BJT TUTORIALS

Bipolar Junction Transistor- NPN

Bipolar Junction Transistor- PNP
DC Analysis of BJT Circuits
The BJT as a Signal Amplifier
BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models
BJT Small-Signal Amplifier
Graphical Analysis of a BJT Small-Signal Amplifier
BJT Biasing - Current Mirror
Common Emitter Amplifier
Common Base Amplifier
Common Collector (Emitter Follower) Amplifier
BJT Internal Capacitances. High Frequency Circuit Model

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Construction. NPN Physical Operation.

The transistor is a three terminal device. It is probably only the second such device you’ve encountered
in electrical engineering, after the op amp. Roughly speaking, the transistor acts an electronic valve:
the node current or voltage at one terminal controls the current entering the second terminal and
exiting the third. It would be difficult to overstate the importance of the transistor to electronics. Some
of its uses are: 
• Digital logic 
• Memory circuits
• Amplifiers
• Electronic switches. 
The two basic families of transistors are bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect transistors
(FETs). We’ll start by discussing BJTs for approximately 13 lectures followed by FETs for the remaining
12 lectures. BJTs are covered in Chapter 5 of your text.  
BJT Physical Structure 
BJTs are formed from three doped regions on a silicon crystal. These can either be npn doped regions or
pnp. A simplified sketch of an npn transistor is: 

 
As can be seen, the BJT is formed from two back-to-back pn junctions: 
• Emitter-base junction (EBJ) 
• Collector-base junction (CBJ). 
This specific way of drawing the BJT has been around from the very beginning of these transistors. This
figure: 
  
is from William Shockley’s U.S. patent 2,569,347 issued in 1951. BJTs can also be fabricated from two
p-type regions and one ntype. This is called a pnp transistor: 

 
While the BJT might appear to be symmetrical by looking at Fig. 5.1, the actual devices are not. For
example, the cross section below of an npn transistor clearly shows that the EBJ and CBJ, for example,
have very differently sized surface contact areas, which will greatly change their relative behaviors. 

 
There are four basic modes of operation for a BJT depending on the states of the two pn junctions of
the transistor: 
Mode Emitter-Base Jct. Collector-Base Jct. Cutoff Active Saturation Reverse Active Reverse Forward
Forward Reverse Reverse Reverse Forward Forward 
In digital logic applications, the transistor switches between the cutoff and saturation modes. As a linear
amplifier in a communication circuit, the transistor would operate in the active mode. Because of the
asymmetrical physical construction, the reverse active mode is not the same as interchanging the
collector and emitter leads. The states of the two pn junctions can be altered by the external circuitry
connected to the transistor. This is called biasing the transistor. 
NPN Transistor in the Active Mode 
We’ll begin the discussion of the BJT physical operation by considering an npn transistor in the active
mode. To bias it in the active mode, we need to forward bias the EBJ and reverse bias the CBJ (notice
that the emitter and collectors have swapped positions from Fig. 5.1 shown earlier): 

 
The overall objective of this circuit is to create a current flowing from the collector to the emitter
terminals in the transistor that is “controlled,” so to speak, by the base voltage VBB. How does this
transistor operate in this circuit? 
• Because of the forward bias on the EBJ, charges can flow across this junction giving rise to iE. This
current is primarily electrons that are injected from n to p. 
• The electrons injected in the base diffuse across the thin base region towards the collector. Some of
the e- recombine in the base, but this region is manufactured to be thin and lightly doped compared to
the emitter so this recombination is kept small. Otherwise, the BJT would just operate as two back-to-
back diodes and no current would flow. A representative “minority carrier” concentration profile is
shown below in Fig. 5.4. (Note that C and E are switched with reference to Fig. 1 above.)  

 
• The e- that reach the reverse-biased CBJ encounter a large electric field. This E sweeps them into the
collector forming the collector current iC as shown in Fig. 1 above. 
• A small base current iB is present largely due to recombination in the base with the small amount of
injected holes from the base to the emitter. This is an important current, though. 
Discussion About BJT in the Active Mode 
1. The proportion of electrons from the emitter that “make it” to the base is called the collector
efficiency, a: 

 
Typically it has values of near 0.99. Note that a is called the common-base current gain in the text.
From KCL in the circuit of Fig. 1: 

 
We can deduce from (3) that with 1 a? , then iB will be much, much smaller than iE. 
2. The ratio of collector current to base current is called the current gain, ß: 

 
3. Dividing (1) by (4) we find that

 
Equating this to (4) we find

 
and solving this equation for a

 
4. One can think of the base current in the BJT as controlling the collector current: i c= iß b . Since ß is
large, then a small change in iB produces a large change in iC. If the base were an input signal and the
collector the output, then this would be signal amplification! Awesome! 
5. The circuit symbol and current conventions for the npn BJT are

 
The arrows indicate the assumed directions for positive current for the npn BJT. The filled arrow is
always located on the emitter and helps us to remember the direction of the emitter current.  
6. For biasing in the active mode as shown in Fig. 1, one biasing circuit might be

PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor

The second type of BJT is formed from pnp doped regions as 

 
Differences between pnp and npn BJTs are: 
• Biasing voltages are applied oppositely to the npn, though still forward biasing EBJ and reverse
biasing the CBJ for active mode operation, for example. 
• Current is primarily composed of holes (in the p type regions) rather than electrons as in the npn
BJT. 
• The current direction conventions are iE into the emitter while iC and iB are out from the device.The
circuit symbol for the pnp BJT is

 
Once again, the filled arrow is always located on the emitter and helps us to remember the direction of
the emitter current. Notice that the currents are pointed in opposite directions compared to the npn
BJT. For biasing in the active mode, a possible circuit is
  
As with the npn, for the pnp BJT in the active mode and with the current convention shown above

 
Consequently, we need to only memorize this one set of equations for use with both npn and pnp BJTs,
plus the current conventions for these two BJTs. Examples We’ll now consider a few examples of the DC
analysis of npn and pnp BJT circuits.Examples We’ll now consider a few examples of the DC analysis of
npn and pnp BJT circuits. Example N11.1 (text example 5.1). Design the following circuit so that I c =2
mA and Vc5 = V. For this particular transistor, ß = 100 and 0.7 V be = V at Ic =1 mA. 

