42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference

Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology

Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078

HOW TO ACHIEVE THE EXPECTED PERFORMANCE IN YOUR AGITATED SLURRY TANKS

Mixing is a subject that is rarely taught in university chemical engineering programs but can often be
critical to determining the success or failure of a process. This is especially true for processes in which
solids are one of the feed streams (Merrow, Chem. Eng. Prog. (1985), Chem. Engg. (1988) and Chem.
Innov. (2000)). It is important that the “process result” is clearly defined by the customer who will
ultimately use the equipment and it is equally important that the vendor can understand this description
and make the appropriate equipment selection. Then the necessary basic data must be supplied to the
vendor so that the agitator can be accurately sized. Without this information the vendor is often forced
to make assumptions to deliver information required by a project team in a timely manner.

The information required by an agitator vendor from a project team / customer building a plant for a
process in which slurries are mixed is described below.

Degree of Suspension / Distribution of Particles

The degree of particle suspension or distribution can be described by defining the height to which the
particles are distributed in the vessel (see figure 1) and this is the first criterion that must be specified to
size the agitator.

Figure 1: Degree particle of suspension / distribution

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
The lowest level of suspension is called “just suspended” or “off bottom” where all the particles are in
motion on the base of the vessel but not necessarily uniformly distributed. This is the optimum for mass
transfer between particles and the liquid, for example in a process in which the particles dissolve.
Increasing the level of agitation above this has a minimal effect of the mass transfer rate and dissolving
time.

The highest level is “uniform distribution” where the particles are distributed throughout the liquid
phase so that, at each axial location within the slurry, the solids concentration is very close to the
calculated average. This is required if the slurry leaves the vessel by overflow or if it is being fed to a
separator, such as a centrifuge, which is designed to process a certain particle concentration. If the
particles are not uniformly distributed the concentration of particles arriving at the centrifuge will vary
considerably which may cause operational problems there.

Generally, the power input required to achieve uniform distribution can be up to 10 times higher than
the power for off bottom suspension so it is important to clearly define the level of distribution needed
for successful operation of the process.

Physical Properties

The physical properties of the liquid and solid components must be specified as accurately as possible.

Densities

The density of the liquid phase is usually an easy value to measure and in most cases the particles are
too. In a free settling slurry, the density difference between the particles and liquid have the greatest
effect on the sizing of the agitator.

It is important to recognize that the particle density needed for design is the density of a single crystal –
not the bulk density (for example, the mass of particles in a 50 gallon drum since this volume will include
air in the spaces between them).

Also, if the slurry contains a mixture of different solid components the density of each one should be
provided.

Particle Size

Particle size is not an easy measurement to make but, in a free settling slurry, it has a smaller effect on
agitator size than density difference. Much of the research carried out in academia has used “ideal”
particles with a narrow particle size distribution. As a result, the correlations developed from these data
sets are based on a single particle size (for example Grenville et al., ChERD, (2016 and 2017)).

In the real world the particles in a slurry will most likely have a wide size distribution and may even be
multi-modal. Figure 2 shows a typical particle size distribution. The left-hand axis shows the volume of
particles in each size class and the right-hand axis shows the cumulative volume. The d50 is 5 microns.
This means that 50 % (by volume) of the particles are smaller than 5 microns and these particles occupy
about 5 % of the total volume.
42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
The d90 is 30 microns and the d100 (or maximum) is 120 microns. An agitator designed for the just
suspension speed will have to operate 26 % faster for the larger particles and the power input will be
doubled. But it may be acceptable for the process to allow larger particles to settle and accumulate
over time scheduling a regular clean out. The number, or volume of large particles greater than 30
microns (d90) can the estimated and the time taken for a significant accumulation to occur estimated.

Figure 2: Typical particle size distribution

The operating cost of the clean out (including lost production) can be compared with the capital
investment required to suspend the largest particles to determine if there is a life-time benefit to
installing the larger equipment. Also, the energy costs of running to the two options must be
considered.

Concentration

The particle concentration is usually expressed as a mass fraction (mass of particles divided by mass of
slurry) but it is the volume fraction (volume of particles divided by volume of slurry) that determines
how the slurry will move when mixed. For example, a 40 % by weight slurry of sand, with a specific
gravity of 2.63, will have a volume fraction of 20.2 % in water while a slurry of lead, with specific gravity
of 11.34, with the same mass fraction will have a volume fraction of 5.5 %.

As the volume fraction and the number of particles increase the slurry behavior will change from free /
fast settling to slow settling where the two-phase system behaves like a single-phase viscous and often
non-Newtonian fluid. One way to determine which behavior the slurry will exhibit is to take a sample in
a jar, shake it up and observe the settling of the particles. If the particles settle quickly then the design
rules for just suspension or distribution should be applied but if they settle slowly the slurry should be
treated as a single-phase fluid and a different set of rules applied.

