Digital Transmission

Digital Transmission
• is the transmittal of digital signals between
two or more points in a communications
system
• With digital transmission systems, a physical
facility, such as a pair of wires, coaxial cable,
or an optical fiber cable, is required to
interconnect the various points within the
system.
 Line Coding
• is the process of converting digital data to
digital signals
 Signal Element versus Data Element
Data element Signal element
- is the smallest -carries data elements
entity that can -shortest unit
represent a piece (timewise) of a digital
of information (bit) signal
- are being carried -are the carriers
Signal Element versus Data Element
 Data Rate versus Signal Rate
Data Rate Signal Rate
- Defines the number -is the number of signal
of data elements elements sent
(bits) sent - unit is the baud
- Unit is bits per -Sometimes called the
second (bps) pulse rate, the
modulation rate, or the
- Sometimes called the
baud rate
bit rate
 Relationship between Data rate and
Signal rate

Where: S - number of Where:

signal elements n= # of data
c - case factor element / # of
N – data rate (bps) signal element
r – previously defined fb- bit rate
factor fB – baud rate
 Examples
1. A signal is carrying data in which one data
element is encoded as one signal element
(r=1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the
average value of the baud rate if c is between
0 and 1?
2. A signal is carrying data in which 4 data
element is encoded as one signal element. If
the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate?
Line Coding Schemes
A. Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
1. Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
- The level of voltage determines the value of
the bit
1 = high level
0 = low level
2. Non-Return-to-Zero Mark (NRZ-M)
where M denotes inversion on mark
1 = transition at the beginning of interval
0 = no transition
3. Non-Return-to-Zero Space (NRZ-S)
Where S denotes inversion on space using
negative logic
1 = No change
0 = transition at beginning of interval

B. Return To Zero (RZ)

1 = transition from high to low in middle of
interval
C. Biphase
1. Biphase-Level (Manchester)
1 = transition from high to low in middle of
interval
0 = transition from low to high in middle of
interval
2. Biphase-Mark
Always a transition at beginning of interval
1 = transition in middle of interval
0 = no transition in middle of interval
3. Biphase-Space
Always a transition at beginning of interval
1 = no transition in middle of interval
0 = transition in middle of interval

D. Differential Manchester
1 = no transition in middle of interval
0 = transition at beginning of interval
E. Delay Modulation (Miller)
1 = transition in middle of interval
0 = no transition if followed by 1
Transition at end of interval if followed by
0

F. Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

1 = pulse in first half of bit level,
alternating polarity pulse to pulse
0 = no pulse
 Pulse Modulation
• Consists essentially of sampling analog
information signals and then converting those
samples into discrete pulses and transporting
the pulses from a source to a destination over
a physical transmission medium
– pulse width modulation (PWM)
– pulse position modulation (PPM)
– pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
– pulse code modulation (PCM)
 Pulse Modulation
A. Pulse Width
Modulation
- Pulse duration
modulation
- Pulse length
modulation
- as the width
(active portion of
the duty cycle) of
a constant
amplitude pulse
is varied
proportional to
the amplitude of
the analog signal
at the time the
signal is sampled
 Pulse Modulation
B. Pulse Position
Modulation
- the position of a
constant-width
pulse within a
prescribed time
slot is varied
according to the
amplitude of the
sample of the
analog signal
 Pulse Modulation
C. Pulse Amplitude
Modulation
- the amplitude of a
constant width,
constant-position
pulse is varied
according to the
amplitude of the
sample of the analog
signal
 Pulse Modulation
D. Pulse Code
Modulation
- the analog signal is
sampled and then
converted to a serial
n-bit binary code for
transmission
- Each code has the
same number of bits
and requires the
same length of time
for transmission
- Alex H. Reeves in
1937
 PCM Sampling
Techniques used to perform the sampling
function:
1. natural sampling
2. flat-top sampling
 PCM Sampling
A. Natural sampling
- when tops of the
sample pulses retain
their natural shape
during the sample
interval, making it
difficult for an ADC to
convert the sample to
a PCM code
 PCM Sampling
B. Flat-top sampling
- accomplished in a
sample-and-hold
circuit
- the input voltage is
sampled with a
narrow pulse and
then held relatively
constant
until the next sample is
taken
 Nyquist Sampling Theorem
• establishes the minimum sampling rate(fs)
that can be used for a given PCM system

Where: fs – minimum Nyquist sample rate (Hz)

fa – maximum analog input frequency (Hz)
NOTE:
If fs is less than two times fa, an impairment
called alias or foldover distortion occurs
 Example
For a PCM system with a maximum audio input
frequency of 4 kHz, determine the minimum
sample rate and the alias frequency produced
if a 5-kHz audio signal were allowed to enter
the sample-and hold circuit.
 Quantization
• is the process of converting an infinite number
of possibilities to a finite number of conditions
• the process of rounding off the amplitudes of
flat-top samples to a manageable number of
levels
 Quantization
• With quantization, the total voltage range is
subdivided into a smaller number of subranges
• Quantizing - assigning PCM codes to absolute
magnitudes
• Resolution- The magnitude of a quantum
- The resolution is equal to the voltage of the
minimum step size, which is equal to the
voltage of the least significant bit(Vlsb) of the
PCM code.
- is the minimum voltage other than 0 V that
can be decoded by the digital-to-analog
converter in the receiver.
• Quantization error (Qe) – any round-off errors
in the transmitted signal are reproduced when
the code is converted back to analog in the
receiver
- equivalent to additive white noise as it alters
the signal amplitude
- Also called quantization noise (Qn)
 Example
For the PCM coding scheme shown in Figure 8,
determine the quantized voltage, quantization
error(Qe), and PCM code for the analog
sample voltage of +1.07 V.
 Dynamic Range
• is the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to
the smallest possible magnitude (other than 0 V)
that can be decoded by the digital-to-analog
converter in the receiver.

