Introduction

Energy access is a critical component of human well-being and economic progress. Providing
adequate access to everyone is a continuing and important challenge for global development.1
The depletion of fossil fuels and the subsequent global warming as a result of their use highlight
the need to focus on alternate energy sources.2 The non-renewable energy sources including oil
and gas are depleted fastly. On the other hand, hydropower (energy comes from water), wind
power (energy comes from moving air), biomass (energy comes from organic matters) and solar
cells (energy comes from sunlight) are some renewable energy sources that may be used as an
alternative energy sources.3

Solar cells have gotten a lot of attention from academics because of the amount and availability
of sunshine. Electricity is generated in solar cells through the photoelectric effect, which occurs
when sunlight is converted directly into electricity.4 This effect happens in semiconductor
materials, which have two energy bands, one of which allows the existence of electrons (valence
band) and the other of which does not, i.e. the band is fully "empty" (conduction band). Silicon,
the second most abundant element on Earth, is the most commonly used semiconductor material.
Its atoms are distinguished by the presence of four electrons that join their neighbors to form a
crystal network.5 Sunlight's role in the photovoltaic effect is to provide enough energy to the
outermost electron to allow him to shift from the valence band to the conduction band in the
material, resulting in the generation of electricity.5 A PN junction in a semiconductor is used in
almost all photovoltaic devices, and a photovoltaic voltage is generated by it. The PN junction is
the primary component of the solar cell, where the light-receiving region is made of N-type
material and the rest of the cell is made of P-type material.6

A conventional photovoltaic solar system has four fundamental components: a photovoltaic

module, a charge controller, an inverter, and, if necessary, a battery.5

The material used in a solar PV cell determines its cost and efficiency. There has been a lot of
research into finding the most efficient and cost-effective material for PV cells. The following
are the specifications for an ideal solar cell material.6

• The band gap of the material used to make the solar cells should be between 1.1 and 1.7 eV.
• There should be a direct band structure in the material.

• The substance should be simple to get and non-toxic.

• The material should be able to be reproduced in huge quantities.

• The PV conversion efficiency of the material should be high.

• A long-term stability component should be present in the material.

It was recently computed that the sun's light energy, which reaches the earth in less than an hour,
is adequate to meet the human annual energy needs.7 By absorbing light energy, photons are
transformed into electrons in the photovoltaic effect. Chapin et al. invented the first solar cell
with a PCE of 6% in 1954 at Bell Laboratories.7 Solar cells were quickly discovered to be a
practical way of generating power in remote locations, such as for powering communications
equipment or weather monitoring stations, and they were also ideal for supplying power for the
satellites and vehicles being developed for the rapidly expanding space industry.8 Solar cell
materials have received a lot of attention in the recent two decades due to their low cost, light
weight, low toxicity, and ease of solution processing.9

Silicon is the most widely used material in commercial solar cell modules, accounting for over
90% of the industry. This success can be attributed to a number of silicon's advantageous
characteristics: (1) It is abundant, being the second most abundant element on Earth (2) It is
generally stable and non-toxic in nature.(3) A bandgap of 1.12 eV, which is almost optimal
adapted to the terrestrial solar spectrum, that is, silicon photovoltaic cells are sensitive to the
electromagnetic spectrum emitted by the sun (4) Silicon photovoltaic cells are easily compatible
with microelectronics based on silicon (transistors and integrated circuits manufacturing. 10, 11

Monocrystalline (m-Si) and polycrystalline (p-Si, also known as multi-crystalline, mc-Si) cells
are silicon-based cells.12, 13 The Czochralski technique is used to cultivate cells from a single
silicon crystal.8 These cells have a high conversion efficiency, but their manufacturing costs are
considerable. During their life cycle, they demand more energy and have a longer energy return
time, and they need the use of ultra-pure materials (solar grade silicon) and with a perfect crystal
structure.8, 14
The photovoltaic industry's efforts to cut prices and boost production rates resulted in the
development of new crystallization processes. Cells based on multi-crystals appeared as a result
of this process. Because of the lower cost of production, multi-crystals technology is becoming
more appealing although these cells are less efficient.15 Polycrystalline cells, in comparison to
monocrystalline cells, have a better aesthetic appearance, consume less energy during their life
cycle, have a shorter energy return time, have a lower Greenhouse effect, and require less energy
to manufacture. The crystal structure does not have to be perfect.15, 16

