Hydraulic Systems

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HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

4
MODULE

1. INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic systems use fluid pressure and motion to transmit energy from one point to
another. They are used extensively for power transmission and control systems. The
popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large amount of power that can be
transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide
range of actuators that can make use of this power.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

 Understand the application of hydraulic systems for vessels

 Draw basic hydraulic diagrams
 Calculate the performance of individual components in a basic hydraulic system
 Select hydraulic system components to meet design requirements.

Further Reading

If you have access to the text book, Compendium Marine Engineering by Meier-Peter and
Bernhart, then as extra reading you could look through chapter 5, section 7 on hydraulic
systems. If you have access to Marine Auxiliary Machinery by McGeorge, then chapter 9 on
steering gear is recommended.

2. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS OVERVIEW

The simple hydraulic system shown in Figure 1, will be used to describe the basic
components of hydraulic systems. In this Figure, a linear hydraulic actuator is used to raise
and lower a hatch cover in a cargo vessel. The actuator consists of a piston in a cylinder that
can be supplied with hydraulic oil under pressure to either the top or the bottom of the
cylinder. The key components and their functions are identified as follows.

 The oil stored in the reservoir (tank) is supplied to the ram via a unidirectional pump,
(i.e. a pump that can only supply oil in one direction).
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Figure 1 Hydraulic hatch cover operation

 The direction control valve can connect the discharge from the pump to either side of
the ram. At the same time it connects the other side of the ram to the return line to the
tank, (i.e. it can swap connections). Thus, by moving the lever, the direction control
valve is changed to either raise or lower the hatch cover.
 When the lever and hence the direction control valve is moved to raise the cover,
hydraulic oil from the pump is supplied to the bottom of the cylinder. This will lift the
piston and hence the cover. The upward motion of the piston will push oil from above
the piston back to the oil tank.
 When the lever and hence the direction control valve is moved to lower the cover, oil
from the pump is supplied to the top of the cylinder, while the oil at the bottom is
returned to the reservoir.
 The system also includes a filter to remove wear particles and contaminants from the
oil.
 A cooler is incorporated to remove heat from the oil. Heat is generated due to friction
in the system (especially pumps and motors).
 A relief valve is fitted to prevent any damage to the system from excessive pressure.

Hydraulic systems are usually drawn as line and block drawings to simplify understanding
the operation and layout of the system and can be used as a guide for trouble shooting and
maintenance. The line and block drawing of the hatch cover system is shown in Figure 2.

Virtually all large vessels have hydraulically actuated steering gear to provide a movement of
the rudder in response to a signal from the bridge. Figure 3 illustrates a two ram (linear
actuators) to control the rudder stock movement until the desired angle is reached. A ship’s
steering must meet certain safety requirements. There must be two independent means of
steering, although where two identical are provided, an auxiliary unit is not required.

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Figure 2 Hydraulic circuit for hatch cover operating system

The power and torque capability must be such that the rudder can be swung from one 35o one
side to 35o the other side at maximum speed, and within a given time frame. Typically below

Figure 3 Two Ram Steering Gear Schematic (Taylor, 2007)

30 seconds. Control of the steering gear must be provided must be provided in the steering
gear compartment. Figure 3 illustrates the main components of a two ram system and Figure
4 illustrates such an installation in a ship.

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Figure 4 Two Ram Steering Gear Installation (Meier-Peter & Bernhardt, 2000)

Taylor (2007) notes that, “Tankers of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards must have two
independent steering gear control systems which are operated from the bridge. When
one fails, changeover to the other must be immediate and achieved from the bridge
position. The steering gear itself must comprise two independent systems where failure
of one results in an automatic changeover to the other within 45 seconds. Any of these
failures should result in audible and visual alarms on the bridge. A pump is required in
the hydraulic system which can immediately pump fluid in order to provide a hydraulic
force that will move the rudder. Instant response does not allow time for the pump to be
switched on and therefore a constantly running pump is needed which pumps fluid only
when required. A variable delivery pump provides this capability.”