 
The “design” of this circuit is to determine the RC and RE that provide the specified IC and VC. For i c=2
MA , than

 
We’re assuming that the transistor is in the active mode with theEBJ forward biased and the CBJ
reversed biased. For the forward biased EBJ junction, 

 
It’s given that at IC = 1 mA, VBE = 0.7 V. What is VBE when IC = 2 mA? Using (6) for two different iC
and vBE we find that

 
Therefore, 
  
For this particular case, 

 
This is not much of an increase from 0.7 V, which is what we typically observe when the BJT is in the
active mode. Consequently, ve=-0.717v

 
We can use this emitter current to select the proper resistor 

 
or

 
That completes the design. One last thing, though. Notice how small the base current IB is relative to
IC and IE: Ib= Ic-Ie = 20µA. This is typical of BJTs operating in the active mode. Example N11.2 (text
exercise 5.10). Determine IE, IB, IC, and VC in the circuit below if ß = 50 and VE = -0.7 V.  

 
Because VB = 0, then the given VE means the BJT may be operating in the active mode since VBE =
0.7 V. (It could also be operating in the saturation mode.) We’ll assume active mode operation for now,
and confirm this ssumption when we’re finished. 
(i) Compute IE. 

 
(ii) Compute IE. 

 
(iii) Compute IB. 

 
(iv) Compute VC. Vc=10-5,000.ic=5.45v 
Note that since Vcb =Vc- Vb = 4.45-0=5.45V is greater than zero (thus reverse biasing the CBJ) and the
EBJ is forward biased, the npn BJT is indeed operating in the active mode, as assumed. Example N11.3
(text exercise 5.11). Given that VB = 1.0 V and VE = 1.7 V, determine a (and ß) for the transistor in
the circuit below. Also calculate VC.Using

 
Because V eb= V e-V b = 0.7 V, the pnp transistor may be operating in the active mode, which is what
we will assume. 
(i) Determine a and ß. We’ll use the relationships i c ia e = and i c iß b = to determine a and ß.

 
Note that this VC means that the CBJ is reversed biased by thevoltage 1.0- (-1.75) 2.75 = V. Hence,
the active mode operation for the pnp BJT is the proper assumption since we’ve already determined
that the EBJ is forward biased. 

DC Analysis of BJT Circuits

In this section we will consider a number of BJT circuits and perform the DC circuit analysis. For those
circuits with an active mode BJT, we’ll assume that V BE = 0.7V (npn) or V EB = 0.7V (pnp). Example
N12.1 (text example 5.4). Compute the node voltages and currents in the circuit below assuming ß =
100.

 
If the BJT is in the active mode, V be = 0.7V then

 
With Ic Iae = then

 
Consequently, using KVL

 
Vc=10-IeRc= 10-0.99*10-3>-4.7*103=5.3V Finally, using KCL IB+IC=IE,or IB=IE-IC=1-0.99=0.01mA
Now we’ll check to see if these values mean the BJT is in the active mode (as assumed). 
• VCB = 5.3-4 =1.3 V. This is greater than zero, which means the CBJ is reversed biased.  
• VBE =0.7 V. This is greater than zero, which means the EBJ is forward biased. Because the CBJ is
reversed biased and the EBJ is forward biased, the BJT is operating in the active mode. Note that in the
text, they show a technique for analyzing such circuits right on the circuit diagram in .  

 
Example N12.2 (text example 5.5). Repeat the previous example but with V B =6 V. Assuming the BJT is
operating in the active mode: 
  
From the last calculation 2.57 C Vc = 2.57VÞ VCB = 3.43 V. Consequently, the BJT is not in the active mode
because the CBJ is forward biased. A better assumption is the transistor is operating in the saturation
mode. We’ll talk more about this later. For now, suffice it to say that in the saturation mode V CE|sat »0.2
V (see Section 5.3.4). Assuming this and reanalyzing the circuit: 

 
Notice that

 
This ratio is often called forced ß . Observe that it’s not equal to 100, as this ratio would be if the
transistor were operating in the active mode (see Section 5.3.4). Example N12.3 (text example 5.7).
Compute the node voltages and currents in the circuit below assuming ß = 100. To begin, we’ll assume
the pnp transistor is operating in the active mode. 

 
Now check if the BJT is in the active mode: 
• EBJ? Forward biased. 
• CBJ? Reversed biased. 
So the BJT is in the active mode, as originally assumed. Example N12.4 (text exercise D5.25).
Determine the largest RC that can be used in the circuit below so that the BJT remains in the active
mode. (This circuit is very similar to the one in the previous example.) 

 
We’ll begin by assuming the BJT is operating in the active mode. In the active mode, the CBJ needs to
be reversed biased. The lowest voltage across this junction for operation in the active mode is
VCB=0 VC=VB=0V
Therefore, by KVL 
-10+R CIc=0
or

 
This value of RC and smaller is required for the BJT to operate in the active mode. Example N12.5 (text
example 5.10). Determine the node voltages and currents in the circuit shown below. Assume the BJT is
operating in the active mode with ß=100 . 

 
First, we’ll use Thévenin’s theorem to simplify the base circuit
  
The Thévenin equivalent resistance and voltage are then

 
Using this Thévenin equivalent for the base circuit, the overall circuit is then 

 
To find the emitter current, we’ll apply KVL over the loop shown giving 5=33.3*10 3.IB+0.7+3,000.IEThe
quantity of interest is IB. With CB IC= Iß B=and IC =IaE for a BJT in the active mode, we find

 
Using this in the KVL equation 
5-0.7=[33.3*103+3,000(ß+1)]Ib 
With ß=100 then solving this equation we find 

 
Next, by KCL

 
The node voltages are then

 
Lastly, let’s check if the BJT is operating in the active mode. 
• BE B E VBE= VB- VE = 4.57 -3.87 =0.7 V This is 0.7 V originally assumed for a forward biased EBJ. 
• VBC= VB -V C=4.57 -8.6=-4.03 V. This is less than zero, which means the CBJ is reversed biased.
Therefore the BJT is operating in the active mode, as originally assumed. 