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
Viscosity and non-Newtonian Fluids

Viscosity a measure of the force required to move an impeller at a desired speed through a fluid (or the
force that a pump must impart to move a fluid through a pipe). In low concentration, free-settling
slurries the viscosity that the impeller “feels” is the viscosity of the liquid alone. As the concentration
increases the impeller must eventually provide enough force to overcome the friction resulting from the
particle-particle interactions and, generally, this starts to occur when the volume fraction is about 10 %.
A plot of viscosity versus volume concentration for two models is shown in figure 3. Einstein (Ann.
Physik, (1906)) derived a linear equation which, when compared with data does not accurately capture
the effect of particles at concentrations above 10 % volume. Thomas (J. Colloid Sci., (1965)) developed a
correlation that shows a more realistic relationship between viscosity and volume fraction. It must be
recognized that these are plots of values predicted by models.

Figure 3: Viscosity versus slurry volume fraction

The other property of the slurry that affects its viscosity is the particle size. A 40 % by weight slurry of
500 micron particles will behave very differently to the same weight slurry of 1 micron particles. In this
case it is the number concentration that determines the slurry’s behavior.

In order to make accurate agitator sizing calculations, taking into account concentration and particle size
distribution, measurements of viscosity must be made for the real slurry and, ideally, lab-scale mixing
tests carried from which scale-up can be confidently made.

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
Non-Newtonian Behavior

High concentration slurries exhibit non-Newtonian behavior. This means that the viscosity that the
impeller feels is dependent on the speed at which the impeller rotates. Most slurries are shear-thinning
meaning that as the impeller speed increases, the apparent viscosity of the slurry decreases. The degree
of non-Newtonian behavior is determined by measuring the viscosity of the slurry over a range of
impeller speeds.

In extreme cases the slurry will exhibit a yield stress which means that the impeller must exert a
minimum force, or shear stress, on the fluid before it will move. Figure 4 shows the side view of a lab-
scale vessel in which a yield stress fluid is being agitated. The zone in which the fluid is moving can be
clearly identified and this is often called a “cavern”. The agitator must be designed to ensure that the
cavern fills the tank and, with accurate viscosity measurements and lab-scale testing, this can reliably be
achieved.

Figure 4: Yield stress mixing test

Fouling and Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is often required to heat or cool slurry mixing processes, especially if there is a chemical
reaction. In turbulent systems the rate limiting heat transfer rate is determined by conduction through
the vessel and / or coil walls. The process side heat transfer coefficient is large in comparison and
changes in mixing have a negligible effect on the overall heat transfer coefficient. If the impeller is

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
operating in the transitional or laminar regimes the process side heat transfer can become limiting and
changes in the mixing rate can improve heat transfer.

A more important factor to consider is fouling, especially when particles are being formed by
crystallization or precipitation. As nuclei form they will grow on any surface available. Ideally this will
be the surface of other particles causing them to grow but they will also attach to equipment surfaces
such as impeller blades and the vessel walls forming encrustations. These act as an insulator reducing
the overall heat transfer coefficient and, ultimately, the vessel will need to be cleaned when the heat
transfer rate limits production.

The deposition of the particles can be limited, if not eliminated, by ensuring that the velocity of the fluid
is sufficiently high to “scour” the particles off the surfaces keeping them clean and extending the time
between clean outs. This velocity can be determined experimentally but there are general rules that can
be applied to make a successful design.

Other Considerations

Other operational factors that must be considered when describing the process result and mixing
requirements are:

1. Changes in liquid level

If the level is changing during the process an impeller must be located far enough below the
minimum liquid surface to ensure that there is sufficient flow to suspend the particles.

2. Erosion

If the particles are hard the impeller blades will be eroded, especially near the tips. The rate of
erosion will depend on the tip speed of the impeller and the approach to agitator will attempt to
minimize it.

3. Attrition

The objective of process in which particles are formed (crystallization or precipitation) is to

generate a large and uniform particle size so that the solids can be easily separated from the
liquid phase by filtration or centrifugation. If the crystals are fragile and / or agitated for a long
period of time, “fines” will be “chipped off” the large particles and these will make the
separation more difficult. If attrition is expected to be an issue, the agitator must be designed
for “gentle mixing” to protect the large particles from damage.

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078
Conclusions

For successful agitator design, installation and operation the “process result” must be clearly defined by
the customer who will ultimately use the equipment. The agitator vendor must be able to understand
this description and make the appropriate selection of impeller type.

Firstly, the degree of suspension or distribution needed must be identified then the physical properties
of the particles and liquid. These include:

• Density of the particles and liquid

o All components must be listed
• Particle size and particle size distribution
o The maximum size to be used for design must be identified and the consequences of using
any size smaller than d100 must be considered
• Solids concentration
o Is the slurry fast or slow-settling?

The viscosity used for design will depend on the particle concentration and size distribution. If the
viscosity is high enough and the slurry is slow settling, the agitator must be designed treating the slurry
as a single-phase viscous, non-Newtonian fluid. Measurement of the viscosity over a range of impeller
speeds must be made to determine the degree of non-Newtonian behavior.

If these steps are followed the agitator can be accurately sized and delivered on time. If not, the vendor
is forced to make assumptions which may delay project timing and plant start-up.

42nd International Phosphate Fertilizer & Sulfuric Acid Technology Conference, Sheraton Sand Key Resort, Clearwater Beach, Florida, June 8-9, 2018

Richard K. Grenville, Director of Mixing Technology, Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA 17078