Cells made of silicon aren't limited to those with a crystal structure. There are also silicon
nanowire cells (SiNWs), which are undergoing extensive research for solar applications due to
their ability to conduct electricity.10 To begin with, SiNW solar cells have better optical
absorption of the solar spectrum, using less silicon to achieve the same amount of absorption as
other older methods. In silicon nanowire cells, the energy losses that occur when light passes
through a photovoltaic cell without being absorbed are less. Second, SiNW solar cells enable
lower-quality silicon to be used instead of solar-grade silicon. Finally, SiNWs may be
manufactured with outstanding electrical properties. These benefits can significantly cut the cost
of manufacturing SiNW-based solar cells, keeping them competitive.10

Michael Grätzel and Brian O'Regan introduced the first dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) concept
in 1991.17 Because they are made up of both organic and inorganic materials, these cells are
classified as hybrid solar cells.18 The fundamental difference between this type of cell and
traditional solar cells is that the functional element responsible for light absorption (the dye) is
isolated from the charge carrier transport mechanism. As a result, impure raw materials and
simple cell manufacturing are permitted, lowering the device's cost.19 The stability of DSSCs
throughout time is an important aspect.18 In comparison to silicon, which is utilised in
conventional solar cells, DSSCs make use of less expensive titanium dioxide (TiO2).20

DSSCs based on organometallic dyes like ruthenium and porphyrins (zinc complexes) have
demonstrated high solar-to-electric conversion efficiency so far. Due to practical constraints,
however, their use on a broad scale is restricted. For instance, ruthenium and porphyrins are
difficult to synthesize and purify, and ruthenium is scarce.21 Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs)
have attracted a lot of attention as a developing photovoltaic technology for converting sunlight
into electrical energy, and they continue to do so.22 The dye sensitizer is adsorbed onto a
semiconductor surface, commonly TiO2, with a large band gap in a DSSC.23 Due to its wide
range of applications, ease of manufacture, and high efficiency and durability, dye sensitized
solar cell technology has piqued scientific and public interest.24

The dye sensitizer absorbs sunlight and becomes stimulated in theory. Because of the lower
empty molecular orbital's favourable energies, the excited dye electron was taken up by the semi-
conductor layer (LUMO).25 Through the conducting substrate layer, the electron was transmitted
to the outside circuit. Due to favourable LUMO energy levels, the oxidized (electron deficient)
dye takes electrons from the electrolyte and completes its electrons.26 The regeneration process
begins with the acceptance of one electron from the outside circuit, reducing the oxidized
electrolyte.27 This cycle of oxidation and regeneration continues until light is present.28 The high
expense of DSSC technology due to the use of rare earth metals like Pt as catalyst is a major
barrier to commercialization. Pt is thought to contribute 35-45 percent of the entire cost of
DSSC.29

DSSC photoanode materials like ZnO, TiO2, BaSnO3, and even composites like TiO2-carbon
nanotubes and ZnO–SnO2 have all been the subject of extensive research.30 TiO2 stands out
among these materials because of its unique properties such as morphological tuning, band gap
alignment, and phase development. It's also worth noting that the crystallographic phase,
morphological features, and surface qualities all play a part in the material's performance.31
When a TiO2 nanorod/nanowire photoanode is used in DSSCs, the high aspect ratio and electron
transport channel it provides with minimal recombination boosts the efficiency.32 Numerous
studies on DSSC applications based on TiO2 have been published, with 1-D nanostructures
receiving particular interest. Researchers created TiO2 NRAs using a variety of ways and tested
DSSC efficiency.33