The BJT as a Signal Amplifier

One very useful application of the transistor is an amplifier of time varying signals. Consider the
“conceptual BJT amplifier” circuit shown below: 

 
The DC voltages provide the biasing. The input signal is vbe and the output signal is vc. We will assume
the transistor is biased so that VC is greater than VB by an amount that llows for sufficient “signal
swing” at the collector, but the transistor remains in the active mode at all times. That is, the transistor
does not become saturated or cutoff during the cycle. From the circuit above, the total base-to-emitter
voltage is 

 
Correspondingly, the collector current is

 
or using (5.53) ic=Ice
For small vbe such that Vbe<<2VVr (i.e., the small-signal approximation), then (3) can be approximated
by

 
This is a familiar result: We saw something very similar with small signals and diodes back in Lecture
4.The time varying current in (4) 

 
Can be written as ic=gwVbe

 
is defined as the transistor small-signal transconductance. Its units are Siemens. Note that g mIc. 
Significance of the BJT Small-Signal Transconductance 
What is the physical significance of gm? First, gm is the slope of the iC-vBE characteristic curve at the Q
point: 

 
Consider the plot shown in Fig. 

 
with ic= I  from
s
e
(2), the right-hand side of (8) becomes

 therefore 
as we defined in (6). Observe that: 
• The small-signal vbe assumption restricts the operation of the BJT to nearly linear portions of the iC-
vBE characteristic curve. 
• From (6), the BJT behaves as a voltage controlled current source for small signals: The small-signal
be v controls the small-signal ic
Signal Voltage Gain
Second, gm has an important relationship to the signal voltage gain in this circuit. Using KVL in Fig.
5.48a, the total collector voltage is

 
where VC is the DC voltage at the collector. So from (11), the AC signal at the collector is V c=-IcRc This
result is negative, which means this circuit operates as an inverting amplifier for small, time varying
signals. From (6), c mbe ic= gm vbe = . Using this result in (12) gives Vc=-gmVbeRc=-(gmRc)vbe 
Consequently, the small-signal AC voltage gain Av is

 
In a broad sense, we can see that this transistor circuit can act an amplifier of the time varying input
signal, provided this input voltage remains small enough. 
  
gm is a very important amplifier parameter since the voltage gain in (14) is directly proportional to gm.
BJTs have a relatively large gm compared to field effect transistors, which we will consider in the next
chapter. Consequently, BJTs have better voltage gain in such circuits. 

BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models

Our next objective is to develop small-signal circuit models for the BJT. We’ll focus on the npn variant in
this lecture. Recall that we did this for the diode back in 

 
In order to develop theseBJT_Small-signal models, there are two small-signal resistances that we must
first determine. These are: 

 
1. r p: the small-signal, active mode input resistance between
the base and emitter, as “seen looking into the base.” 2. re: the small-signal, active mode output
resistance between the base and emitter, as “seen looking into the emitter.” These resistances are NOT
the same. Why? Because the transistor is not a reciprocal device. Like a diode, the behavior of the BJT
in the circuit changes if we interchange the terminals. 
Determine r p
Assuming the transistor in this circuit
  
is operating in the active mode, then

 
The AC small-signal equivalent circuit from

 
Notice the “AC ground” in the circuit. This is an extremely important concept. Since the voltage at this
terminal is held constant at VCC, there is no time variation of the voltage. Consequently, we can set
this terminal to be an “AC ground” in the small-signal circuit. For AC grounds, we “kill” the DC sources
at that terminal: short circuit voltage sources and open circuit current sources. So, from the small-
signal equivalent circuit above: 

 
we see that

 
Hence, using (2) in (3) 

 
This r p is the BJT active mode small-signal input resistance of
the BJT between the base and the emitter as seen looking into the base terminal. (Similar to a Thévenin
resistance, this statement means we are fictitiously separating the source from the base of the BJT and
observing the input resistance, as indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 2.) 
Determine re
We’ll determine re following a similar procedure as for r p, but beginning with

 
The AC component of i E in (5) is

 
or with IE =I c|c , 

 
As indicated in Fig. 1 above, re is theBJT_Small-signal resistance between the emitter and base seen
looking into the emitter: 

 
Mathematically, this is stated as

 
Assuming an ideal signal voltage source, then e be v e=-vbe and

 
Using (7) in this equation we find

 
But from (5.87) 

 
Therefore, using this last result in (10) gives

 
This is the BJT active mode small-signal resistance between the base and emitter seen looking into the
emitter. It can be shown that Rz=(b+1)re[ed] It is quite apparent from this equation that e r r p . . This result is not unexpected because the active mode
BJT is a non-reciprocal device, as mentioned on page 1 of these notes.  
BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

We are now in a position to construct the equivalent active mode, small-signal circuit models for the BJT. There are two families of such circuits: 

1. Hybrid- p model

2. T model. 

Both are equally valid models, but choosing one over the other sometimes leads to simpler analysis of certain circuits.  

Hybrid- p Model

Version A. 

Let’s verify that this circuit incorporates all of the necessarysmall-signal characteristics of the BJT: ib= vbe|rp as required by (3). ic= gm  vbe as required by (5.86), which we saw in

the last lecture. ib+ ic= ie as required by KCL. 

We can also show from these relationships that ie= vbe| re.

Version B. We can construct a second equivalent circuit by using

Hence, using this result the second hybrid- p model is

T Model

The hybrid- p model is definitely the most popular small-signal model for the BJT. The alternative is the T model, which is useful in certain situations. The T model also has two

versions: 

Version A. 

Version B. 
  

