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Comparative Study of Mapping Land Parcels with Fit-for-Purpose Tools and

Conventional Techniques to Support Tenure Security for All

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Comparative Study of Mapping Land Parcels with Fit-for-Purpose Tools and

Conventional Techniques to Support Tenure Security for All
B. Shiwakoti1, S. Bhandari 2, R. Shrestha3, U.S. Panday3, R.R Chhatkuli1

1
UN-Habitat, Nepal
2
Community Self Reliance Center, University/Affiliation, Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Department of Geomatics Engineering, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal

Abstract
Land Administration is defined as a procedural, legal and administrative task which involves identifying,
recording, and maintenance of information related to land ownership, value and use when implementing land
management policy. Fit-for-Purpose Land Administration (FFPLA) is a system of fast, cheap and good
enough system developed to support the tenure security of land for all including vulnerable and economically
marginalized communities based on need, necessity of people and their relation to land. Under the spatial
framework of the FFPLA approach, data collection can be done using free and open-sourced software Social
Tenure Domain Model (STDM) – a QGIS plugin This paper defines conventional techniques as methods
(e.g., ground based surveying using plane tabling or Total Station) of land parcel mapping adopted by Survey
Department, Nepal. Land tenure insecurity is still one of the major issues in the Nepalese land administration
system. It is estimated that 25% of land occupied in Nepal are not recorded in the formal land cadastre
System. The main objective of this study is to compare the mapping of land parcels using conventional and
FFPLA approaches. The study area lies in Kanakai Municipality, Province 1 of Nepal. Seventy-three parcels
from three different locations of this municipality covering an area of approximately 6.8 ha have been
selected in this study. The methodology of this study consists of three major stages. In the first stage,
literature review was conducted via reports, journal articles etc. Similarly, the necessary data acquisition and
processing was conducted in the second stage. Comparative analysis on the basis of area, time and incurred
cost was evaluated in the last stage. The results show a root mean square error of ± 8.62 % for the FFPLA
approach as compared to the conventional total station survey. Further, more than 86% of the parcels were
mapped with less than 10% of deviation in area as compared to the conventional survey method used. The
results indicated that the FFPLA strategy may be faster and cheaper than the conventional technique.
Considering the need for a fast, cheap and good enough mapping solution for providing tenure security for
all, the FFPLA approach is recommended.

