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Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-

Economic Wellbeing of Smallholder Farmers in Edo State, Nigeria

Article · February 2020

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 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-
Economic Wellbeing of Smallholder Farmers in Edo State, Nigeria
IJIE, Ben Asuelimen
Ph.D. Student, Department of Public Administration, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma
Email: ijiebenasuelimen@gmail.com
IYORIOBHE, Michael Omohimi
Ph.D. Student, Department of Public Administration, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma
Email: iyormike@gmail.com

Abstract. Since its intervention in the Nigeria agricultural sector in 1975, the World Bank says it has
committed well over USD1.2billion on agricultural development programmes in Nigeria. The goal of this
investment was to enhance the productive base of smallholder farmers and lift them out of poverty. This study,
therefore, appraised the effectiveness of these policies and how well it has performed in achieving increased
wellbeing of smallholder farmers in Edo State, Nigeria. To achieve this, data were collected from 248 farmer
participants in the World Bank assisted agriculture development programme randomly sampled from 52
Fadama User Groups (FUGs) in 18 communities, covering six LGAs from two senatorial districts in Edo
State, Nigeria. Primary data were obtained from the respondents by means of questionnaire and interview
schedule, which were analysed using frequency distribution, mean, t-test and chi-square. An assessment of
the poverty profile of the farmers reveals that the World Bank formulated agriculture development policies
were effective in enhancing farmers’ living standards. The study found that the proportion of
farmers/respondents who were very poor reduced from 59.3% to 17.3% after participating in the programme,
while the non-poor increased from 32.3% to 59.3% after joining in the programme. Based on some limitations
identified in the study such as insufficient government assistance and high levies thereby hindering access to
inputs, it was recommended among others that the government should increase its counterpart support to
agriculture development programmes as well as link farmers with sources of better agricultural inputs and
market.
Keywords: Agriculture Development, Development Financing, Improved Livelihood.

Introduction provided the opportunity for the government, with

The World Bank has championed agricultural
development programmes in Nigeria in form of direct
foreign aid, concessional grants and loans. These
programmes which started with emphasis on
increased food production, was conceived in 1972
and effectively commenced in 1975 in Northern
Nigeria in the enclave (experiment) areas of Funtua,
Guzau and Gombe. Since 1975, the World Bank has
committed well over USD1.2billion for Agricultural
Development Projects (ADPs) to increase farm
production and welfare among smallholders’ farmers
in Nigeria. The ADPs were designed in response to a
fall in agricultural productivity, and hence a concern
to sustain domestic food supplies, as labour had
moved out of agriculture into more remunerative
activities that were benefitting from the oil boom.
Conversely, domestic recycling of oil income
World Bank support, to develop the ADPs.
The projects provided agricultural investment and
services, rural roads, and village water supplies. The
government's adoption of the ADP concept put the
smallholder sector at the centre of the agricultural
development strategy and marked a clear shift away
from capital-intensive investment projects for
selected areas of high agricultural potential. The
World Bank promoted Agricultural Development
Projects (ADPs) which is a derivative of its
agricultural development policy designed to increase
the assets of small-scale rural farmers were first
launched as viable projects in 1972 only two years
after the end of civil war, when Nigeria was facing its
first food and fibre shock. The main and first feature
of the ADP was its reliance on the small-scale
farmers as the central focus for increased food
production. The projects were to be funded under a