The DS cells work in the opposite direction of light emitting diodes (LEDs). Light is absorbed by
a sensitizer (ruthenium polypyridine dye) attached to the surface of a broad band semiconductor
in these cells. Charge separation is aided at the interface by the injection of photo-induced
electrons from the dye into the solid's conduction band (TiO2). As a result of the electron
concentration gradient to the charge collector or anode, electrons diffuse in the conduction band.
The solar-to-electric conversion efficiency of these cells is said to be over 10%.34
Organic photovoltaic cells have the long-term potential to achieve the development of a large-
scale PV technology that is economically viable generating electricity.35 Organic semiconductors
are a more cost-effective alternative to inorganic semiconductors like silicon. Furthermore,
organic molecules can be treated using methods that are not appropriate for crystalline inorganic
semiconductors.36, 37

The light absorption layer is placed between two distinct electrodes in almost all organic solar
cells. One of the electrodes must be (semi) transparent; most commonly, indium tin oxide (ITO)
is employed, though a thin layer of metal can also be utilised.37 Electrodes can also be made out
of calcium, magnesium, gold, or aluminium, with the latter being the most common.36The
electrodes are usually constructed of Indium tin oxide and are transparent or semitransparent
(ITO). Aluminum is frequently used for the opposite electrode; however, other materials, such as
magnesium and gold, are occasionally used.38

Organic solar cells are made out of thin films of organic semiconductors, such as polymers, that
are generally 100 nanometers thick. Small molecules like pentacene, polyphenylene vinylene,
copper phthalocyanine (a blue or green organic pigment), and carbon-based nanostructures make
up these structures (fullerenes, nanotubes, graphene).39 Unlike typical silicon, this form of cell is
mostly comprised of plastic. The manufacturing method is less expensive since it uses low-cost
materials and has a high production throughput, and it has few technical obstacles, such as
requiring no high temperature or vacuum conditions.37

Organic photovoltaic cells have a number of appealing features, including the ability to be
flexible and semitransparent, the ability to be manufactured in a continuous printing process, a
large coating area, ease of integration in various devices, and a significant cost reduction when
compared to conventional photovoltaic cells.35 Traditional remedies provide environmental and
economic benefits. These features allow for a significant reduction in installation costs, which
can be as low as 70% of the entire cost of standard solar systems.40 Organic photovoltaic cells, on
the other hand, have limited endurance and are still unable to convert sunlight into electricity
with the same efficiency as silicon cells.21, 41

Organic solar cell research attempts to improve solar energy conversion efficiency, as a solar
cell's total energy production is equal to the product of its efficiency and lifetime. As a result,
stability, which is directly related to life time, is a critical quality for this type of cell, as it affects
the value (yield on cost) of an energy production system based on this technology.42 Many
elements of organic solar cells have been thoroughly investigated in recent years, including the
synthesis and use of novel materials, physical process modelling, large-scale manufacturing,
increased stability, and so on.37 Organic solar cells, on the other hand, have a long way to go in
terms of research and development before they can compete with inorganic solar cells.42

Graphene can be employed in the production of carbon-based organic photovoltaic cells, among
other applications.43

Due to unique benefits for commercial applications, vast amount of research has been
conducted on organic photovoltaics (OPV) over the last 10 years.44, 45
Power conversion
efficiency (PCE) is the ratio in which solar cell converts incident light power Pγ to output
electrical power , PCE = Jsc Voc FF/ Pγ , where FF is the fill factor and J sc and Voc are the short
circuit current density and open circuit voltage respectively.46

Fullerene-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have appeared the new sort of photovoltaic
cell and it is emerging area of research due to high proficiency, low production costs and ease of
fabrication. The general formula of perovskite is ABX3, where A is monovalent cation,
methylammonium (MA) or formamidinium (FA), B is Pb(II) and X is halogen are the most
examined materials.47 Since the seminal work Miyasaka et al. in 2009 48, perovskite solar cells
(PSCs) have shown rapid improvement in PCE from approximately 3 to above 25%. 49 Although
long term efficiency has been achieved, there are still remain many areas of improvement of the
device performance and long term stability.50 The unusual characteristics of the material allow
for the fabrication of the devices either the regular n-i-p or inverted p-i-n configuration (p stands
for p-type semiconductor, i for undoped semiconductor and n for n type semiconductor). 51 It has
been studied that slight alteration of the functional group attached to fullerene derivative have
strong influence on PCE and stability of device. 52