The small-signal models for pnp BJTs are identically the same as those shown here for the npn transistors. It is important to note that there is no change in any polarities (voltage

or current) for the pnp models relative to the npn models. Again, these small-signal models are identically the same. 

BJT Small-Signal Amplifier Examples

We will now consider three examples in this lecture of BJTs used as linear amplifiers. Here are the steps
to follow when solving small-signal transistor amplifier problems: 
1. Determine the Q point of the BJT using DC analysis. Compute I C.
2. Calculate the small-signal model parameters for the BJT: 

 
3. Rewrite the small-signal circuit: short out DC sources and open DC current sources. Use the small-
signal model for the BJT. 
4. Analyze the small-signal circuit for the desired quantities such as voltage, small-signal voltage gain,
etc. 
Example N15.1 (text example 5.14). Determine the small-signal AC voltage gain for the circuit below,
assuming ß = 100 and the output voltage taken at the collector terminal. 

 
The first step in the solution is to determine the Q point through DC analysis. By superposition, we’ll
force 0 i v = for this analysis. Assuming the BJT is in the active mode, the results of the DC analysis
are: 
  
We see that the CBJ is reversed biased so this npn BJT is in the active mode because of this and the
EBJ is forward biased. Next, we determine the BJT small-signal model parameters for the hybrid- p
model: 

 
Now, we insert a small-signal equivalent model of the BJT into the circuit of Fig. 5.53(a) after shorting
the DC voltage sources (VBB and VCC). This gives the small-signal equivalent circuit: 

 
Notice the AC ground at RC. This is an “AC ground” because the voltage at this node does not vary with
time. For the purposes of the AC signal analysis, we can set this node to an AC ground. (As a side note,
in the lab power supplies have a finite internal resistance. This Thévenin equivalent resistance must be
included in the AC circuit for analysis purposes.) Next, we perform the small-signal analysis referring to
Fig. 5.53c. At the input

 
while at the output
vo=-Rcie=-RcgmVbe
Substituting for vbe from (4) gives

 
Therefore, the small-signal AC voltage gain, Av, is

 
For this particular problem

 
The negative sign indicates this is an inverting amplifier: the AC output signal is inverted with respect to
the input AC signal. 
Example N15.2 (text example 5.15). Repeat the analysis of the previous example but with a triangular
input waveform of small amplitude. 
In the text, vip =0.8 V, is the peak amplitude of the triangularinput voltage (= V i in the text). Then from
(4) above (and the fact that there are only resistors in the circuit) 

 
which is less that 10 mV. This is fairly small with respect to 2 V T = 50mV so we’ll go ahead and use the
small-signal analysis and models. Sketches of the total voltages and currents from this circuit are
shown 

 
A few things to take special notice: 
• In Fig. 5.54c, vBE has a DC part and an AC part (see Fig.5.54 a) that is “riding” on the former. Notice
the enlarged vertical scale in Fig. 5.54 c
• In Fig. 5.54d, ic is in-phase with the input voltage. 
• In Fig. 5.54e, vc= Vc -icRc is 180° out-of-phase with the input. As v i ,Ic  . Þ vc. We can see how the AC
ground works here. 
Example N15.3 (text example 5.16). Determine the small-signal AC voltage gain for the BJT amplifier
circuit shown in 
  
The two capacitors in this circuit serve as DC blocks. They have a large enough C so that X c=0 . at the
operating frequency. With these capacitors, the DC bias is unchanged by the source or load
attachments. We call this “capacitively coupled” input and output. As always, we first determine the DC
bias. We’ll assume the BJT is in the active mode and that ß = 100: From this result

 
From this result
Ic=0.92mAÞvc=-10+Icrc=-5.4V
Next, we construct the small-signal equivalent circuit and analyze the circuit to determine the voltage
gain. We’ll use the T model, though the hybrid- p model would work as well.  

 
Notice the two AC grounds in this circuit: one at RE and the other at RC. Also notice this is the first
small-signal model of the pnp transistor we have used. The small-signal model of the pnp transistor is
exactly the same as that for the npn with no change in the polarities of the currents or voltages. This
can be a little confusing. Here, for example, ie is a negative quantity. Using (3) for the small-signal
equivalent model of the BJT

 
From the small-signal AC circuit: 
• v0=-a ieRc
• Because the base is grounded, I e=-Vi|reTherefore, 
  
Notice that this small-signal voltage gain is a positive quantity. The reason for this is the input is tied to
the emitter. (Note that this positive gain did not occur just because this is a pnp BJT.) Now, with a =
0.99 then from (10) 

 
Lastly, for linear operation of this amplifier, v eb mV. With Veb=-Vithen Vi@10 mV for linear operation of
the amplifier, which implies that v0@1.8V A sketch of the output from this small-signal amplifier is
shown in Fig. 5.57 for a sinusoidal input voltage: 

 
We’re assuming the output remains linear and the BJT in the active mode at all times for the entire
voltage swing in vC. If this input voltage were set to a larger value, this would no longer be the case
and the BJT would first encounter nonlinear behavior and eventually saturate. Both of these effects
would distort the output voltage and it would no longer be an amplified copy of the input voltage. 

Graphical Analysis of a BJT

We can use graphical analysis to approximately analyze the response of simple transistor amplifier
circuits. This technique is primarily useful to develop physical insight. Consider once again the
“conceptual BJT amplifier” circuit: 

 
Similar to the analytical solution, there are two primary steps to the graphical solution of such small-
signal amplifiers: 
1. DC basis analysis
2. AC small-signal analysis. 
DC Bias
The first step in the bias calculations is to determine IB. This is done with the iB-vBE characteristic
curve and the load line: 
  
Once IB has been determined we can compute IC knowing that I c=b IB for a BJT in the active mode.
With this IC value and the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the transistor, we can determine V We haven’t
yet seen the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the BJT. This can be measured using the circuit in Fig.
5.19(a) below. vBEis fixed at some value, then vCE is swept while measuring iC. The results are shown
below for different values of v BE.