1597-1740 © 2020 Institute for Governance and Development (IGD). Production by Sciengtex Publishing.
40
 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-Economic Wellbeing …
tripartite agreement involving World Bank 66%,
Federal government 20% and State government 14%
in addition to payments of salaries of local staff.
The two main objectives of the ADPs were to
increase food production, and to raise the income of
small-scale farmers. The ADPs started three (3) pilot
projects in 1975 at Funtua in Funtua Local
Government Area of Katsina State, Guzau in Guzau
Local Government Area of Zafara State and Gombe
in Gombe Local Government Area of Gombe State.
The success of the pilot schemes led to expansion to
other LGAs and States in the late 70s and by 1984, all
the States of the Federation were implementing the
integrated approach. In furtherance to the Bank’s
objectives, International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD) also established a programme
to help in improving cassava farming among rural
farmers. What we have today as the multi-state ADP
is the product of the joint effort of the World Bank
and IFAD which culminated in the establishment of
ADPs in Nigeria. Since then, the agricultural sector
in Nigeria has relied heavily on World Bank
assistance for its growth and survival. Recently,
World Bank policy on Agriculture in Nigeria has
been narrowed to focus on certain measurable
deliverables targeted at increasing the assets of
smallholder rural farmers in Nigeria in other to attain
self-sufficiency in food production. The World Bank
realised that production based only on rain fed
agriculture is difficult to achieve.
Agriculture History in Post-Colonial Nigeria
The agricultural history of Nigeria is intertwined
with its political history. This can be assessed from
the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods.
Before the British conquest the pre-colonial society
strived on agriculture as the main stay of the
traditional economy. The period of the colonial
administration in Nigeria, 1861 – 1960, was
punctuated by rather ad hoc attention to agricultural
development. During the era, considerable emphasis
was placed on research and extension services in the
area of modern agriculture practices. But of
importance to the writer is the post-colonial period.
The 1962-1968 development plan was Nigeria’s
first national plan. Among several objectives, it
emphasized the introduction of more modern
agricultural methods through farm settlements, co-
operative (nucleus) plantations, supply of improved
farm implements (e.g. hydraulic hand presses for oil
palm processing) and a greatly expanded agricultural
extension service. Some of the specialised
development schemes initiated or implemented
ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020
during this period included: Farm Settlement
Schemes and National Accelerated Food Production
Programme (NAFPP), launched in 1972; Operation
Feed the Nation, launched in 1976; River Basin and
Rural Development Authorities, established in 1976;
Green Revolution Programme, inaugurated in 1980;
World Bank-funded Agricultural Development
Projects (ADP) which was a World Bank, Increased
food production and rural Development Small-
holder Rural farmers, National Accelerated Food
Production Programme (NAFPP 1972), Multi-State
Agricultural Development Programme (MSADP
1985), Directorate for Food and Rural Infrastructure
(DFFRI 1988), National Fadama Development
Programme (1992), Presidential Initiative on Cassava
(2000), Agriculture transformation Agenda (2011).
While each of the above programmes sought to
improve food production, the ADPs represented the
major practical demonstration of the integrated
approach to agricultural development in Nigeria. In
spite of the growing importance of oil, Nigeria has
remained essentially an agrarian economy, with
agriculture still accounting for significant shares in
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and total exports as
well as employing the bulk of the labour force.
Available data show that at independence in 1960 the
contribution of agriculture to the GDP was about
60%, which is typical for developing agrarian
nations. However, this share declined over time to
only about 25% between 1975 and 1979, this was due
partly to the phenomenal growth of the mining and
manufacturing sectors during the period and partly as
a result of the disincentives created by the
macroeconomic environment.
The sector remains the largest contributor to the
Nigerian economy, accounting for over 38% of the
non-oil foreign exchange earnings and employing
about 70% of the active labour force of the
population. Although, the sector has suffered much
neglect by the Federal Government since the
discovery of petroleum in commercial quantity in
1958, but its importance cannot be over emphasized
in the Nigerian economy. Since the early 1960s,
several agricultural research institutes and their
extension research liaison services have been
established. Some of the major institutions are:
(a) Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison
Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria established in 1963 for the
purpose of producing modern methods in
agriculture extension services;
41
International Journal of Governance and Development Volume 8, February 2020.
(b) The International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), at Ibadan, to produce
improved farming seedlings;
(c) International Livestock Centre for Africa
(ILCA), with head office at Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia and Branch office in Kaduna State,
Nigeria for the research in livestock production
and;
(d) International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF), with head office in
Nairobi, Kenya and branch office in Benin City,
Nigeria for research in fruit trees agriculture and
environmental management.
Agricultural Sector Policies in Nigeria
Nigeria occupies a total area of 92.4 million
hectare, consisting of 91.1 million hectare of land and
1.3 million hectare of water bodies. The agricultural
area is 83.6 million hectares, which comprises arable
land (33.8 percent), land permanently in crops (2.9
percent), forest or woods (13.0 percent), pasture (47.9
percent), and irrigable land or FADAMA 3 (2.4
percent). Average rainfall ranges from 300 mm in the
extreme north to about 2,500 mm in the coastal areas.
Nigeria’s latest population estimate is above 160
million, of which 65 percent live in rural areas.
Agriculture’s contribution to the non-oil gross
domestic product (GDP) is stable at about 40 percent
in recent years. More than 70 percent of the farming
population in Nigeria consists of smallholder
farmers, each of whom owns or cultivates less than 5
ha of farmland. Thus, agriculture should be the focal
point of national economic growth agenda and
reforms.
The roles of the Nigerian agricultural sector,
according to the Nigerian Agricultural Policy
document include provision of food for the growing
population, foreign exchange earnings, employing a
significant part of the labour force, and providing
income for farming households. To attain
agricultural-sector goals, several policies were
formulated and implemented during the post-
independence years. Here we summarize some key
policies to better understand their linkages to the
productivity constraints identified later in this review.
From 1970–85, capital for agricultural production
and post-harvest activities came mainly from the
government’s budgetary allocations and secondarily
from existing lending institutions. However, as
observed by Ojo & Akanji (1996), “from the first
through the fourth National Development Plans,
government spent less than 10 percent of its total
capital expenditures on agriculture, which
42 ISSN: 1597 – 1740
contributed more than 60 percent of the GDP.” And,
with the poorly developed capital markets, farmers’
credit during the period came mostly from informal
sources at prohibitive interest rates. Agricultural
production, productivity, and postharvest operations
were low and little affected by improved
technologies.
The main monetary policy instruments used before
1985 included selective credit controls, credit
ceilings, and interest rate controls. Although lending
rates for agricultural purposes were deregulated in
1987, the high rates of inflation that accompanied the
macroeconomic reforms, in excess of 40 percent per
year in the early- to mid-1990s, contributed to
negative real agricultural lending rates (CBN, 1998).
In short, the concessional lending rates to agriculture
before the introduction of SAP and the prevailing
high domestic inflation resulting from SAP sent
mixed market signals to creditors during this period.
Most of Nigeria’s non-oil exports historically come
from agriculture. Thus, it was necessary to formulate
specific policies that would ensure that the sector
derived maximum benefit from SAP implementation.
Under the rural credit scheme introduced in 1977 by
the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), commercial
banks were required to open rural branches.
According to Usman (2000), virtually all the rural
branches identified as viable were fully established
by commercial banks by 1992.
Under the monetary policy of the 1990s, other
guidelines included a loan repayment moratorium,
smallholder loan guarantees, uncollateralized
smallholder loan schemes, extension of repayment
periods for certain export crops, and an increase in
both minimum rural deposits and minimum rural
credit. The fiscal policy guidelines allowed a five-
year tax exemption on private- sector profits earned
in any agricultural business (production, processing,
or marketing). The exchange-rate policy guidelines
allowed all voluntarily repatriated foreign-exchange
earnings in the agricultural sector to be tariff
exempted. Under the trade policy, some agriculture-
specific guidelines included the abolition of export
prohibition, a ban on importing several agro-
industrial raw materials to stimulate local production,
and abolition of commodity boards to achieve more
competitive pricing and higher farm incomes.
The World Bank Agriculture Development Policy in
Nigeria
Nigeria had implemented Bank-assisted
agricultural development projects (ADPs) for 13
years by 1988 when the Third Multi-State
Volume 8, February 2020
 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-Economic Wellbeing …