Keywords: QGIS, Open Source, STDM, Satellite imageries

1 Introduction Land Administration (FFPLA).

1.1 Background on FFPLA and Open
FFPLA is the system of potentially fast, cheap and
Source good enough approach of recordation, mapping,
land information management and land
Land Administration is defined as a procedural,
registration which was developed to support the
legal and administrative task which involves
tenure security of land for vulnerable and
determining, recording, and dissemination of
economically marginalized communities based on
information related to land ownership, value and
necessity of people and their relation to land. It
use when implementing land management policy
primarily contains major three framework;
(UN/ECE, 1996). Different types of land
Institutional, Legal, and spatial framework
administration system are developed by various
(Enemark , Bell, Lemmen, & McLaren, 2014). It
countries in the world based on their economy,
was developed mainly focusing for pro-poor land
available resources, infrastructure, legal requisite
management in most of the developing countries
etc. ( Ventura, 2000). Among various approaches
throughout the world (UN-Habitat, 2004).
of land administration adopted in different
Flexible, inclusive, participatory, affordable,
countries, one emerges concept is Fit-for-Purpose
reliable, attainable, upgradable are the key
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elements of FFPLA. Similarly, general boundaries
rather than fixed boundaries, aerial imageries
rather than field survey, accuracy related to the
purpose rather than standards and opportunities
for updating, upgrading and improvement are key
principles of FFPLA (Enemark , Bell, Lemmen,
& McLaren, 2014). Under the spatial framework
of the FFPLA approach, data collection can be
done using Social Tenure Domain Model (STDM)
plugin (Panday, et al., 2019). STDM plugin
contains free and open source components such
as; Quantum GIS, Post GIS, Postgres SQL. (UN-
Habitat & GLTN , 2013 ). Since it is free of cost,
and the source code can be modified for specific
software, it is widely adopted in FFPLA approach
(Gertrude , 2008). Thus, FFPLA is the method
which primarily focuses surveying and mapping
for vulnerable and landless people with less time
and low cost with desirable rather than standards.
However, it is important to analyze the results
obtained from the methods adopted in FFPLA and
the conventional techniques of parcel mapping.
This paper indicates the conventional methods
which is practiced in the Nepalese context by
cadastral survey division. It primarily includes
field works including planning, reconnaissance
and monumentation of the control points,
establishment of control points via traverse
method, detail survey of parcel boundaries and
additional office works like data processing,
digitization and development of parcel
information using proprietary GIS software i.e.,
Parcel Editor (Survey Department, 2021). Survey
Department has initiated this method since 2006
from Banepa, Kavre district in order to develop
the digital land information system of the
registered parcel boundaries due growing value of
land (Pudyal, 2007). This method primarily
focusses surveying and mapping activities for
registering parcels with defined accuracy rather
than considerations for time and cost.
This paper aims at analyzing how the results
obtained from conventional approach is
reasonably comparable with the FFPLA approach
such that the FFPLA approach can be adopted for
providing the tenure security for the pro-poor and
vulnerable groups in a relatively short timeframe.
This study compares the technical process for
mapping unregistered parcel using conventional
techniques and FFPLA techniques. The
comparative factors considered are accuracy in
parcel area delineation, time for the whole
technical process, and financial cost for adopting
FFPLA and conventional approach.
DHULIKHEL, NEPAL
2 Literature Review
2.1 Status of Land Tenure in Nepal
Nepal is a country with geographical regions
extent from Himalayan, Hilly, and Terai and
consist of various ethnic groups (Mishara, 2009 ).
All these ethnic groups considered land as key
source from social, economic and religious
perspective (Adhikari, 2008 ). Land being key
source to each individual insecurity of land tenure
is still one of the major issues in land
administration of Nepal (Paudyal, 2008 ). In
several areas, forest land were exploited into
arable and built up areas and still most of it is
unregistered in Nepalese formal land information
system (Nepal & Marasini, 2017 ). A joint report
published by (MOLMCPA,GLTN,UN-
HABITAT,CSRC, 2018 ) reveals that, still about
25% of land occupied in Nepal are not recorded in
Nepalese formal land registry system which
approximately covers 10 million spatial units
(parcels).
Security of land tenure is one of the major
concerns of government in Nepal but still fails in
providing the land access for all (Dhakal , 2011).
Different government entities were formed to
solve this problem of unregistered land time and
again till date but were unable to solve the issues
comprehensively due to political instability of
government (Adhikari, 2008 ). Moreover, no any
entity could generate the precise information of
the unregistered parcels over country. Despite the
successive failure of government entities for
solving unregistered land issues, various national
and international organization are actively
involving to provide land rights for vulnerable and
pro-poor communities (Adhikari, 2008 ). Another
major problem for failure of the government for
not addressing these issues is adopting the existing
time consuming and costly conventional
approach. Thus, government needs to adopt
another alternative for solving such issues which
is affordable, desirable accurate and consumes
less time such as FFPLA tools.
3 Method and Materials
3.1 Case Study Area
The figure (1) illustrates the area chosen for this
study. It lies in eastern terai of Nepal in Ward-7 of
Kanakai Municipality of Jhapa district of
Province 1. The different places; Redcross tole,
Pathivara tole, and Kalinag tole of Ward 7 were
chosen. The three sites approximately cover 73
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parcel units with an area of 6.8 hectare. This study
area is geographically flat and open which extends
from 87°53'58.08"E to 87°56'13.17"E and
26°37'24.09"N to 26°38'15.18"N. The places
chosen for study area mostly consists of the arable
land with few buildup areas.
3.2.1 Stage-I (Data Acquisition and Processing)
a. FFPLA approach
i. Image Acquisition and Processing
Acquisition of high-resolution satellite image was
the initial task done for surveying and mapping via
FFPLA tools. The major specifications of the
satellite image are illustrated in table (1). Image
used in this study was acquired via municipality.

Parameters Description
Sensor GeoEye-1
Acquisition date 2018-10-18
Spatial 0.5 m
Resolution
Data Source Digital Globe,
USA
Table 1: Specification of Image