Due to optimization of device fabrication and development of new donor materials, the PCE
of polymer/fullerene-based solution organic solar cells have reached above 12%.53 Since the
improvement in the structure of device from bilayer heterojunction 54
to bulk heterojunction 9 the
charge separation and migration have become efficient.55 The PCE of the OPV is increased to
11% by adding bulk heterojunction (BHJ) to OPV devices.53
Tandem and ternary based solar have been made great development and these are manufactured
to enhance the absorption spectrum and increase the PCE. 55 The PCE of tandem organic
photovoltaics (OPV) is above 17.3%. The manufacturing of these types of solar cells are
particularly complex from single junction solar cell to multi-junction solar cells.56 Although the
ternary blend increased the photovoltaic performance of device 57
, the applications of such a
device is limited due to high production cost and demanding large scale fabrication.56

Fullerene (and its derivatives) based organic solar cells have dominated the industry for more
than 20 years, but their dominance has been severely limited due to drawbacks such as poor
tunability of energy levels in the visible range, low light absorption, poor shape, and high
pricing.58Non-fullerene acceptor materials (NFAs) eliminate the drawbacks of fullerene OSCs,
resulting in organic solar cell innovation.59, 60

Non-fullerene solar cells also termed as fullerene-free solar cells or “all polymer” solar cells 61

and these are considered as next generation OSCs. 62 Non-fullerene acceptors (NFA) have been
developed to overcome the shortcomings of fullerene derivatives such as high manufacturing
cost, poor solubility and weak absorption of light. 63 NFA material are promising alternatives to
fullerene acceptors (FA), as they have number of benefits such as high absorption capacity,
tunable chemical properties 64
,high molecular energy levels , best thermal stability and less
65

voltage loss.66

These Non-fullerene OSCs (NF-OSCs) have demonstrated consistent efficiency. 67 Small

molecular acceptor (SMA) solar cells and polymer solar cells have recently been classified as
two types of NF-OSCs.68 These SMA solar cells have a molecular structure that is sharply
organized, a higher purity, and greater batch-to-batch reproducibility than polymer solar cells.69

For the designing of NFA various strategies have been developed. Acceptor-Donor-
Acceptor (A-D-A) is the most widely used strategy to design planar structure of molecules. The
highest performing fullerene-free OSCs are being constructed with this strategy 70 and the highest
PCE are beyond 18%.71 The best performance of NF OSCs is due to the simultaneity of high-
efficient charge generation and smaller exciton dissociation driving force.71

Another commonly used strategy is three dimensional geometry of molecules 65,which

promote charge transport and charge separation, as in spherical fullerene. The performance of
device has been effected differently by the planar or non-planar geometry of molecules. 70 The
highly efficient NF acceptor materials belongs to 3,9-bis(2-methylene-(3-(1,1-
dicyanomethylene)-indanone))-5,5,11,11-tetrakis(4-hexylphenyl)-dithieno[2,3-d:2’,3’-d’]-s-
indaceno[1,2-b:5,6-b’]dithiophene (ITIC) families that are A-D-A type molecules having
intramolecular charge transfer.72

The PCE of organic solar cells has been increased to above 14% in single junction 73
and
17.3% for multi-junction 74
BHJ solar cells by using novel ITIC acceptors. For achieving
efficient NF OSCs, the choice of suitable donor is extremely significant as the photovoltaic
performance of OSCs governed by the donor and acceptor components in BHJ system. 75 As the
NFA outdoing than FA, notable work been done to enhance long-term operational stability and
efficiency of device.76

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