Agricultural Development Project (MSADP III) was to ten percent annual growth (5.3% to 7.3% in per
appraised for an International Development capita terms) in the non-agricultural economy
Association (IDA) credit of SDR 75.0 million (excluding government and the oil and gas sectors).
(US$100.9 million equivalent). Among the lessons There are three sets of actors contributing to
from the completed ADPs were the need for: close development in Nigeria - the government, the private
research-extension linkages to provide relevant sector, and local communities. Accordingly, the
technology for the farmers; effective unified Bank's framework for assisting Nigeria has three
extension services; a privatized and efficient input pillars, each to be designed to improve capacity to
distribution system; private sector involvement in the contribute more effectively to Nigerian development.
provision of rural infrastructure and of the local
The three pillars of the proposed framework are:
government councils (LGCs) in their maintenance;
(a) improve economic governance; (b) create the
and efficient organizational structures for agricultural
conditions for rapid private sector-led, poverty-
development. This experience, coupled with the
reducing growth; and (c) enable local communities to
emphasis of the 1988 Agricultural Policy for Nigeria
take charge of their own development. Taken
on the development of institutional capacity and an
together, these three areas are fundamental to
increased role for the private sector, influenced the
achievement of any poverty reduction strategy.
design of the MSADP III, which provided assistance
Nigeria's economy cannot grow, poverty cannot be
to Lagos, Ondo, Osun, Oyo and Rivers states. Nigeria
reduced, and Nigeria will not meet the International
is going through a difficult political and economic
Development Goals unless its substantial public
transition after 30 years of military rule. The then
resources are used more effectively and equitably;
federal government, headed by General Olusegun
unless the non-oil sector exhibits strong growth; and
Obasanjo, was faced with an array of complicated
unless there is full participation of the Nigerian
issues that he tried to overcome for Nigeria to be
people, particularly the poor, in the development
successful in its transition to a democratic political
process
system and a vibrant market economy. According to
Lanjouw (2001), these problems include: An Overview of World Bank Rural Poverty
Reduction Strategy: the ADP Approach
(a) pervasive poverty and widespread
Nigeria as an agrarian country, the production of
unemployment;
foods and other raw materials is a necessary
(b) deterioration of government institutions over the
ingredient for the take-off of all other sectors of the
period of military rule, and consequently
nation’s economy. At the national level, the poor
inadequate capacity at all levels of government
performance of the agricultural sector became
to deliver critical services effectively;
worrisome in the 1970s–1980s decades, when the
(c) sporadic violence between ethnic groups;
country's food import bills rose from $1.75 million in
(d) a legacy of widespread corruption;
1970 to $1.872 million 1982 (FMANR, 1997). As a
(e) an intense debate over federalism and the
primary production sector, agriculture itself has to be
relationships among the Federal Government,
modernized in order to achieve the much-needed
the state governments and local government
increase in the productivity of the sector. This
authorities (LGAs); and
modernization has been through high government
(f) a concern among Nigerians that the military
annual investments in agricultural research and
could once more return to power.
extension services.
Nigeria is in many ways two economies. Part of it
The Federal Government introduced the
is a middle-income oil-producing economy of
Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) among
perhaps five million people and a per capita income
others. The ADP is primarily an extension organ put
of about US$2200. The other part is a non-oil
in place by the Federal government in line with
producing economy of 150 million people (about
World Bank strategy to advance food and fibre
76% of whom are in poverty) with an average per
production in Nigeria. The programme was launched
capita income of perhaps US$200. It is clear that the
in 1975 with the aim of accelerating food production
fundamental cause of poverty in Nigeria is the
and increasing farmers' income through an integrated
economic stagnation that the country has experienced
farm inputs supply and overall development of
for almost two decades. Substantial poverty reduction
agriculture. The state government, federal
would require around five percent annual growth in
government and the World Bank funded the
agriculture (2.0 to 2.3% in per capita terms) and eight
programme in order to address the problem of
ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020 43
International Journal of Governance and Development Volume 8, February 2020.
agricultural production and the role extension service
play in the overall agricultural development. This
makes the ADP the main agent of extension delivery
in the new system. For the laudable objectives of
agricultural extension to be achieved, extension
agents have to play a vital role as they are responsible
for transferring useful information necessary for
"change" to the farmers. The extension agents also
perform the function of counselling the farmers on
how to make wise decisions in farm management.
The extension agents are expected to play a
significant role in the extension system, and they will
be responsible in the dissemination of agricultural
technologies to the farmers, link research and
farmers.
The ADP which began as a World Bank loan
assisted integrated rural development packages with
the establishment of three pilot/enclaves was based
on the premise that a combination of inter-related
factors comprising the right technology, effective
extension access to physical and production
enhancing inputs, adequate market and other
infrastructural facilities are essential to get
agriculture moving (FMANR, 1997).. The activities
of the first-generation enclave projects established in
Funtua, Gombe and Gusau in 1975 involved in Road
construction, Dam construction, Rehabilitation of
farm roads and maintenance of the existing roads, as
well as other projects that were instant success in the
localities where they were situated. With a World
Bank loan backing on finance the enclaves performed
beyond expectation carrying out activities that
enhanced agriculture with farm families of about
350,000 people and the location of farm service
Centres and provision of inputs useful for farm
operations.
The success recorded by the pilot ADP led the
federal government to establish six more enclaves at
Ayangba, Lafia, Bida, Ilorin, Ekiti-Akoko, and Oyo
North between 1979 and 1982. The vision of the ADP
extended beyond the immediate task of running the
enclaves thus, useful lessons in implementing of the
new concepts were provided by the enclave’s projects
paving the way for extension of the projects to other
areas and Local Government not covered by the
ADP. The demands for the benefit of ADP to be
spread to all existing states led to the installation of a
generation state-wide ADPs with some of them
taking the old enclave as their headquarters. The first
set of state-wide ADPs took place in Bauchi 1981,
Kano state in 1982, Sokoto state in 1983 and Kaduna
state 1984. The state-wide ADP projects in these