After the acquisition of the satellite image,

Figure 1: Study Area
mosaicking and geometric correction was done.
Due to the limitation in the study, geometric
3.2 Methodological Framework correction of images was done using ‘image-
image’ georeferencing technique. The
The methodological framework of this study geometrically corrected topographical map of
consists of three major parts. In the first part, survey department was used for ‘image-image’
different literature review was conducted via georeferenced technique.
reports, journal articles and other related
documents. Similarly, in the second part of this ii. Participatory Mapping
study necessary data acquisition and processing After the acquisition and processing of the high-
were conducted. Finally, in the third part, database resolution satellite images, the enumerators were
preparation and analysis focusing on the data provided with the print of the images. The
quality, time, and cost was done. enumerators along with the representatives from
the ward were involved in the mapping of visual
boundaries. The mapping was done with the
Stage-I (Data Acquisition and Processing) participation of respective 73 household
members. During the adjudication (identification
and demarcation of boundaries), all the respective
FFPLA tools land owners along with their adjacent parcel
A. Image Conventional owners were present in order to identify and
Acquisition Techniques resolve any disputes or conflicts in the
B. Image A.Geodatabase identification of parcels boundaries.
Processing acquisition
C. Participatory B. Information iii. Geodatabase Preparation and Information
Mapping Extraction
Extraction
D. Geodatabase
Preparation using
During the geodatabase preparation, new
STDM tools configuration file was created in STDM on the
E. Information basis of questionnaire survey form used for data
extraction collection. After creating the configuration file,
non-spatial information and boundary digitization
on satellite images was done in parallel using
STDM tool. The digitization was done based on
the print maps used for adjudication. After the
digitization of the land parcels area, information
was extracted whereas time and cost information
were extracted through concerned authorities.

Stage-II (Comparative Analysis; Area, Time, 3

Cost)
 FOSS4G - ASIA 2021
OCTOBER 1ST & 2ND DHULIKHEL, NEPAL

Figure 4 depicts the deviation range of the

b. Conventional Approach measured area of selected parcels. It shows that
i. Geodatabase Acquisition and Information out of 73 parcels, 8 (11%) were found to have
Extraction deviation less than 1%. Similarly, 37 (51%), 18
The data of conventional techniques were (24%), and 10 (14%) parcels were found to have
acquired from the Kankai Municipality. Acquired deviation ranging between 1-5 %, 6-10% and
geodatabase was in .mdb extension prepared using >10% respectively.
total station survey and perpetual software
ParcelEditor in ArcGIS. Since, it wasn’t Area Comparison (GS Vs SI)
supported by STDM plugin of QGIS, necessary
data were converted in .shp via ArcGIS software. 5500
Then, all .shp were added in STDM plugin for 5000
further procedure. The acquired geodatabase 4500
consists of lots of information related to parcel and 4000
owner. Only the area of necessary parcels (73) 3500

Area(Sqm)
were extracted from geodatabase acquired from 3000
municipality, while time taken and cost required 2500
to accomplished the surveying and mapping of 73 2000
parcels was retrieved through involvement with 1500
the surveyors of the municipality. 1000
500
3.2.2 Stage-II (Comparative Analysis)
0
Comparative charts in terms of three factors: 0 20 40 60 80
Area, Time, and Cost of both methods (FFPLA
Parcels
tools &Conventional techniques) were prepared
for further analysis. Area Comparison was done
Ground Survey(GS) Satellite Image(SI)
based on the relative difference of parcel area
generated via two different methods. While Figure 3: Area Comparison
comparing the area of two different methods, root
mean square error (RMSE) along with error
percentage was also computed. Then, the
deviation range of the area with respect to the
parcel quantity was also analyzed. Similarly, for Deviation range of area (%) with respect
time and cost comparison of the both methods, to no of parcels
comparative charts were prepared and analyzed in
excel sheets based on the information retrieve 11%
from the concerned authorities.
14%
4 Results and findings
4.1 Area Comparison 24%
The figure (3) illustrated the comparison graph of
the parcels area measured using conventional 51%
techniques (ground survey) and FFPLA tools
(satellite Images). The selected 73 parcels total an
area of 68087.61 and 68151.75 sq. m. while
measuring from ground survey and satellite
less than 1 % 1 to5 %
images respectively. This study shows ± 52.19 sq.
6 to10 % more than 10 %
m root mean square error (RMSE) i.e. ± 8.62 %
RMSE. It reveal that more than 86 % of parcels Figure 4: Deviation Range of area
mapped are within 10% of deviation of area. This
study also shows that the deviation range 4.2 Time Comparison
gradually decreases with the increase in the area
of parcels. The deviation ranges from 0.1- 33 % The comparative table between major survey
where parcels having area up to 1000 sq. m while activities of the conventional techniques and
the deviation is larger when compared to parcels FFPLA tools is illustrated in the Table 2. It reveals
having area more than 1000 sq. m. Moreover, that the conventional technique requires almost 3
4
 FOSS4G - ASIA 2021
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times more time than the FFPLA tools while Data 1