Periscopes, communications antennas, radar antennas and air induction systems play a
very important role for the stealthy operation of submarines. Such equipment is raised
and lowered using a retractable mast system. The masts are hydraulically operated using
a hydraulic control unit located within the submarine and although weight and volume
figures depend on the required Mast Payload, a typical antenna type payload and
associated mast raising equipment would weigh around 3000 kg with a retracted space
envelope of 0.7 x 0.5 x 6.3 m. A Kilo Class diesel electric submarine is shown in Figure
5, with masts and their associated payloads raised.

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Figure 5 Raised Masts on a Kilo Class Submarine. (Web image 2018)

For situations requiring rotary motion, such as deck winches and capstans, a bi-directional
hydraulic motor is used instead of a linear actuator (see Figure 6). This will rotate in either
direction, depending on the direction of hydraulic oil flow to the motor. The basic circuit is
similar to that for the hatch cover example of Figure 2 except for the use of a rotary actuator.

Figure 6 Hydraulic winch with Motor Brake.

Figure 7 shows a hydraulic winch used on board a fast ferry to raise and lower the stern
door. Note the local hydraulic control box at the left hand side of the winch.

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Figure 7 Hydraulic winch used for raising car ferry stern door.

3. LINEAR HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

Cylinders with no motion

A fluid power cylinder accepts fluid pressure and converts it into rotary or linear motion
with an associated force or torque. Since most cylinders are used to produce linear
motion, these will be the ones considered here. There are three important formulas
which will be used in this section. The first formula has to do with hydrostatic force
transmission.

Force is equal to a pressure being applied to a particular area. The formula describing
static action is:

FORCE (N) = PRESSURE (N/m2) x AREA (m2)

However using strict SI units means that pressure values are often very large numbers
while area values are very small numbers. Often it is more convenient to work in units
of bar for pressure and centimetres squared for area. Working in these units means that
the equation for force needs to be modified to include a conversion factor as follows.
𝑃𝑥𝐴
𝐹= 0.1

Where F is Newtons (N), P is bar and A is cm2

In order to derive the complete force equation for a double acting cylinder with no
motion, consider Figure 8 below.
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Figure 8

This cylinder has a pressure Pc acting on the piston area. A pressure Pr acts on the
annulus area. "F", which is an external force, keeps the rod in compression. To find the
force developed by Pc, we must first find the area of the piston.
2
𝜋 𝑑𝑝
Piston area = 𝐴𝑃 = 4
2 −𝑑2 )
𝜋 (𝑑𝑝 𝑟
Annulus area = 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐴𝑃 − 𝐴𝑟 = 4

For a compressive load FC

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑝 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 𝐴𝑒 (eq 1a)

And for a tensile load Ft (i.e. the rod pulling on the load)

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑃𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑝 (eq 1b)

Example 1

In the hydraulic system shown below, a pressure P is acting at the cap end of a cylinder
diameter d. The rod is stopped from moving by a concrete wall. Find the force exerted
by the rod on the wall for a hydraulic pressure of 70 bar when the cylinder diameter is

i. 50mm
ii. 100 mm.

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Solution

The load is compressive so equation 1a can be used and since we are given no
information about the pressure in the rod end of the cylinder, we can assume that it is
zero, leading to:

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑝 − 0 𝑥 𝐴𝑒

Thus for a piston diameter of 50 mm the compressive force is given by

𝜋 𝑥 52
𝐹𝑐 = 70 𝑥 = 13744 𝑁
4 𝑥 0.1

And for a piston diameter of 100 mm, the compressive force acting on the wall is
𝜋 𝑥 102
𝐹𝑐 = 70 𝑥 = 54978 𝑁
4 𝑥 0.1

Note doubling the diameter for the same fluid pressure resulted in a fourfold increase in
the force applied to the wall. Since the piston is stationary, the work transfer is zero
(work = force x distance moved) and power is also zero (power = rate of work transfer).

Cylinders with Motion

When cylinders are in motion, we are interested in finding the pressure in the cylinder,
the speed of the rod and the power generated. Pressure in the cylinder (Pc or Pr) can be
calculated using equation 1a or 1b.

When the piston and actuating rod are moving, the flow of hydraulic fluid into the
cylinder is given by

Volumetric flow rate (m3/s) = area (m2) x piston velocity (m/s)

And working with convenient units of litres and cm2 for the area, the volume flow rate in
litres per minute can be calculated from

Q (l/min) = A (cm2) x V (m/s) x 6.0

The area can be the piston area or the annulus area depending on which side the fluid
enters the cylinder.