44 ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020
states received a total sum of N145.440m between
1981 and 1985, it recorded 1.7 tonnes of millet
462,483 tonnes of maize, constructed 1462km of
roads, 92 dams built 184 farm service centres and
1200 boreholes were constructed. The state-wide
projects initially programmed to end after 5 years of
initiation was reprogrammed to last longer because of
the giant stride achievements in agricultural
production by the individual states.
It is opined by Idachaba (1988) that the success
further encouraged the nation-wide agricultural
development project, which according to Idachaba,
constitutes the single largest agency charged with the
responsibility of agricultural extension in Nigeria.
The decision to speed up the appraisal process of the
ADPs by using a number of existing ADPs, provides
state-wide coverage to strengthen agricultural
services and promote agricultural production. The
first Multi-state Agricultural Development Project
(MSADPI) covered seven (7) states which include
Project (MSADP II) covered four middle Belt States,
which are Niger, Gongola and Kaduna and the third
Multi – State Agricultural Development Project
(MSADP II), were an improvement on the previous
MSADPs because the lessons learnt from the earlier
projects were taken into account in the design of the
third Multi-state ADP in 1989. The lessons include
provisions of support services for agriculture and
provisions of logistic and technical support for the
states. The Third Multi-State included states that
were not covered originally and the newly created
states.
In operational terms the funding pattern bothers on
the sustainability of the ADP such that the gradual
withdrawal of the World Bank assistance would pave
way for continued existence of the ADP. Presently,
the World Bank loan had been finally withdrawn
from the ADP - a factor which is critical to the
working conditions of the ADP. The effect of the
withdrawal would then have implications on the
performance of the extension activities.
Rationale for World Bank's Involvement in
Agricultural Development Projects
The World Bank’s involvement in this project
according to Adegboye (1998) will: (a) strategically
strengthen government’s capacity to undertake policy
and institutional reforms for sustainable rural
development and poverty reduction by bringing in
relevant experience from other parts of the world.
The Bank is the only lender with sufficient financial
and technical leverage to lead such reforms in the
rural sector; (b) accelerate the process of
 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-Economic Wellbeing …
diversification of the economy through support to
potentially profitable private sector investments in
diverse rural production, processing and marketing
activities, with the public sector playing the role of
catalyst, and making the investments which would
remove the infrastructure constraints on Fadama
development.
The Bank, again because of its long involvement
in investing in agricultural and rural development, is
well positioned to facilitate the development of
public-private sector partnership and to lead donor
effort in facilitating investment in economic
enterprises in the rural areas; (c) assure the scale of
financing required to make a significant impact on
poverty in the rural areas, a scale that cannot be met
by other donors currently operating in the rural areas
in Nigeria. Bank’s financing is a leverage for
enhanced involvement of other donors in rural
development; and (d) Global Environmental Fund
(GEF) assistance will enable Nigeria to protect and to
utilize sustainably the country’s biodiversity beyond
a nationally justified and affordable level. Global
benefits will include capacity for enhanced
monitoring, information exchange, and improved
skills to identify and manage ecologically threatened
areas in a sustainable manner. National and local
benefits will include sustainable use of natural
resources and habitats (direct uses), distributional
benefits, and incremental protection of ecological
functions. The overall aim is poverty eradication in
Nigeria
Statement of the Problem
Nigeria has huge agricultural resource endowment,
yet the population is facing hunger and poverty. To
address this problem of hunger and poverty, the
World Bank developed and implemented a number of
agricultural development policies and programmes in
Nigeria which include Agricultural Development
Projects (ADP) and Fadama programme.
Chukwuemeka & Nzewu (2011) in their study of
World Bank agricultural development programme in
Nigeria, evaluated the extent of World Bank
Agricultural Development Projects in Nigeria with a
view to identifying the areas of problems. The
findings revealed among others, that policy approach
that excluded the beneficiaries from participating in
the project design, planning and implementation is
not desirable. They also observed that recruitment of
extension staff was not based on expertise and
professionalism, but on political considerations. In
the same vein, Onyeahialam (2002) study of World
Bank and Agricultural Development in Enugu State
ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020
reveal that for more than two decades, the agricultural
sector of the Nigerian economy has continued to
perform below expectation despite the huge sums of
money being allocated to the sector in each year’s
budget. Similarly, Businessday observed that in
2012, about N78.98 billion was mapped out for the
agricultural sector. Also, during the same year, over
72 million dollars donated by Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FAO) and the World Bank were
distributed to the 36 states of the federation in
addition to the year’s allocation. In his critique of
Nigeria agricultural development policies, Ogboru
(2002) opined that the poor situation of the
agricultural sector raises questions as to the
effectiveness of the World Bank assisted Agricultural
Development Fadama programme which was
established with the hope that such project can
radically transform agriculture and increase the
country’s food and fibre needs of the rapidly
increasing population.
In spite of the presence of ADP, food shortages
have been getting worse from year to year. For
instance, according to the Nigeria Bureau of Statistics
(NBS, 2007), in 2006, the Country’s Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) at 2002 constant factor cost was
N83.5 billion; agriculture contributed a total of N33
billion or 40.5%. However, at current factor cost, this
sector’s contribution to GDP declined from 22% in
2003 to 28% in 2008 with unsteady improvement to
31.3% in 2009 and 6.7% in 2012, due to unsteady
productivity of the agricultural sector. Something
therefore must be wrong with the World Bank
assisted agricultural development policies and
programmes such as the Fadama programme, its
contents and implementation strategies which, over
the years of its operation has caused the agricultural
sector to remain almost stagnant.
To this end, the specific objectives of the study are
to:
(a) Determine the poverty level of small-holder
farmers in Edo state.
(b) Examine the effectiveness of the World Bank
assisted Fadama programme in enhancing the
living standard of small-holder rural dwellers
in Edo State.
(c) Ascertain the constraints affecting the
effectiveness of the World Bank sponsored
Fadama programme as a vehicle for poverty
reduction in Edo State.
Hypotheses of the study
This research thesis tested the following
hypotheses:
45
International Journal of Governance and Development Volume 8, February 2020.

