazian M.
Pancreatic physiology, pathophysiology, acute and chronic pancreatitis. Gastrointestinal Teaching Project,
American Gastroenterological Association. 2003.

These results indicate a prominent role for the
cholinergic nervous system by activating neural
pathways as shown in Figure 9. Further, the
results confirm a role for the cholingeric nervous
system in bicarbonate secretion stimulated by
secretin.
12. Summary
This chapter describes the multiple levels of
regulation and coordination that are necessary for
normal exocrine pancreatic function and digestion
of a meal. The coordination of the regulation of
these processes is necessary for meal digestion.
For example, through independent and interacting
neurohumoral pathways a meal stimulates
secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreatic
acini; and ions and water from the pancreatic duct
cells into the duodenum. These events require
highly developed physiologic responses to the
meal resulting in activation and coordination of
specialized cellular mechanisms to result in the
secretion necessary of meal digestion. This
chapter also provides insights into the
pathogenesis of pancreatic disorders as they
relate to failure of cellular mechanisms
responsible for key functions of the exocrine
pancreas.

11
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