The fluid power delivered (W) is P (N) x Q (m3/s) and using convenient units this
becomes
𝑙
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑚
Fluid power (kW) = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)𝑥
600

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𝑚
𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ( )
𝑠
The output power of the actuator rod (kW) = 𝑥 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
1000

Example 2

In the sketch below, a pump delivers hydraulic fluid at a rate of 38 litres per minute to a
100 mm diameter cylinder that is requires a thrust of 22.24 kN to move a load.

Note that in this example the cylinder is shown operating in a horizontal direction but the
application can also require the cylinder to be operating in a vertical direction such as
when raising or lowering a submarine mast.

1. What is the pressure to extend the cylinder?

2. What is the rod speed?
3. What is the power developed?

Solution

1.) First we need to find the fluid pressure and assuming Pr = 0 then PC = FC/Ap
22240 𝑁 𝑥 0.1
𝑃𝑐 = = 28.3 𝑏𝑎𝑟
78.54 𝑐𝑚2

2.) The rod speed is obtained using V = Q/AP

Note that since the fluid enters the cap end Ap is used.
38
𝑉= = 0.081 𝑚/𝑠
78.54 𝑥 6.0

3.) Finally the power is obtained using

Fluid input power = 28.3 bar x 38 l/min /600 = 1.79 kW

Rod output power = 0.081 (m/s) x 22240 (N) /1000 = 1.80 kW

The equations for power check out since both produce the same value.

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Example 3

Let us now consider the example of the 38 l/min is entering into the rod end of the
cylinder as shown below.

Solution

1.) First we want to know the pressure and assuming Pc is zero then Pr = Ft / Ae.
22240 𝑥 0.1
𝑃𝑟 = = 30.2 𝑏𝑎𝑟
73.63 𝑐𝑚2

As you can see, it takes more pressure to return the load than to extend it because of the
respective decrease in area.

2.) Since the fluid is entering the rod end, the annulus area is used when calculating the rod
speed.

38
𝑉= = 0.086 𝑚/𝑠
73.63 𝑥 6.0
As you can see, the rod speed has increased and so has the rate of work transfer. This is
due to the same quantity of oil entering but the available volume is smaller.

3.) Finally the power is obtained using

Fluid input power = 30.2 bar x 38 l/min /600 = 1.91 kW

Rod output power = 0.086 (m/s) x 22240 (N) /1000 = 1.91 kW

The equations for power check out since both produce the same value. The power has
increased because the pressure needed to accomplish the work has increased.

Return Line Back Pressure

Return Line back pressure is an important factor in the operation of hydraulic circuits.
Too much or too little back pressure will impact the performance and functionality of the
system. Methods for calculating pressure drop through pipe work are standard fluid
dynamics. Based on hydraulic cylinder volume and individual actuators requirements,
fluid flow rates may be calculated for the system return pipe lines. The minimum inner
pipe diameters required to provide the maximum hydraulic fluid flow rates and
recommended fluid velocities are calculated using:

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
Q = VAi = V D i 2
4
Where Q = Volume Flow rate (m3/s)
V = fluid velocity (m/s)
Ai = Cross sectional area of the pipe (m2)
Di = Internal pipe diameter (m)

Pipe lengths and fittings need to be determined from detail drawings and pressure drops
associated with Thermostatic Valves, Return Filter and Oil Cooler are normally provided
by the equipment manufacturer.

The return line pressure losses due to pipe friction are calculated using a D’Arcy style
equation

L V2
Δp  f 
Di 2
Where;
p = pressure loss (Pa)
L = Pipe Length (m)
ρ = Density (kg/m3) = (875 kg/m3 for Shell Tellus 46 hydraulic oil)
f = friction coefficient = 64/Re for Laminar Flow conditions (Re < 2000)
Re = Reynolds Number = VDi/ ν
Where ν = kinematic viscosity (150 mm2/s for Shell Tellus 46 hydraulic oil @
20°C )

The pressure losses due to bends fittings have been calculated using the following
equation:
V2
Δp  K
2
Where K = Fitting loss coefficient from Internal Flow Systems’ and typical values can be
found in Fluid Dynamic text books.