(a) There is no significant difference in poverty development programme or there is a deliberate

level of Fadama farmers in Edo State. targeting of men by the programme coordinators.
(b) The World Bank assisted Fadama programme Also, most (48%) of the respondents were 60 years
has not significantly enhanced the living and above. The average age of the participants was
standard of small-holder farmers in Edo State. 56 years suggesting that the participants of the
(c) There is no relationship between poor funding project were not young but little advanced in age. It
and the realisation of the objectives of World is expected that such people should possess the
Bank assisted Fadama programme in Edo necessary maturity, experienced and knowledgeable
State. to function adequately in the project.
Methodology The educational distribution of the respondents as
shown in Table 1, indicated that 37.1% and 36.7% of
This study aimed at assessing the impact of World
them attended secondary and primary schools
Bank policies on agriculture development in Nigeria
respectively. On the other hand 23% had no formal
which were formulated, propagated and implemented
education while 3.2% had tertiary education.
by the bank with the aim of alleviating or eradicating
According to Dauda et al, having formal education
poverty among the smallholders’ rural dwellers in
enhances individual capacity to handle agricultural
Nigeria. Particular reference was given to Edo State.
innovations/technologies. About 40% (i.e. 38.3%) of
The researcher made use of primary and secondary
the respondents have a household size of 4 – 6
data. The primary data were sourced directly from the
persons. About 33.1% has a household size of 7 – 9
248 respondents out of a sample size of 262 through
persons, 9.7% and 19% respectively has 1 – 3 and 10
the use of questionnaire participants in the World
– 12 persons living with them.
Bank assisted Fadama programme in two senatorial
districts (Edo Central Senatorial District and Edo Table 1. Demographic characteristics of
South Senatorial District) including local respondents
governments and communities of Edo State. Characteristics Categories Frequency %
Sex Male 163 65.7
Secondary data were sourced from data generated Female 85 34.3
by organisations such as Edo State Agricultural Total 248 100.0
Development Project (EADP), Central Bank of Age Less than 30 3 1.2
Nigeria (CBN), National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), 30-39 11 4.4
40-49 46 18.5
World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organisation
50-59 69 27.8
(FAO), International Fund for Agricultural 60 & above 119 48.0
Development (IFAD), published articles, journals, Total 248 100.0
Internet and other relevant publications. Data Marital Status Single 6 2.4
generated from the research instrument were Married 218 87.9
analysed using descriptive Statistics (frequency, Divorced 13 5.2
Widow(er) 11 4.4
means) and inferential statistics (t-test, chi-square test
Total 248 100.0
of difference, and the Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) Education No formal 57 23.0
poverty indices). The level of poverty among education
respondents was determined using the relative Primary school 91 36.7
poverty line. This entailed using two third of the Secondary school 92 37.1
Tertiary 8 3.2
mean income of the sample units as the poverty line.
Total 248 100.0
The line represents a value above or below which Household size 1-3 24 9.7
respondents will be considered non-poor or poor (no.) 4-6 95 38.3
respectively. 7-9 82 33.1
10-12 47 19.0
Results and Discussion Total 248 100.0
Demographic Characteristics of the respondents Primary Crop farming 214 86.3
Occupation Livestock farming 1 0.4
The demographic characteristics of the Fish farming 1 0.4
respondents are shown in Table 1. Males dominated Agric processing 2 0.8
the group (65.7%) while females formed the Others 30 12.1
minority (34.3%). This infers that males are major Total 248 100.0
participants of the project. This result suggests that Source: Field survey, 2012