 
When vCE is very small, iC is nearly zero. This is the cutoff mode of the BJT. As vCE increases, the CBJ
is forward biased and the BJT is in the saturation mode. When vCE becomes large enough, the CBJ
becomes reversed biased and the BJT enters the active mode. The slopes of the lines in Fig. 5.19 in the
active mode are quite exaggerated in this figure. So, back to the graphical solution. With the
IC=bIB value from Fig. 5.28 and the iC-vCE characteristic curve of the transistor from Fig. 5.19, we can
determine VCE: 

 
Curve tracers are pieces of equipment that will measure and display families of iC-vCE characteristic
curves for transistors. 
AC Small-Signal Analysis
The first step in the AC small-signal analysis is to determine ib. This is performed using a slightly
complicated interaction of the input waveform vi, the subsequent time variation of the load line, and the
iB-vBE characteristic curve of the BJT: 

 
From this comes the small-signal quantities vbe and ib. With i b known and ic=biB , then we use these
values on the v ic characteristic curve to determine vce: 

 
Cutoff and Saturation
Notice that there are limits on vCE in which the BJT remains in the active mode: 
• Too large ( CC V = ) and the BJT cuts off
• Too small (few tenths of a volt) and the transistor 
saturates. These limits are readily apparent if we reexamine the previous figure of the small-signal
variation: 
  
Because of these limits on vCE, it is important to choose the Q point properly to all for the desired
swing in the signal voltage (vce). 

 
BJT Biasing - Current Mirror

It is important for the biasing of a transistor amplifier that it remains largely invariant to fairly large
changes in â and temperature. Proper biasing doesn’t happen by chance. For example, the npn and pnp
inverter circuits in Laboratory #3 are highly sensitive to variations in â. That is usually a poor design
(but was done on purpose for the lab, of course). In this lecture, we will study four BJT biasing
methods: 
1. Single power supply
2. Dual power supply
3. Alternate method for common emitter amplifiers
4. Current source. 
Single Power Supply Biasing Method
Perhaps the most common method for biasing BJT amplifier circuits with a single power supply is shown
in 
  
RE is part of this biasing method as well. When used as an amplifier, the input signal would be
capacitively coupled to the base of the BJT while the output would be taken (through capacitive
coupling) at the collector or emitter of the transistor, depending on the specific requirements for the
amplifier. We analyzed a specific example of this type of circuit in Lecture 12 employing Thévenin’s
theorem to simplify the analysis: 

 
where VBB and RB are given in (5.68) and (5.69) in the text. Using KVL in the loop shown above
V BB=IBRB +VBE +IE RE With IB= IE|(b+1) then (1) becomes

 
Consequently, 

 
We can use (3) to design the biasing circuit so that it is largely insensitive to variations in b. The
question is then how do we make IE (and hence IC) largely insensitive to b variations? Examining (3),
we deduce that the answer is to choose

 
Furthermore, we can design this biasing circuit so that it is largely insensitive to variations in
temperature. The effects of temperature enter this circuit because VBE is a relatively strong function of
temperature having a temperature coefficient of -2 mV/°C. (We saw this same behavior with diodes.)
From (3) we can see that if we choose
VBB >>VBE 
then we’ll have a biasing circuit design that is largely insensitive to variations in temperature. So
physically how do these conditions (4) and (5) make a good biasing circuit?  
• Eqn. (4) makes the base voltage largely independent of â and determined almost solely by R1 and R2.
How? Because the current in the divider is much greater than the base current. The rule of thumb for
“much greater” is that the divider current should be on the order of IE to IE/10. 
• Eqn. (5) ensures that small variations in VBE (from its nominal 0.7 V) due to temperature changes are
much smaller than VBB. 
Additionally, there is an upper limit to VBB because a higher VBB lowers VCB and affects the small
values of the positive signal swing. The rule of thumb here is that VBB» VCC|3 and VCB (or VCE) »
VCC|3 and .IC RC »VCC|3 
Example N17.1. Design the bias circuit below for VCC = 9 V to provide VCC/3 V across RE and RC, IE =
0.5 mA, and the voltage divider current of 0.2IE, as shown. Design the circuit for a large b, then find
the actual value obtained for IE with a BJT having b=100. 

 
For the resistors Reand Rc,Ic RE =VCC /3=3V For I E =0.5 mA , then RE =6Kb For the voltage divider ,
if this BJT is in the active mode then VBE »0.7V Hence VB =VBE+VE =0.7+3=3.7V Such that 

 
A large b for a BJT in the active mode implies Ib»0. By Ohm’s law

 
Hence, 
RI =90kb-R2 =53K b For the design with b = 100 it can be shown that IE =0.48 mA. (This is only a
-4% change from 0.5 mA with b= ¥ ;) 
Dual Power Supply Biasing Method
When two power supplies are available, a possible biasing method is

 
Using KVL around the loop L gives
  
This is the same result as (3), but with VBB replaced by VEE. Consequently, the b- and temperature-
invariant design equations for this circuit are the same as those given earlier in (4) and (5) with VBB
replaced by VEE. 
Alternative Biasing for Common Emitter Amplifiers
This biasing method has a resistor tied from the collector to the base as 

 
As shown in the text, for IE to be insensitive to b variations, choose

 
and for VBE to be insensitive to temperature variations, choose VCC VBE This latter requirement is most
often very easy to meet! 
Biasing with a Current Source
The last BJT amplifier biasing method we’ll consider is one using a current source. 