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Example 4

The final case that will be considered is one in which the flow path leaving the cylinder
is choked, restricting flow as shown below.

Solution

The restriction allows 12 l/min to flow out of the rod end when a pressure (Pc) of 70 bar
exists at the cap end. The pump will deliver whatever l/min is necessary to fill the cap
end of the cylinder since the relief valve is set at 70 bar. What is:

1. The pressure Pr?

2. The rod speed?
3. The flow rate into the cylinder?
4. The useful power?

1.) Since Pc, Ac, Ae and F are either known or can be calculated, and this is a compressive
load then Pr can be found by rearranging

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 𝑥 𝐴𝑝 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 𝐴𝑒

𝜋 𝑥 102 𝜋(102 −2.52 )

22204 (𝑁) = 70 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)𝑥 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑥
4 𝑥 0.1 4 𝑥 0.1

22240 (𝑁) = 70 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)𝑥 785.4 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 736.2

22240 = 5497.8 – 73.62 Pr

Rearranging to solve for Pr

Pr = (54978 / 736.2) - 22240 = 44.47 bar

This type of back pressure on a cylinder will always exist when a pressure compensated
restriction (flow control counterbalance valve etc.) is placed to meter flow out of the
system. The maximum pressure ever seen at the metered-out side of the piston will be
when no load is present, i.e. the flow check valve is fully closed. Consider no load in
the above example. F will be zero

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0 (𝑁) = 70 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)𝑥 785.4 (𝑐𝑚2 ) − 𝑃𝑟 𝑥 736.2(𝑐𝑚2 )

Pr = (54978 / 736.2) = 74.68 bar

This means that with 70 bar at the cap end, the maximum pressure existing at the rod end
is 74.68 bar. This process is called intensification and it becomes very important when
the rod diameter gets large. Pressures of a high intensity over the rated cylinder pressure
can cause rod seals to fail prematurely.

2.) The next parameter to be found is the rod speed.

12
𝑉= = 0.027 𝑚/𝑠
73.63 𝑥 6.0

3.) Calculating the input fluid power equation involves a pressure term and since there is
pressure on both sides of the piston, it is easier to work with output power.

Rod output power = 0.027(m/s) x 22240 (N) /1000 = 0.6 kW

Cranes and Beams

Because crane working angles constantly change (see Figure 8) constructing a rough
model on paper is often necessary to show the point at which the greatest cylinder thrust
is needed. An exact calculation can then made. Only the portion of cylinder thrust at
right angles to the beam axis is effective for turning the beam. This can be calculated
by the method shown below.

Figure 8 Hydraulic Cranes

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Example 5

Find the maximum load that can be lifted by the crane when the angles are as shown and
the cylinder thrust, F is 19,635 N. The overall length of the crane jib L1 is 3m and the
length from the hydraulic cylinder to the jib tip is 2m.

Solution

Translate the 19635 N cylinder thrust into F1, 9817.5 N at right angles to the beam, using
sin 30 = 0.5.
Next translate this to F2, 3272.5 N thrust at the weighted end of the beam. This is done
with simple proportion by the length of each arm from the base pivot point. F2 is 1/3 F1,
since the lever is 3 times as long.
Then the maximum hanging load that can be lifted at a 45o angle between beam and load
weight can be found from.

Sin 45 = F2/Load hence Load = F2/sin 45 = 3272.5/0.707 = 4628.7N

Thrust exerted by a cylinder working at an angle

Cylinder thrust F is horizontal in the figure shown below. Only that vector force, T
which is at right angles to the lever axis is effective for turning the lever. The value of T
varies with the acute angle “A” between cylinder and lever axes.

T = sin A (cylinder thrust)

Example: An 80mm bore cylinder working at 69 bar will develop a 34.7 kN force
Effective thrust when working at a 65o angle is 34.7 x 0.906 = 31.4 kN.

Summary of cylinder formulas

Piston Force F (N) = P (N/m2) x A (m2)

Piston velocity (m/s) = Q (m3/s) / A (m2)
Pump volume (m3/s) = piston area (m2) x length of stroke (m) / time in seconds (cylinder
stroke)

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4. ROTARY ACTUATORS & MOTORS

When selecting a hydraulic motor, the amount of torque needed to move the work
(breakaway torque) must be known. Torque is determined by multiplying the distance
from the centre of the hydraulic motor shaft to the end of the rotary arm, times the load
or force which the rotary arm is required to move.