either female are poorly receptive of the Fadama

46 ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020
 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-Economic Wellbeing …

Table 2. Income of Respondents

Income N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Before 248 0 960,000 87,845.73 129891.063
After 248 12000 2,160,000 261,393.71 253521.181
Source: Field survey, 2012

The average family size was 7. The findings (N174,262.47) the poverty level of the small-holder
indicated that the respondents have people farmers was determined, and the results presented in
depending on them and which they need to cater for. Table 3. As observed, most (59.3%) of the farmers
This, itself can be an important motivation to were non-poor, 23.4% were moderately poor while
participate in the programme since the need to cater 17.3% were very poor. The result showed that about
for their families has been described as a strong 40% of the farmers were living below the poverty
motivation for individuals to seek for ways of line. The data used for computing the poverty status
improving their productivity and income. Crop of the respondents was based on their income range
farming was the primary occupation of most since participating in the agriculture development
(86.3%) of the farmers. Having most of the project. The fact that majority of project participants
respondents in crop farming could be attributed to were non-poor probably suggests the positive role of
the type of soil in the area and what they know how the Fadama project in lifting farmers out of poverty.
to do best. The findings suggest that participants in
Table 3. Poverty status of Respondents
the programme were economically engaged. Their
Status Frequency %
expectation from the programme was that it would Non-poor 147 59.3
enhance their livelihood. (mean income>174,262.47)
Moderately poor 58 23.4
Objective one: Determine the poverty level of small- (mean income: 87,131.24 -
holder farmers in Edo state 174,262.47)
Table 2 shows the income of the respondents Very poor 43 17.3
before and after participation in the project. The mean (mean income<87,131.24)
income before and after the project were N87,845.73 Total 248 100.0
*Mean Income = N261,393.71; Poverty Line: N174,262.47
and N261, 393.71 respectively. The difference Source: computed from field survey data, 2012
(N173,547.98) in the result suggest that participation Objective two: Examine the effectiveness of the
in the project had indeed enhanced the farmers World Bank assisted Fadama programme in
income. This finding indicates the positive role of enhancing the living standard of small-holder rural
agricultural development projects. Similar results dwellers in Edo State
have been reported by Ajayi & Nwalieji (2010) who
Table 4 examined respondents’ perception of the
noted that participant farmers in Fadama project
effectiveness of the Fadama project in enhancing
recorded increased income. Based on the average
their living standards or welfare.
income (N261,393.71) and poverty line
Table 4. Perceived effectiveness of Fadama programme in enhancing the living standards of respondents
Strongly Agreed Disagreed Strongly Total
agree disagreed
Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Mean SD
Better and adequate feeding 40 16.1 130 52.4 59 23.8 19 7.7 2.77* .81
Training of children or family members in school 32 12.9 122 49.2 74 29.8 20 8.1 2.67* .80
Purchase of communication gadgets e.g. GSM phones 25 10.1 131 52.8 62 25.0 30 12.1 2.61* .83
Expansion of farm 19 7.7 101 40.7 128 51.6 2.56* .63
Financial support to family member and friends 14 5.6 110 44.4 124 50.0 2.56* .60
Able to afford better medical services 22 8.9 74 29.8 122 49.2 30 12.1 2.35 .81
Purchase of electronics e.g. television, radio and CD player. 20 8.1 64 25.8 116 46.8 48 19.4 2.23 .85
Improvement in dressing i.e. better clothes and shoes 10 4.0 82 33.1 103 41.5 53 21.4 2.20 .82
House repair/maintenance 19 7.7 61 24.6 114 46.0 54 21.8 2.18 .86
Purchase of transport facilities e.g. bicycles, motor cycles, cars 15 6.0 44 17.7 128 51.6 61 24.6 2.05 .82
Improvement in home furniture 10 4.0 44 17.7 130 52.4 64 25.8 2.00 .77
Living in a better and modern house 11 4.4 40 16.1 131 52.8 66 26.6 1.98 .78
*Effective (mean > 2.50); SD = Standard Deviation
Source: field survey data, 2012

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International Journal of Governance and Development Volume 8, February 2020.