 
In this circuit, E I I = . If we are using a “good” current source, then IE will not depend on â. Very nice.
However, what we’ve done in this approach is to push the technical problem to the design of a good
current source. 
Current Mirror
Simple biasing methods often fail to provide constant collector currents if the supply voltage or ambient
temperature change.This is a problem with mobile telephones, for example, where the battery voltage
changes with use and the device operates in a range of temperatures. There are sophisticated circuits
consisting of tens of evices that can produce “golden currents” that are supply voltage and temperature
independent. These golden currents are replicated throughout a device using a current mirror: 
  
There are better and more sophisticated approaches than this, of course. This is just a simple example.
In this current mirror, Q1 is called a diode-connected BJT because the collector and base terminals are
connected together. For proper operation of this circuit, it is very important that the BJTs be “matched,”
meaning they having the same b characteristic curves, etc. Usually this means that the BJTs must be
fabricated at the same time on the same substrate. For the analysis of this circuit, we assume that â is
very large and that Q1 and Q2 operate in the active mode. Because of this, we ignore the base currents
in Q1 and Q2. Therefore, the collector (and emitter) current through Q1 is approximately equal to IREF.
By KVL, 

 
Now, since Q1 and Q2 are matched and they have the same VBE, then the collector currents must be
the same. This implies that 

 
This current mirror circuit will supply this current I as long as Q2 operates in the active region: V >
VBE- VEE Notice that the diode-connected Q1 cannot saturate since thebase and collector terminals are
shorted together. Hence, Q1operates in the active mode or is simply cutoff. 

Common Emitter Amplifier

We will now begin the analysis of the three basic types of linear BJT small-signal amplifiers: 
1. Common emitter (CE) 
2. Common base (CB) 
3. Common collector (CC), 
which is oftentimes called the emitter follower amplifier. We’ll study the CE amplifier in this lecture and
the next, followed by the CB and CC amplifiers. The CE amplifier is excited at the base of the BJT with
the output taken at the emitter: 
  
The capacitor CE is called a bypass capacitor. At the operating frequency, its purpose is to shunt out the
effects of the DC current source from the time varying signal. In other words, CE sets an AC ground at
this node at the frequency of operation. There are a number of ways to bias this amplifier, other than
that shown above. What we’re primarily interested in here is the small-signal characteristics. 
Common Emitter Small-Signal Amplifier Analysis
The small-signal equivalent circuit for the CE amplifier above is shown below. Because the emitter is
located at an AC ground is the reason this type of amplifier is called a “common emitter” amplifier. 

 
Notice that we’ve included ro in this small-signal model. This is the finite output resistance of the BJT.
This accounts for thefinite slope of the characteristic curves of iC versus vCE mentioned briefly in 

 
where VA is called the Early voltage. Usually ro is fairly large, on the order of many tens of kb Our
quest in the small-signal analysis of this amplifier is to determine these quantities: input resistance Rin,
the “overall” small-signal voltage gain G V = vo/ vsig , the “partial” small-signal voltage gain v o i A v=
vo v i , the overall small-signal current gain G i= i0/ I i , the short circuit small-signal current gain is os i
Ais= ias ii ,and the output resistance Rout. 
• Input resistance, Rin. Directly from the small-signal equivalent circuit, we see that Rin= R B || r p
Oftentimes we select RB rp so that i Rin rp Oftentimes we select RB rp so that r p will often be a few kb,
which means this CE amplifier presents a moderately large value of input impedance. 
• Overall small-signal voltage gain, Gv. By “overall” voltage gain we mean

 
which is the actual small-signal voltage gain that would be realized in the circuit above. At the output of
this circuit
Vo=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||Rl)
while at the input

 
Substituting (4) into (3) gives an expression for the overall (i.e., realized) gain of this CE amplifier

 
In the usual case that B RB>> rp , then

 
Recall that rp = ß/gm If it also turned out Rsig>> rp , then we see from (6) that Gv would be directly
dependent on b. This is not a favorable condition since, as we learned when discussing biasing of such
BJT circuits, bita can vary considerably between transistors. • Partial small-signal voltage gain, Av. This
is only a partial voltage gain since we are calculating

 
At the input, vi = Vp while at the output, 
V0=-gmVp(ro||Rc ||RL)
Therefore, the partial small-signal voltage gain is

Av=-gm(ro||Rc||RL   
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition Referring to the small-signal equivalent circuit
shown above, we see that
  
Forming the ratio of these two currents, we find that the current gain is

 
or, using (9) 

 
• Short circuit small-signal current gain, Ais. This is the smallsignal current gain of the amplifier but
with a short circuitedload ( R L = 0): 

 
Equivalently, 
A is=G i| R l=0 Using (11) in (13) with R l=0 . gives
A is=-g m(r p||R B)
In the usual case that R B r p then A is »-bita This result is not unexpected because bita is by definition
the short circuit current gain for the BJT when operating in the active mode. 
• Output resistance Rout. Using the small-signal equivalent circuit above, we short out the source
vsig =0 which means that vp =0 as well. Therefore, gm vp = 0, which is an open circuit for a current
source. Consequently, 
Rout= Rc|| r o which is generally fairly large. 
Summary of CE Amplifier Characteristics
Summary for theCommon_Emitter_Amplifier: Big voltage and current gains are possible. Input
resistance is moderately large. Output resistance is fairly large. This last characteristic is often not
desirable. Why? Consider this simple Thévenin equivalent for the output of a small-signal amplifier: 

 
The output signal voltage provided to this resistive load is
  
Now, if Rout<< RL then

 
This is not a favorable result if this Thévenin equivalent circuit is for an amplifier because the output
voltage is beingattenuated. Con versely, if there were a small output resistance such that R out<<
RL then then (17) becomes
vout vo 
which is much more favorable for an amplifier. 