T=FxR (Torque (Nm) = Force (N) x Radius (m)).

Breakaway torque "is the amount of torque required to initially start a load moving."
This torque is generally much higher than "Running torque". "Running torque" is the
amount of torque required to keep a load moving after it has been started.

Torque is found in terms of Nm of torque. Next establish a hydraulic motor system

working pressure. With the pressure established, the maximum torque that can be
developed by the motor can be found by checking the manufacturer’s hydraulic motor
specifications. This will enable you to determine how much torque can be developed per
bar or at the maximum system working pressure. Depending on the system, sometimes it
is necessary to oversize the hydraulic motor as much as 40% or more to allow for the
"breakaway torque" requirements.

Hydraulic motors should be operated at the highest practical speed. Generally, 100 rpm
is the lowest practical rpm unless the motor is designed for low rpm and high torque
applications. Gear reduction is sometimes used to obtain lower output shaft rotation with
high torque requirement. With some systems, it's practical to increase the hydraulic
motor size considerably. This allows the motor to obtain a lower operating speed and
maintain a high torque requirement. Flow controls can be used to control the motor
speed. Care should be taken in applying the flow control with each system. In some
systems, a "meter out" (i.e. controlling flow on the discharge side of the motor)
application may create enough back pressure on the motor to cancel out some of the
torque which the motor otherwise is able to produce.

On "Meter in" (controlling flow on the inlet side of the motor) applications care should
be taken on some lower rpm applications, where there may be binding or change in
friction; this will affect the constant rpm. With "bleed off" (i.e. diverting some of the
fluid flow rather than throttling flow) applications, always use a pressure compensated
flow control. Some critical requirements may also require the pressure compensated flow
control to be temperature compensated. The "bleed off" arrangement creates less heat in
the system over the "meter in" or "meter out" arrangements. This is a saving in power.

To calculate the amount of oil required to drive the hydraulic motor at your specified
rpm, first check the manufacturer’s specifications for the motor displacement. This
displacement is generally given in cubic centimetres per revolution. Multiply the number
of cc/rev, times the number of revolutions you have specified. This will give you an

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answer in cc per minute. The pump is required to deliver this amount of oil (cc/min) to
drive the motor at your specified rpm.

Example 6

A fluid motor has a displacement of 26.38 cc/rev. The specifications state that the
hydraulic motor should be driven at 1400 rpm. What pump delivery is required to drive
this motor at 1400 rpm?

26.38 cc/rev. x 1400 rpm = 36932 cc/min

36932/1000000 = 0.0369 m3/min (delivered from the pump)

Hydraulic motors operate as a result of a pressure imbalance on the appropriate members

of the rotating group which results in the rotation of the shaft. This imbalance is
generated in different ways depending on the motor type.

Hydraulic input power to the motor is calculated using,

𝑁 𝑚3
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( 2 )𝑥𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑚 𝑠
Input power (kW) = 1000

Mechanical power from a motor can be calculated. The formula is:

𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ( )𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑚)
s
Output power (kW) = 1000

In the previous section on cylinders, the hydraulic input power was considered to equal
the mechanical output power because the cylinder was assumed to be 100% efficient.
However, when working with hydraulic motors, an efficiency allowance factor should be
included.
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ( )𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑁𝑚)
𝑠
Motor efficiency = 𝑥 100 = 𝑙 𝑥 100
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )𝑥 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)
min
600

Hydraulic motor efficiencies can be found by checking the manufacturer’s specifications.

This can increase the fluid flow requirement by as much as 10 - 15%. The power lost
due to the inefficiency of the motor is converted into heat which causes a rise in the
temperature of the oil. A heat exchanger is normally included to dissipate the excess
heat.