Respondents agreed that the programme had poverty status could be attributed to the benefits or
improved their family feeding (mean = 2.77), gains achieved from participating in the programme.
enhanced their ability to educate/train their children Similar results of the positive contribution of Fadama
or family members in school (2.67), their ability to project to poverty reduction has been reported by
purchase and use communication gadgets e.g. GSM Ajibefun and Abdulkadri (1999).
phones (2.61), as well as expansion of their farms
Table 5. Poverty status of respondents before and
(2.56). In addition, the programme had enabled them
after enrolling in Fadama project
to give more financial support to family members
(2.56) through increased income derived from their Poverty Status Poverty Status
Status
farming activities. Similar impact of the Fadama (Before) (After)
Freq. % Freq. %
project on farmers’ welfare has been reported by
Very poor 147 59.3 43 17.3
Obadan (2002). However, respondents were not Moderately poor 21 8.5 58 23.4
generally agreed that it had benefited them medically Non-poor 80 32.3 147 59.3
although 29.8% of them agreed that it has improved Total 248 100.0 248 100.0
their health condition through being able to afford Source: field survey data, 2012
better medical services. It had equally not really Objective Three: Constraints affecting effectiveness
added value to their lives with respect to house of Fadama programme
repairs/maintenance (mean = 2.18), purchase of
The perceived constraints affecting effectiveness
transport facilities (2.05), home furniture (2.00) as
of the programme is shown in Table 6. The
these were more capital intensive.
constraints with mean of 3.00 and above were
Poverty status of respondents before and after considered to be serious. From the table, limiting or
enrolling in Fadama project insufficient government assistance (mean = 4.36),
Table 5 revealed the poverty status of the high dues and levies charged by Fadama Users Group
respondents before and after enrolling in the (3.50), corrupt and dishonest leadership (3.25) and
FADAMA programme. The table shows that before non-availability of inputs (3.11) were considered
they enrolled in the project, most (59.3%) of them serious constraints affecting the effectiveness of the
were very poor, while 32.3% were non-poor. On the Fadama operations in the study area. Equally
other hand, after enrolling in the project, most considered to be a serious limitation to the
(59.3%) of the respondents became non-poor, while effectiveness of the project was insufficient capital
only 17.3% were very poor. From the table it could given participants in the programme (mean = 3.40).
be seen that the proportion of farmers/respondents Majority of the respondents consider late provision of
who were very poor reduced from 59.3% to 17.3%. farming inputs and related as limiting their ability to
Similarly, the proportion of the non-poor increased fully harness the gains of their participation in the
from 32.3% to 59.3%. The transformation in the program.
Table 6. Perceived constraints affecting effectiveness of Fadama programme
Constraints Very Serious Moderately Least Not Total
serious serious serious serious
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Mean SD
government assistance is 104 41.9 136 54.8 2 .8 5 2.0 1 .4 4.36* .65
limiting/insufficient
High dues and levies charged by Fadama 199 80.2 10 4.0 2 .8 37 14.9 3.50* 1.08
users‘ group
Insufficient capital given by the Fadama 148 59.7 99 39.9 1 .4 3.40* 1.47
programme
Corrupt and dishonest leadership 183 73.8 2 .8 4 1.6 59 23.8 3.25* 1.29
Non-availability of inputs 46 18.5 59 23.8 27 10.9 108 43.5 8 3.2 3.11* 1.24
Members refusal to repay loans 153 61.7 3 1.2 92 37.1 2.86 1.45
High rate of illiteracy among members. 93 37.5 7 2.8 61 24.6 87 35.1 2.43 1.31
Low participation of members in group 79 31.9 4 1.6 98 39.5 67 27.0 2.38 1.19
activities.
Poor organization of group’s activities 33 13.3 6 2.4 127 51.2 82 33.1 1.96 .94
Lack of cooperation among members 55 22.2 3 1.2 33 13.3 157 63.3 1.82 1.23
*Serious (mean > 3.00); SD = Standard deviation, Freq=Frequency

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 Impact of World Bank Agricultural Development Policies on the Socio-Economic Wellbeing …

Table 7. Test of difference in poverty status of respondents (Chi-Square Test)

Poverty status Observed N Observed % Expected N Expected %
Non-poor (mean income>174,262.47) 147 59.3 124.0 50.0
Poor (mean income:<174,262.47) 101 40.7 124.0 50.0
Total 248 100.0
*Difference is significant (Calculated χ2 = 8.54; df = 1; Tabulated χ2= 3.85)