Where: DR- dynamic range (unitless ratio)

Vmin- the quantum value (resolution)
Vmax - the maximum voltage magnitude that can be
discerned by the DACs in the receiver
The number of bits used for a PCM code depends
on the dynamic range. The relationship between
dynamic range and the number of bits in a PCM
code is

and for a minimum number of bits

Where: n - number of bits in a PCM code, excluding

the sign bit
DR- absolute value of dynamic range
 Example
For a PCM system with the following parameters,
determine (a) minimum sample rate, (b)
minimum number of bits used in the PCM code,
(c) resolution, and (d) quantization error.

Maximum analog input frequency = 4 kHz

Maximum decoded voltage at the receiver = 2.55 V
Minimum dynamic range = 46 dB
 Coding Efficiency
• is a numerical indication of how efficiently a
PCM code is utilized
• ratio of the minimum number of bits required
to achieve a certain dynamic range to the
actual number of PCM bits used
Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
 Coding Methods
1. Level-at-a-Time Coding
- This type of coding compares the PAM signal to a ramp
waveform while a binary counter is being advanced at a
uniform rate
- requires a very fast clock if the number of bits in the PCM
code is large
2. Digit-at-a-Time Coding
- determines each digit of the PCM code sequentially
3. Word-at-a-Time Coding
- Word-at-a-time coders are flash encoders and are more
complex; however, they are more suitable for high-speed
applications
 Companding
• is the process of
compressing and
then expanding
• is a means of
improving the
dynamic range of
a
communications
system
 Companding
A. Analog Companding
 Companding
A. Analog Companding
1. μ-Law companding – used in the United
States
 Example
For a compressor with a μ= 255, determine
a. The voltage gain for the following relative
values of Vin: Vmax, 0.75 Vmax, 0.5 Vmax, and
0.25 Vmax.
b. The compressed output voltage for a
maximum input voltage of 4 V.
c. Input and output dynamic ranges and
compression.
 Companding
A. Analog Companding
2. A-Law companding – used in the Europe
 Companding
B. Digital Companding
- involves compression in the transmitter after
the input sample has been converted to a
linear PCM code and then expansion in the
receiver prior to PCM decoding.
 Companding
B. Digital Companding
 Example
Determine the 12-bit linear code, the eight-bit
compressed code, the decoded 12-bit code,
the quantization error, and the compression
error for a resolution of 0.01 V and analog
sample voltages of (a) +0.053 V, (b) -0.318 V,
and (c) +10.234 V
Digital Compression Error
Example
 Vocoders
• Special voice encoders/decoders used when
digitizing speech signals only
• are designed to reproduce only the short-term
power spectrum
• typically produce unnatural sounding speech and,
therefore, are generally used for recorded
information, such as “wrong number” messages,
encrypted voice for transmission over analog
telephone circuits, computer output signals, and
educational games
 Vocoding techniques
1. Channel Vocoders
– first channel vocoder was developed by Homer
Dudley in 1928
2. Formant Vocoders
– simply determines the location of formants (3 or 4
peak frequencies) and encodes and transmits only the
information with the most significant short-term
components
3. Linear Predictive Coders
– extracts the most significant portions of speech
information directly from the time waveform rather
than from the frequency spectrum as with the channel
and formant vocoders
 PCM LINE SPEED
• simply the data rate at which serial PCM bits
are clocked out of the PCM encoder onto the
transmission line
 Example
• For a single-channel PCM system with a
sample rate fs = 6000 samples per second and
a seven-bit compressed PCM code, determine
the line speed.
 DELTA MODULATION PCM
• uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital
transmission of analog signals
• With delta modulation, rather than transmit a
coded representation of the sample, only a
single bit is transmitted, which simply
indicates whether that sample is larger or
smaller than the previous sample.
Delta Modulation Transmitter
Ideal operation of a delta modulation encoder
Delta Modulation Receiver
 Problems associated with delta
modulation
1. Slope overload
• The slope of the analog signal is greater than
the delta modulator can maintain
 Problems associated with delta
modulation
2. Granular noise
• when the original analog input signal has a
relatively constant amplitude, the
reconstructed signal has variations that were
not present in the original signal
 ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION PCM
• is a delta modulation system where the step
size of the DAC is automatically varied,
depending on the amplitude characteristics of
the analog input signal
 DIFFERENTIAL PCM
• is designed specifically to take advantage of
the sample-to-sample redundancies in typical
speech waveforms
• With DPCM, the difference in the amplitude of
two successive samples is transmitted rather
than the actual sample.
DPCM transmitter
DPCM receiver