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5. HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Hydraulic Control Unit

Control valves are usually grouped together on a small panel local to the or in a more
complex remotely located Hydraulic Control Unit (HCU) as shown in Figure 9 for a fast
ferry water jet bucket control unit. All hydraulic control systems have a least one
hydraulic pump and more usually with a second pump for standby purposes. In modern
installations the hydraulic system is usually provided as a module complete with the
main oil tank, so the shipyard has the minimum of interconnecting pipe work to supply.
The hydraulic module can be cleaned, flushed and tested by the manufacturer, making
the task of installation and setting to work as quick and trouble free as possible.
Depending on the hydraulic demands of the system users, accumulators may be used in
system to provide reserve capacity during peak load demands, for example raising
groups of submarine masts. This is necessary to ensure that the hydraulic pumps are not
sized to meet peak user demands which may occur infrequently and result in a system
fitted with oversized pumps.

A typical hydraulic oil is Shell Tellus 46 which at 20ºC has an oil viscosity of 135x10 -6
m/s2 and a density of 875 kg/m3.

Figure 9 Hydraulic control unit for fast ferry

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Pump Capacity

Figure 10 shows a four hydraulic pump system, for a fast ferry application. If the pumps
operate at a speed of 1100 rpm, displacement of 75 cm3/rev and a volumetric efficiency
of 0.96, calculate the total capacity of the pumps when they operate in parallel.

Solution

Given:

Speed: n = 1100 rpm

Displacement: q = 75 cm3/rev

Volumetric efficiency: v = 0.96

Then:

Pump delivery: Q = n.q.v = 1100 x 75 x 0.96 = 79.20 L/min

Total capacity available from four (4) pumps when operated in parallel is 316.8 L/min.

Figure 10 Hydraulic pump module for fast ferry

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Accumulator Capacity

Accumulators are used to supply oil to a system during temporary demands greater than
the pump can supply. Or they can supply make-up oil for holding system pressure. They
also are used as a prime source of hydraulic pressure in small systems of short operating
life.

A hydro-pneumatic accumulator is a container in which compressed gas applies force to

the stored liquid. They are, by far, the most popular type in use on industrial applications
and are commercially available with a diaphragm, bladder or piston type separator
between the gas and the oil. An inert gas, such as dry nitrogen, is used as the energy
storage medium. Since gas-loaded accumulators depend on the compression of gas for
energy, ideal gas laws apply to their operation. The general equation is

𝑃1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑃2 𝑉2𝑛

For isothermal compression or expansion, n = 1 and therefore 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

While for adiabatic compression or expansion, n = l.4 for nitrogen leading to

𝑃1 𝑉11.4 = 𝑃2 𝑉21.4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Isothermal operation occurs when compression or expansion is slow enough to allow

transfer of heat out of or into the accumulator. During compression, heat flows out of the
accumulator, and during expansion heat flows into the accumulator. With standard 200
bar accumulators the steel wall permits the isothermal equation to be used where
compression or expansion occurs in about 3 minutes or longer.

Adiabatic operation occurs when compression or expansion is rapid so that there is no

transfer of heat. The adiabatic equation is used where compression or expansion occurs
in less than 1 minute. Normally accumulators are sized using the ideal gas law and a
value of n= 1.4 for nitrogen
Accumulators should be precharged to 7 bar less than the minimum operating pressure to
prevent bottoming of the piston. Normally they are precharged at room temperature.

𝑚3 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
Accumulator size = 𝑉3 𝑉
− 2
𝑉1 𝑉1

Where :

V1 = Specific volume of gas at precharge pressure at operating temperature.

V2 = Specific volume of gas at system pressure at operating temperature (or adiabatic
temperature if adiabatic compression).
V3 = Specific volume of gas after discharge of oil (either isothermal or adiabatic).

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System Accumulator Capacity

A hydraulic system has two banks of accumulators which provide fluid power to the
consumers in the system as follows:

a) The fwd bank consists of eight (8) 25 litre accumulators which have a pre-charge
of 6.5 MPa.

b) The aft bank consists of six (6) 25 litre accumulators which have a pre-charge of
6.5 MPa.

It is assumed the simultaneous operations discharge cycle will be 10 seconds based on

the time to operate the slowest consumer. This is considered to be a rapid cycle and
hence can be assumed to be an adiabatic process. The accumulator design guidelines
state that for Nitrogen charged accumulators with an operating pressure below 20.0 MPa
Ideal Gas laws apply as the difference when applying Real Gas laws is negligible.