Test of Hypotheses income by improving their access to inputs has

Test of difference in poverty status of respondents contributed to improved livelihoods among them.
(Chi-Square Test). The hypothesis tested states thus: The calculated chi-square (χ2 = 28.45) was greater
than the tabulated chi-square (3.85) at the 5% level of
Hypothesis One: There is no significant difference
significance, and for this reason, the null hypothesis
in poverty level of Fadama farmers in Edo State
is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis.
Table 7 shows the test of difference in poverty This means that the World Bank assisted Fadama
status of the respondents using chi-square. From the project has significantly enhanced the living standard
result, about 59% of the respondents were non-poor of small-holder farmers in Edo State.
while about 41% were poor, indicating that the
Table 8. Test of difference in effectiveness of
proportion of the non-poor was more than the poor.
participation in Fadama programme on enhancement
The calculated chi-square (8.54), which is greater
of living standard of respondents (chi-square test)
than the tabulated Chi-Square at the 5% (3.85), shows
Response Observed Observed Expected Expected
that the result or difference is significant. This means Frequency % N %
there was a significant difference in the proportion of Disagreed 82 33.06 124.0 50.0
the non-poor to the poor. In other words, among Agreed 166 66.94 124.0 50.0
programme participants the proportion of the non- Total 248 100.0
poor is significantly higher than the proportion of the *Difference is significant at 5% (Calculated χ2 = 28.45; df = 1;
Tabulated χ2= 3.85)
poor. This suggests that the Fadama project has
significantly reduced poverty among participants. Test of difference in the effect of poor funding on
Studies by Ilavbarhe7 confirm the positive role of the realization of Fadama objectives (chi-quare
Fadama project in enhancing farmers’ poverty status. test). The hypothesis tested states thus:
Since the Chi-Square calculated was greater than the Ho: There is no relationship between poor funding
tabulated chi-square, the null hypothesis, which and the realization of the objectives of World Bank
states that there is no significant difference in poverty assisted Fadama programme in Edo State.
level of Fadama farmers in Edo State, is rejected in
favour of the alternative hypothesis. Chi-square was used to test the above hypothesis.
Table 9 was used to analyse hypothesis four. The
Test of difference in effectiveness of participation table presents respondents responses to the perceived
in Fadama project on enhancement of living effect of poor funding on the realization of the
standard of respondents. The hypothesis tested states Fadama objectives.
thus:
Table 9. Test of difference in the effect of poor
Ho: The World Bank assisted Fadama project has funding on the realization of Fadama objectives
not significantly enhanced the living standard of (chi-square test)
small-holder farmers in Edo State Freq. % Expected Expected
Chi-square was also used to test hypothesis two, N %
Not serious 1 0.4 82.7 33.3
which stated that the World Bank assisted Fadama
Moderately serious 99 39.9 82.7 33.3
project has not significantly enhanced the living
Serious 148 59.7 82.7 33.3
standard of small-holder farmers in Edo State. The
Total 248 100.0
result of chi-square analysis is presented in Table 8. *Difference is significant at 5% (Calculated χ2 = 135.54; df = 1;
The result showed that while 66.93% agreed that Tabulated χ2= 3.85)
participation in the World Bank assisted Fadama The results showed that most (59.7%) of the
project had enhanced the living standard of the farmers indicated that poor funding was a serious
farmers, 33.06% disagreed. The results of the study limitation to the realization of the Fadama objectives,
agreed with that of Afolabi (2010), which showed 39.9% believed the effect was moderately limiting
that Fadama project through enhancing farmers while 0.4% indicated that poor funding was not a
ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020 49
International Journal of Governance and Development Volume 8, February 2020.
serious limitation. The result suggest that most
respondents agreed that poor funding was a serious
limitation to the effectiveness of the Fadama
objectives. The findings of Kudi et al equally
revealed that poor funding or inadequate capital
limits participants’ access to critical inputs needed to
purchase and sustain the recommended Fadama
farming practices.
The calculated chi-square value (135.54) was
greater than the tabulated chi – square (3.85) at the
5% level of significance. This means that there was a
significant difference in respondents’ perception
about the poor funding being a significant limiting
factor in the full realization of the Fadama project
objectives. In other words, poor funding was found to
be a significant factor hampering the realization of
the project objectives. The null hypothesis is
therefore rejected in favour of the alternative
hypothesis.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The results of the study showed that the project has
indeed contributed to improved welfare and income
among participation farmers. However, its
effectiveness was curtailed or limited by several
factors such as insufficient government assistance
and high levies thereby hindering access to inputs.
Also, the study further addressed the broader question
of whether Nigeria is making progress by adopting
the World Bank agriculture development policies.
In satisfying the objective of this study from the
policy analysis perspective and deriving empirical
relationships between World Bank policies on
agricultural development and poverty among the
smallholder rural dwellers, we can say that these
policies and programmes have not addressed the
overall poverty crises in Nigeria. This could be seen
from increased state of poverty among the rural
dwellers who are the direct target of these agricultural
development policies. Other causes of the state of
poverty were traced to poor agricultural development
policy implementation, inconsistent macroeconomic
policies, weak diversification of the economic base,
gross economic mismanagement, lack of effective
skills training, weak inter-sectorial linkages, high
import dependence and heavy reliance on crude oil
exports, inadequate access to assets such as land and
capital by the smallholder rural dwellers, inadequate
access to the means of fostering rural development in
rural communities, inadequate involvement of the
poor in the design of this agricultural development
policies, among others. The effectiveness of the
50 ISSN: 1597 – 1740 Volume 8, February 2020
World Bank agricultural development programme
like any other organization, hinges on three factors
that is, adequate funding, competent and stable
management and adequate staffing. Also, this
research observed a very weak funding status for
these programmes designed to achieve desirable and
laudable objective. The problem of funding has
resulted into reduced extension activities, and that in
turn has pushed some staff implementing these
policies to voluntarily leave the system for greener
pastures. If the World Bank want their policies well
implemented to achieve its determined results, then
they will have to channel more funds into the
implementation of these policies and programme and
equally develop means of compelling the federal and
state government to contribute their counterpart
funds for agricultural project implementation as and
when due.
Based on these research findings, it is
recommended that the government should meet its
counterpart to support projects identified by project
participants. Most complained that the government
support was limiting which hindered them from
accessing necessary inputs. Also, FUGs levy should
be reduced by increasing its counterpart funding. In
addition, the World Bank and Nigeria Government
can scale-up support for new technology generation,
transfer and adoption, with more focus on research
institution approaches, including more support and
partnership with international bodies. In addition,
Farmers should be linked to sources of farm inputs as
there were complaints that they couldn’t get inputs of
the right quality.
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