Analog & Digital data and signals

Modulation & Demodulation

Need for Modulation

Modulating wave, Carrier wave (sinusoidal)

Baseband Communication
- digital, unmodulated signal
- uses entire bandwidth, no separate channels
- to divide, TDM is used, divided as time slots for different channels
Broadband Communication
- analog signal
- doesn't use entire bandwidth
- certain frequencies are used in that medium
- each channel is running on separate frequency
- this is FDM?

Modulation
- operation of varying amplitude, freq or phase of carrier signal wrt instantaneous amplitude of modulating signal
- baseband/modulating signal is passed through modulator
- modulator takes a carrier wave from an RF oscillator
- modulator then produces a modulated signal
- modulated signal is then sent to RF power amplifier
- two types: Analog & Digital modulation

Analog to Analog conversion

- needed when medium is bandpass
- e.g. radio, govmnt assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio station
- analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal
- to be able to listen to different stations, low-pass signals need to be shifted, each to a diff range
- 3 ways: AM, FM, PM

Amplitude Modulation:
- carrier signal is modulated to vary amp with changing amp of modulating signal
- freq and phase of carrier signal are kept const
- modulating signal is envelope of the carrier
- implemented using simple multiplier
- total bandwidth reqd for AM is twice of modulating signal
- signal components above and below carrier freq carry exactly same info

Frequency Modulation:
- freq of carrier signal is modulated to follow changing voltage level (amp) of modulating signal
- peak amp and phase of carrier signal are const
- as amp of modulating signal changes, freq of carrier changes correspondingly
- implemented using voltage-controlled oscillator

Phase Modulation:
- phase of carrier signal is modulated to follow changing voltage level (amp) of modulating signal
- peak amp and freq of carrier signal are const
- as amp of modulating signal changes, phase of carrier changes correspondingly
- PM is same as FM with one diff
- instantaneous change in carrier freq is proportional to amp (of modulating signal) in FM & derivative of amp in
PM
- implemented using voltage-controlled oscillator along with a derivative
Angle Modulation:
- FM & PM are types of angle modulation

Analog to Digital conversion

- we've analog signals (like created by mic or cam)
- digital is superior to analog signal bcz
= more robust to noise
= easily be recovered, corrected & amplified
- so we change analog signal to digital DATA
- after digitization, converted to digital signal
- 3 ways: PCM, DM, DPCM

Pulse Code Modulation:

- most common technique
- PCM encoder has 3 processes
= Sampling: analog signal is sampled
= Quantization: sampled signal is quantized
= Binary Encoding: quantized values are encoded as streams of bits
- before sampling, filtering of signal is done to limit max freq of signal as it affects sampling rate
- filtering ensures we don't distort signal, i.e. remove high freq components that affect signal shape
- Sampling:
= analog signal is sampled every Ts secs
= Ts means sampling interval
= sampling freq/rate (fs) = 1 / Ts
= 3 sampling methods:
-> ideal: pulses from signal are sampled, not easy to implement
-> natural: high speed sampling in small period of time, result is seq of samples that retains shape of analog s
ignal
-> flattop: sample and hold, like natural but with single amp value, creates flat-top samples
= sampling process is called pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
= outcome of sampling is analog signal with non-integeral values
= Nyquist theorem:
-> sampling rate must be atleast 2 times highest freq contained in signal
-> fs = 2fmax
- Quantization:
= sampling results in series of pulses of varying amp
= values range betn 2 limits: Vmin & Vmax
= values are infinite betn 2 limits
= need to map finite set of known values
= divide range into L zones, each of height Δ
-> Δ = (Vmax - Vmin) / L
= midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L - 1 (L values)
= each sample falling in a zone is then approx'd to the value of the midpoint
= each zone is assigned a binary code
= no of bits per sample reqd to encode zones:
-> nb = log2 L
- Encoding:
= each sample now can be changed to an nb-bit code word
= like quantization code of 2 is 010, etc
= bit rate = sampling rate(fs) x no of bits per sample(nb)

Delta Modulation:
- PCM is very complex, DM is simplest
- DM finds change from previous sample (sends diff betn pulses)
- if pulse at time tn+1 is higher in amp value than pulse at tn, "1" is used to indicate +ve value
 - if pulse is lower in value, "0" is used for -ve value
- works well for small changes in samples, large errors for large values
- no code words, bits are sent one after another

Digital to Analog conversion

- ASK, FSK, PSK