To determine the working volume of an accumulator the volume of gas in the

accumulators at the maximum and minimum system pressures is calculated as follows:

p0(V0)n = p1(V1)n where:

p0 = Precharge pressure of the accumulator

V0 = Volume of accumulator

p1 = Minimum system pressure during discharge cycle

p2 = Maximum system pressure during discharge cycle

V1 = Gas volume at p1

V2 = Gas volume at p2

n = polytropic exponent = 1.4 for nitrogen (assuming rapid cycle)

The available working volume of the accumulators during the normal discharge/recharge
cycle from 10 MPa to 8.0 MPa can be calculated as follows:

p0 = Precharge pressure of the accumulator = 6.5 Mpa

V0 = Volume of accumulator = 25 L

p1 = Minimum system pressure during discharge cycle = 8.0 MPa

p2 = Maximum system pressure during discharge cycle = 10 MPa

V1 = Gas volume at p1
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V2 = Gas volume at p2

n = polytropic exponent = 1.4 for nitrogen (assuming rapid cycle)

Therefore the working volume for a single accumulator

= V1-V2 = 21.55 – 18.38 L = 3.17 L

For a hydraulic system that contains fourteen accumulators (14) of 25 litre nominal
volume. Hence the total working volume for a rapid discharge is = 14 x 3.17 = 44.44 L.

Volume of gas at 10 MPa Volume of gas at 8.0 MPa

p 0 V0  p 2 V2
n n

p1V1  p 2 V2
n n
1
p  n 1
V2  V0  0   p n
 p2  V1  V2  2 
1  p1 
 6.5  1.4 1
V2  25    10 1.4
 10  V1  18.38 
8
V2  18.38L
V1  21.55

Accltr. Accltr
Gas Vol. .Gas Vol.
@ @
10 MPa 8 MPa

Accltr. Working
Hyd. Volume
Fluid Accltr.
Vol. Hyd.
@ Fluid
10 MPa Vol. @
8 MPa

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6. REFERENCES

1. Danfoss Hydraulics, Facts worth knowing about hydraulic systems,

http://www.haave.no/pdf/FactsWorthKnowingAboutHydraulics.pdf accessed Feb
2018.
2. Meier-Peter, H, Bernhardt, F., 2009 Compendum Marine Engineering, DW Media
Group GmbH Seehafen Verlag
3. Parker Fluid power, Analysing Hydraulic Systems, Bulletin 0222-B1.
4. Parker Fluidpower, Design Engineers Handbook, Bulletin 0224-.
5. Taylor, D. A., 2007, Introduction to Marine Engineering, 2nd Ed.Elsevier, Butterworth
Heinemann.
6. Wikipedia, Hydraulic machinery, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery
accessed Feb 2018.

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APPENDIX A

INDIVIDUAL HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS

Relief valve

To protect the systems from excessive high pressures that can occur due to:

 Obstruction on the discharge side of the pump.

 Accidental closure of a valve. .
 Overloading of the system. (E.g. attempting to lift a weight beyond the maximum
allowable load of the hydraulic system).
 Shock loading that can occur to the system. (e.g. wave action on the rudder of a ship).

Directional Control Valves

These valves control the direction of flow of the fluid, and thus the operation of the system.
It can be seen in Figure 2 that by operating the lever and hence the direction control valve, it
is possible to divert the oil from the pump to the top or bottom of the cylinder.

Although in Figure 2 and 4 the valve is controlled by a lever, it can operated in a number of
ways as shown in Figure 5.

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Figure 5 Alternative operating methods for a direction control valve

Hydraulic actuators

1) Eye Bracket, 2) Rod Clevis, 3) Pivot Pins, 4) Clevis Bracket and 5) Knuckle.

Used extensively to obtain linear motion they are classed as:

 double acting rams; and

 single acting rams.

The double acting ram was used in Figure 2 to lift a hatch cover and is shown in Figure 6. It
consists of a steel piston within a steel cylinder, with oil supplied to ports at either end of the
cylinder. The piston can be moved in either direction by supplying oil to the appropriate side
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of the cylinder. For example, if oil is supplied to the left hand side of the cylinder, the piston
will move to the right, and vice versa.

Due to the high pressures encountered, proper maintenance is essential. Seals on rams
include:
 end cover seals;
 piston rings or seals; and.
 piston rod seal (or gland).

