Iran University of Science and Technology

School of Mechanical Engineering

THERMODYNAMICS II
Module 3: Gas Power Systems

Samane Ghandehariun, PhD

samane_ghandehariun@iust.ac.ir
Winter 2023
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LEARNING OUTCOMES

► Conduct air-standard analyses of internal combustion engines based on the Otto, Diesel,
and dual cycles, including the ability to
► sketch 𝑃 − 𝑣 and 𝑇 − 𝑠 diagrams and evaluate property data at principal states.
► apply energy, entropy, and exergy balances.
► determine net power output, thermal efficiency, and mean effective pressure.
► Conduct air-standard analyses of gas turbine power plants based on the Brayton cycle and
its modifications, including the ability to
► sketch 𝑇 − 𝑠 diagrams and evaluate property data at principal states.
► apply mass. energy, entropy, and exergy balances.
► determine net power output, thermal efficiency, back work ratio, and the effects of
compressor pressure ratio on performance.

Considering Internal Combustion Engines

Two principal types of reciprocating internal combustion engines are

► the spark-ignition engine; a mixture of fuel and air is ignited by a spark plug
► the compression-ignition engine; air is compressed to a high enough pressure and temperature
that combustion occurs spontaneously when fuel is injected

Introducing Engine Terminology

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► In a four-stroke internal combustion engine, the piston executes four distinct strokes within
the cylinder for every two revolutions of the crankshaft

► Intake stroke
With the intake valve open, the piston makes an intake stroke to draw a fresh charge into
the cylinder.

► For spark-ignition engines, the charge includes fuel and air.

► For compression-ignition engines, the charge is air alone.

► Compression stroke
With both valves closed, piston compresses charge, raising the pressure and temperature,
and requiring work input from the piston to the cylinder contents.

► For spark-ignition engines, combustion is initiated by the spark plug.

► For compression-ignition engines, combustion is initiated by injecting fuel into the
hot compressed air.

► Power stroke
The gas mixture expands and work is done on the piston as it returns to bottom dead center.

► Exhaust stroke
The burned gases are purged from the cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
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► Mean effective pressure, mep, is an important performance parameter.

► mep is a theoretical constant pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the power
stroke, would produce the same net work as actually developed in one cycle.
► For two engines of equal displacement volume, the one with a higher mep would
produce the greater net work and, if the engines run at the same speed, greater
power.

AIR-STANDARD ANALYSIS

► To conduct elementary analyses of reciprocating internal combustion engines,

simplifications are required. Although highly idealized, an air-standard analysis can provide
insights and qualitative information about actual performance.

► An air-standard analysis has the following elements:

► A fixed amount of air modeled as an ideal gas is the working fluid.

► All processes are internally reversible.
► The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer from an external source.
► The cycle is completed by a constant-volume heat transfer process taking place while
the piston is at the bottom dead center position.
► In a cold air-standard analysis, the specific heats are assumed constant at their
ambient temperature values.
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Ideal Gas Model Review

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Air-Standard Otto Cycle

► The Otto cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:

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EXAMPLE 1

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air
is at 100 kPa and 17oC, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the heat addition process.
Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine (a) the maximum
temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal
efficiency, and (d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
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Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

► In compression-ignition engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is compressed to a

temperature that is above the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts
on contact as the fuel is injected into this hot air.

► The air-standard Diesel cycle is an ideal cycle that assumes heat addition occurs during a
constant-pressure process that starts with the piston at top dead center.

► The Diesel cycle consists of four internally reversible processes:

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Air-Standard Dual Cycle

EXAMPLE 2

An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning
of the compression process, air is at 0.1 MPa and 300 K. Accounting for the variation of specific
heats with temperature, determine (a) the temperature and pressure at the end of each process
of the cycle, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
Repeat this example using constant specific heats at room temperature.
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EXAMPLE 3

An air-standard dual cycle has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 1.2. The pressure
ratio during the constant-volume heat addition process is 1.5. Determine the thermal efficiency,
amount of heat added, the maximum gas pressure and temperature when the cycle is operated
at 100 kPa and 27oC at the beginning of the compression. Use constant specific heats at room
temperature.
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Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants

► Gas turbines tend to be lighter and more compact than the vapor power plants.

► The favorable power-output-to-weight ratio of gas turbines makes them well suited for
transportation applications (aircraft propulsion and marine power plants).