Common Base Amplifier

We will cover the second of the three families of BJT amplifiers in this lecture by discussing
theCommon_Base_Amplifier shown in Fig. 5.62a: 

 
The small-signal equivalent circuit for this amplifier is shown in Fig. 5.62b (ignoring ro): 

 
As before, let’s determine the small-signal AC characteristics of this amplifier by solving or Rin, Gv, Gi,
Ais, and Rout. 
• Input resistance, Rin. From direct inspection of the smallsignal equivalent circuit, we see that 
Rin=re
Since re is often small (on the order of 20 to 30bita), then Rin of the CB amplifier is very small.
Generally this is not desirable, though in the case of certain high frequency amplifiers input impedances
near 50 bita is very useful (to reduce so-called “mismatch reflections” at the input).  
• Small-signal voltage gain, Gv. We’ll first calculate the partial voltage gain

 
At the output, 
vo=-aie(Rc||RL
The small-signal emitter current is

 
Substituting (3) and (4) into (2) gives the partial voltage gain to be

 
This is the same gain as for the CE amplifier (without ro), except the gain here for the CB amplifier is
positive. The overall (from the input to the output) small-signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

 
We can equivalently write this voltage gain as

 
with Av given in (5). By simple voltage division at the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

 
Substituting this result and (5) into (7) yields the final expression for the overall small-signal voltage
gain

 
Since from (1) Rin= re then Gv simplifies to

 
If 1 we can interpret this small-signal overall voltage expression in (10) as the ratio of the total
resistance in the collector lead to the total resistance in the emitter lead. This gain can be fairly large,
though if Rsig is nearly the same size as the total emitter resistance the gain will be small. In other
words, if this amplifier is connected to a high output impedance stage, it will be difficult to realize high
gain. 
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition

 
Using current division at the output of the small-signal equivalent circuit above
  
Because ii = -ie this expression gives

 
• Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (13) reduces to the
short circuit current gain: 

 
• Output resistance, Rout. Referring to the small-signal equivalent circuit above and shorting out the
input vsig = 0 Rout= Rc which is the same as the CE amplifier (when ignoring ro).Summary
Summary of the CB small-signal amplifier: 
1. Low input resistance. 
2. Gv can be very large, though critically dependent on Rsig. 
3. Ais= á
4. Potentially large output resistance (dependent on RC). One very important use of the CB amplifier is
as a unity-gain current amplifier, which is also called a current buffer amplifier. This type of amplifier
accepts an input signal current at a low impedance level and outputs nearly the same current
amplitude, but at a high output impedance level. Even though this is a buffer amplifier, there is still
power gain. 

Common Collector Emitter Follower Amplifier

The third, and final, small-signal BJT amplifier we will consider is the common collector amplifier shown
below: 

 
The small-signal equivalent circuit is shown in 

 
We’ve included ro in this model since it can have an appreciable effect on the operation of this
amplifier. Notice that ro is connected from the emitter to an AC ground. We can simplify the AC small-
signal analysis of this circuit by moving the collector-side lead of ro to the DC ground, as shown in  

 
Similar to the previous BJT amplifiers, we’ll determine the characteristics of this one by solving for Rin,
Gv, Gi, Ais, and Rout. 
• Input resistance, Rin. Looking into the base of the BJT, 

 
From the circuit above, we see that
Vb=ie(re+r0||RL
Substituting this and 1b=i e/( ß +1) into (1) yields
Rib=( ß +1)(r e+r 0||R L)
This expression for Rib follows the so-called resistance reflection rule: the input resistance is ( ß+1)
times the total resistance in the emitter lead of the amplifier. (We saw a similar result in Lecture 19 for
the CE amplifier with emitter degeneration.) In the special case when r e<< R L<< r 0 then
R ab  (ß +1)RL
which can potentially be a large value. Referring to circuit above, the input resistance to the amplifier is

 
• Small-signal voltage gain, Gv. We’ll first calculate the partial voltage gain

 
Beginning at the output, 

 
from which we can directly determine that

 
The overall (from the input to the output) small-signal voltage gain Gv is defined as

 
We can equivalently write this voltage gain as
  
with Av given in (8). By simple voltage division at the input to the small-signal equivalent circuit

 
Substituting this result into (10) yields an expression for the overall small-signal voltage gain

 
We can observe directly that each of the two factors in this expression are less than one, so this overall
small-signal voltage gain is less than unity. In the special instance that r 0<< RL then (12) simplifies to

 
and if RB >>( ß+1)( re+RL) then this further simplifies to

 
We see from this expression that under the above two assumptions and a third  
RL>>re+ Rsig (ß + 1) , the smallsignal voltage gain is less than but approximately equal to one. This
means that

 
Because of this result, the common collector amplifier is also called an emitter follower amplifier.
• Overall small-signal current gain, Gi. By definition

 
Using current division at the output of the small-signal equivalent circuit above

 
while using current division at the input

 
Substituting this into (17) gives
  
from which we find that

 
• Short circuit current gain, Ais. In the case of a short circuit load (RL = 0), Gi in (21) reduces to the
short circuit current gain: 

 
In the case that RB >>( ß + 1)(re+RL)=( ß + 1)re, as was used earlier, then Ais ß + 1 which can be very
large. So even though the amplifier has a voltage gain less than one (and approaching one in certain
circumstances), it has a very large small-signal current gain. Overall, the amplifier does provide power
gain to the AC signal. 
• Output resistance, Rout. With vsig = 0 in the small-signal equivalent circuit, we’re left with

 
It is a bit difficult to determine Rout directly from this circuit because of the dependent current source.
The trick here is to apply a signal source vx and then determine ix. The output resistance is computed
from the ratio of these quantities as

 
Applying KVL from the output through the input of this circuit gives

 
Using KCL at the output
  
Substituting (26) into (25) 

 
Forming the ratio of vx and ix in (27) gives

 
Summary
Summary of the CC (emitter follower) small-signal amplifier: 
1. High input resistance. 
2. Gv less than one, and can be close to one. 
3. Ais can be large. 
4. Low output resistance.These characteristics mean that the emitter follower amplifier is highly suited
as a voltage buffer amplifier. 