Figure 6

A single acting hydraulic ram is shown in Figure 7. This too, consists of a steel piston within
a steel cylinder. However, oil can be supplied to only one end, enabling motion only in one
direction.

Figure 7
To move the ram to the opposite direction, the oil pressure is relieved and the ram pushed in
by either:
 an internal spring; or
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 another ram fitted directly opposite, (this is a common arrangement in hydraulic

steering systems, where the rudder is rotated by two or four single acting rams).

When considering the use of long stroke cylinders, it is necessary that the rod diameter be of
such dimension so as to provide the necessary column strength. For tension (pull) loads, a
correct rod size is easily selected by specifying cylinders with standard rod diameters, and
using them at rated or lower pressures.

For compression (push) loads, the column strength must be carefully considered. This
involves the stroke length, the length of the piston rod extension, the support received from
the rod end connection and gland and piston bearings, the style of mounting and the mounting
attitude. It is also necessary to consider the bearing loads on pistons and glands, and to keep
bearing pressures within proper limits by increasing the distance between piston and gland
bearings. Commonly, separation of the bearings is effected with a stop tube on the piston rod
much like a large diameter spacer sleeve.

The stop tube is a metal collar which fits over the piston rod. A stop tube keeps the piston and
rod gland bushing separated when a long stroke cylinder is fully extended. Since it is a
bearing, a rod gland bushing is designed to take some loading when supporting the rod as it
extends or retracts. Along with being a bearing, a rod gland bushing is also a fulcrum for the
piston rod. As shown in the figure below, a stop tube in effect protects the rod gland bushing
loading at full extension between both piston and bushing.

Steel rods of long stroke cylinders sag just because of their weight. A 15 mm diameter piston
rod has a mass of 1.488 kg/m and will sag over 25 mm at the centre of a 3 m span. A stop
tube is used to separate bushing and piston when the rod is extended. This reduces the load on
the rod gland bushing.

Hydraulic pumps

Hydraulic pumps are positive displacement pumps and may need to deliver very high
pressures up to 300 bar or more. Displacement pumps are usually equipped with relief valves

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to deal with high pressures that can occur due to obstructions in the discharge side or
overloading of the system.

Hydraulic pumps can be either unidirectional or bi-directional, depending on their

application. The later type can be controlled to supply oil in both directions.

Hydraulic Motors (rotary actuators)

Motors are similar in construction to pumps. However, they work in reverse to a pump. When
supplied with oil they produce rotary output. Thus, they are used in systems such as winches,
where rotary motion is required.

Coolers

Heat is generated in hydraulic systems due to friction within the system. The oil has to be
cooled to prevent:

 the system overheating and seizing; and the oil deteriorating; and
 the oil reaching dangerous temperatures, i.e. close to its flash point.

The method of cooling the oil depends upon the system. These methods include:
 using the volume of oil in the tank to dissipate heat. . . natural dissipation of heat from
pipes and component surfaces, (fins may be used to assist cooling).
 oil pumped through a radiator, (with a fan blowing air passed it).
 oil pumped through a cooler, (with sea water pumped through it).

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Hydraulic Accumulators

An accumulator is a container in which fluid is stored under pressure as a source of fluid

power. Storage of energy is accomplished by connecting the accumulator to a source of
pressurized liquid to compress the volume of gas in the accumulator. The source pressure
must exceed the pressure at which the liquid stored in the accumulator is to be used. As the
system pressure drops below the original pressure, the gas expands, and pressurized liquid is
forced out of the accumulator until it is empty or until the pressure in the accumulator is
equal to the minimum operating pressure of the device being supplied with liquid.

Filters

It is essential to ensure that all traces of dirt and wear particles are removed from the system,
as they will cause damage to the system components. This is achieved by filters that are fitted
to the system. Depending on the system a number of filters may be present and will need to
be cleaned or changed regularly

Flexible Pipes

Flexible reinforced (steel braided), rubber hoses are used in hydraulic systems, especially
when connected to non-stationary components. Although these hoses are flexible, they should
not be unduly stressed when fitting. Figure 8 shows the incorrect and correct procedures for
installing hydraulic pipes.

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Figure 8 Hydraulic hose installation practice.

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