► Today’s electric power-producing gas turbines are almost exclusively fueled by natural gas.

Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants

► Gas turbine power plants may operate on either an open or closed basis.

► An idealization often used in the study of open gas turbine power plants is that of an air-standard
analysis. In an air-standard analysis two assumptions are always made:

► The working fluid is air, which behaves as an ideal gas.

► The temperature rise that would be brought about by combustion is accomplished by a
heat transfer from an external source.

Air-Standard Brayton Cycle

► Brayton cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes:

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► There is a limit on the maximum temperature at the turbine inlet imposed by metallurgical
considerations of the turbine blades.

► For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net work of the Brayton cycle first increases with the
pressure ratio, then reaches a maximum, and finally decreases.
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EXAMPLE 4

Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K, with a
volumetric flow rate of 5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature
is 1400 K. Determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the back work ratio, (c) the net
power developed.
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Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and losses

EXAMPLE 5

Reconsider Example 4 but include in the analysis that the turbine and compressor each have an
isentropic efficiency of 80%. Determine for the modified cycle (a) the back work ratio, (b) the
thermal efficiency, and (c) the net power developed.
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Regenerative Gas Turbines

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EXAMPLE 6

A regenerator is incorporated in the cycle of Example 4. (a) Determine the thermal efficiency for
a regenerator effectiveness of 80%. (b) Plot the thermal efficiency versus regenerator
effectiveness ranging from 0 to 80%.
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Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling

Gas Turbines with Reheat

Compression with intercooling

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EXAMPLE 7

Consider a regenerative gas-turbine power plant with two stages of compression and two stages
of expansion. The overall pressure ratio of the cycle is 9. The air enters each stage of the
compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1200 K. Accounting for the variation of
specific heats with temperature, determine the minimum mass flow rate of air needed to develop
a net power output of 110 MW.
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Ericsson and Stirling Cycles

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Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycles

Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycles

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EXAMPLE 8

A combined gas turbine–vapor power plant has a net power output of 45 MW. Air enters the
compressor of the gas turbine at 100 kPa, 300 K, and is compressed to 1200 kPa. The isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 84%. The condition at the inlet to the turbine is 1200 kPa, 1400 K.
Air expands through the turbine, which has an isentropic efficiency of 88%, to a pressure of 100
kPa. The air then passes through the interconnecting heat-recovery steam generator and is finally
discharged at 400 K. Steam enters the turbine of the vapor power cycle at 8 MPa, 400°C, and
expands to the condenser pressure of 8 kPa. Water enters the pump as saturated liquid at 8 kPa.
The turbine and pump of the vapor cycle have isentropic efficiencies of 90 and 80%, respectively.
(a) Determine the mass flow rates of the air and the steam; the net power developed by the gas
turbine and vapor power cycle; and the thermal efficiency.
(b) Develop a full accounting of the net rate of exergy increase as the air passes through the gas
turbine combustor. Let T0 = 300 K, p0 = 100 kPa.
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Cogeneration
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Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants

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Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion

► Gas turbines are particularly suited for aircraft propulsion because of their favorable
power-to-weight ratios. The turbojet engine is commonly used for this purpose.

► The diffuser placed before the compressor decelerates the incoming air relative to the
engine. A pressure rise known as the ram effect is associated with this deceleration.

► Combustion gases leave the turbine at a pressure significantly greater than atmospheric
and expand through the nozzle to a high velocity before being discharged to the
surroundings. The overall change in the velocity of the gases relative to the engine gives
rise to the propulsive force or thrust.

► Some turbojets are equipped with an afterburner. This is essentially a reheat device in which
additional fuel is injected into the gas exiting the turbine and burned, producing a higher
temperature at the nozzle inlet than would be achieved otherwise.
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Turbojet Analysis
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EXAMPLE 9

Air at 26 kPa, 230 K, and 220 m/s enters a turbojet engine in flight. The air mass flow rate is 25
kg/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 11, the turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K, and air exits
the nozzle at 26 kPa. The diffuser and nozzle processes are isentropic, the compressor and
turbine have isentropic efficiencies of 85% and 90%, respectively, and there is no pressure drop
for flow through the combustor. Kinetic energy is negligible everywhere except at the diffuser inlet
and the nozzle exit. On the basis of air-standard analysis, determine (a) the pressures and
temperatures at each principal state, (b) the rate of heat addition to the air passing through the
combustor, and (c) the velocity at the nozzle exit.
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