BJT Internal Capacitances High Frequency Circuit Model

The BJT amplifiers we have examined so far are all low frequency amplifiers. For large valued DC
blocking capacitors and for frequencies of tens to hundreds of kHz, the simple smallsignal models we
used will work well. As the frequency increases, though, there are multiple sources of effects that will
limit the performance of these amplifiers including: 
1. Internal capacitances of th BJT. These are due to charge storage effects at and near the two pn
junctions. 
2. Parasitic effects. These are due to packaging and transistor construction that create additional
capacitances, lead inductances, and resistances. Additionally, the performance of many BJT amplifiers
we’ve already examined will be sharply curtailed by DC blocking capacitors that have finite value (i.e.,
less than infinity). For these reasons, all real transistor amplifiers operate effectively only over a limited
(but hopefully large) range of signal frequencies. Referring to Fig. 5.71(b), our analysis of small-signal
BJT amplifiers up to this point has focused on the “Midband” frequency region. This frequency band is
bounded by the frequencies fL and fH, which are the -3-dB gain frequencies, or half-power frequencies.  

 
The roll off in gain near fL and lower is due to effects of the DC blocking capacitors CC1 and CC2, and
the bypass capacitor CE. It’s not possible to eliminate this effect, though fL can be moved about by
choosing different values for these capacitors. Butlarge capacitors take up lots of space and can be
expensive. The primary focus of this lecture, however, is the origin of the roll off in gain xperienced at
higher frequencies near fH and higher. 
Capacitance of pn Junctions
There are basically two types of capacitances associated with pn junctions: 
1. Junction capacitance. This is related to the space charge that exists in the depletion region of the pn
junction. 
2. Diffusion capacitance, or charge storage capacitance. This is a new phenomenon we haven’t yet
considered in this course. The junction capacitance effect was briefly mentioned earlier in this course in
Lecture 4. The width of the depletion region will change depending on the applied voltage and whether
the junction is reversed or forward biased: 

 
The time-varying E due to the space charge in the depletion region is a so-called displacement current
that can be modeled by a junction capacitance. The second basic type of capacitance, diffusion
capacitance, is associated with pn junctions that are forward biased. 
  
In this state, current will flow across the junction, of course. Because of the current source in Fig. 3.49
and the voltage dropV, holes are injected a cross the junction into the n region while electrons are
injected across the junction into the p region. 

 
The concentrations of these electrons and holes decrease in value away from the junction, as shown in
Fig. 3.50, due to recombination effects. 
The important point here is that these concentrations of charges create an electric field across the pn
junction that will vary with time when a signal source is connected to this device. This electric field is
directed from the n to p region, and the overall effect can be modeled by what is called the charge
storage capacitance, or diffusion capacitance. 
To summarize, the capacitive effects of a reversed biased pn junction are described by the junction
capacitance while those of a forward biased pn junction are described by both a junction and a diffusion
capacitance. In the latter case, though, the diffusion capacitance usually dominates. 
BJT High Frequency Small-Signal Model
The active mode BJT has one forward biased pn junction (the EBJ) and one reversed biased pn junction
(the CBJ). In the case of an npn BJT the capacitances associated with the pn junctions in the device are
labe ed as: 

 
As we just discussed, there is a junction capacitance associated with the reversed biased CBJ, which is
labeled C ì as shown above. There will be a junction capacitance, Cje, associated with the forward
biased EBJ as well as a diffusion capacitance abeled Cde. These latter tw o capacitances appear in
parallel and so can be combined as Typically C ì ranges from a fraction of pF to a few pF while C ð
ranges from a few pF to tens of pF, which is dominated by Cde. With these capacitances, the high
frequency small-signal model of the BJT becomes
  
Note the use of the V ð notation in this small-signal model. Your textbook has switched to sinusoidal
steady state notation for this high frequency discussion. The high frequency small-signal model in Fig.
5.67 also includes the resistance rx, which is mostly important at high frequencies. It’s there to
approximately model the resistance of the base region from the terminal to a point somewhere directly
below the emitter: 

 
C ì is sometimes referred to as Cob (or Cobo) in datasheets. This designation reflects the fact that C ì
can be the output resistance when the BJT is used as a common base amplifier. The values of these
small-signal circuit model elements may or may not be available in a datasheet for your transistor. For
example, from the Motorola P2N2222A datasheet: 

 
Actually, we would expect these capacitances to vary with the voltage across the respective pn junction.
In the following figure from the Motorola P2N2222A datasheet, we see the dependence of “Ceb” (= C
ð ?) and “Ccb” (= C ì) for a range of junction voltages. (Perhaps t he labeled voltage for Ceb should be
“forward voltage”?) 

 
Unity-Gain Bandwidth
An important high frequency characteristic of transistors that is usually specified is the unity-gain
bandwidth, fT. This is defined as the frequency at which the short-circuit current gain

 
has decreased to a value of one. A test circuit for this measurement would look something like:  
  
The small-signal high frequency model of this test circuit is: 

 
Applying KCL at the collector terminal provides an equation for the short-circuit collector current

 
At the input terminal B’

 
Substituting (4) into (3) gives

 
Using the definition of hfe from (2) we find from this last equation that

 
It turns out that C ì is typically quite small and for the purposes of determining the unity-gain
bandwidth, gm is | | j Cì . for the frequencies of interest here. In other words, the frequency at which
ùC ì is important relative to gm is much higher than what is of interest here. Consequently, from (5)  

 
We can recognize this frequency response of hfe in (6) as that for a single pole low pass circuit:  

 
0=gmr in this plot is the low frequency value of | hfe|, as we’ve used in the past [see eqn. (5.93)],
while the 3-dB frequency of | hfe| is given by 

 
The frequency at which hfe in (6) declines to a value of 1 is denoted by ùT, which we can determine
from (6) to be

 
such that

 
Therefore

 
This unity-gain frequency fT (or bandwidth) is often specified on transistor datasheets. On page 8, for
example, f r =300 MHz for the Motorola P2N2222A. Using (9), this fT can be used to determine C +
C  for a particular DC bias current. 
Lastly, the high frequency, hybrid-ð, small-signal model of Fig.5.67 is fairly accurate up to frequencies
of about 0.2 fT. 
Furthermore, at frequencies above 5f  to 10 f , the effects of r ðare small compared to the impedance
effects of C ð. Above that, rx becomes the only resistive part of the input impedance at high
frequencies. Consequently, rx is a very important element of the small-signal model at these high
frequencies, but much less so atlow frequencies.