examining sample of 73 parcels. While adopting Processing
the conventional techniques for mapping 73 and
parcels, it consumes more time in reconnaissance digitization
and monumentation of control points due to larger Field 1 -
distance of the traverse leg and time for Verification
monumentation of concrete pillars respectively. and
Similarly, while adopting FFPLA tools; boundary Necessary
Identification and demarcation via participatory Correction
mapping of visual boundaries consumes more Total 17 6
time while compared to other activities due to
need for identifying the parcels on the print maps. Table 2: Mapping activities
Besides, this study also reveals conventional
4.3 Cost Comparison
technique requires more field activities when
compared to the FFPLA tools. Finally, this study
The Table 3 and Table 4 illustrate the cost
yields, if the surveying and mapping is to be done
comparison for surveying and mapping using
on the larger area with difficult topography, then
conventional techniques and FFPLA tools
it is difficult to accomplish the task in short period
respectively. While comparing for sample parcels,
of time using conventional techniques.
it shows large difference with conventional
technique costing more than 6 times compared to
Major Mapping Activities (Time; days) the application of FFPLA tools. This study also
The No of The No of revealed that an average of Rs 170 and Rs 1016
Conventional days FFPLA Days per parcel is spent using FFPLA tools and
Approach Approach conventional techniques respectively. Similarly,
Planning of 1 Image to 1 this result also examines that, major cost is spent
the Field Image on human resources when compared to other
Survey Georefere resources in both the methods.
ncing of
satellite
Major Rate Qua Ti Total Cost
images Resourc (Nepale ntity me (Nepalese
Reconnaissan 3 Boundary 3 es se Rs) (no Rs)
ce of Control Identificat Per of
Points ion and day/sq da
km ys)
demarcati
on via Satellite 2250 per ͌1 sq. - 2,250
participato Image sq. km. km.
ry GIS 940 1 6 5,640
mapping Expert perso
using n
Satellite
Laptop 90 1 6 540
image Rental
maps value
Monumentati 5 Digitizatio 1
Digitizat 666 1 6 3,996
on of control n of the ion perso
points via demarcate n
concrete d
Total Rs. 12,426
pillar boundary
(~ $105)
via SDTM
tool
Control 3 Field 1 Table 3: Cost of FFPLA Tools application
Survey using Verificatio
Traverse n and Major Rate Quan Tim Total Cost
Necessary Resources (Nep tity e (Nepalese
Correction alese (no Rs)
Detail Survey 3 - - Rs) of
Per day

5
 FOSS4G - ASIA 2021
OCTOBER 1ST & 2ND DHULIKHEL, NEPAL

day/ s) times faster and 6 times cheaper when compared

sq to conventional techniques while implementing
km for 73 parcels. Results generated from this study
shows satellite images with high spatial resolution
Total 2000 1 8 16,000 can be faster and cheaper with desirable accuracy
Station on open and flat areas. Application of drone
rental value imageries with higher spatial resolution for
Software 360 1 8 2,880 delineating the parcel boundaries is additional
Cost rental area of study to be investigated. The conventional
value techniques can be used in urban areas where land
Surveyor 940 1 17 15,980 value is high and have areas with obstructed visual
boundaries in the satellite images imageries.
Asst. 887 2 17 30,158 Based on the results generated from this study it
Surveyor
can be said that adopting the conventional
Chainman/ 500 1 17 8,500 techniques over all the country surveying and
Helper mapping of approximately 10 Million
Laptop 90 1 8 720 unregistered land parcels operated by 1.3 Million
Rental value households is almost impossible in short period of
time as proposed by the Government of Nepal.
Total Rs. 74,238
(~$627) Thus, considering the need for fast, cheap and
good solution for tenure security for all, the
Table 4: Cost of Conventional Tools application
FFPLA approach is recommended.

Results generated from this study illustrates that, 6 Acknowledgements

adopting conventional techniques requires large
amount of cost and time while comparing FFPLA
tools. This study also reveals that desirable
accuracy with low cost and less time can be
accomplished using FFPLA tools. Adopting the
conventional techniques only involve (black box)
the communities during adjudication of
boundaries whereas FFPLA approach empower
the vulnerable and indigenous people in mapping
activities and land rights through active local
participation. This study reveals that while
surveying and mapping over larger area,
conventional techniques could be used for areas
where land value is too high and relatively higher
accuracy is anticipated, whereas less densely
populated areas (rural areas) can be mapped using
the FFPLA approach.
5 Discussion & conclusions
FFPLA tools is recognized throughout the world
since surveying and mapping activities can be
undertaken with low cost and shorter timeframe.
The primary objective of this study was to
compare the two methods- FFPLA tools and
conventional techniques for surveying and
mapping undertaken for selected 73 parcels in the
allocated study area. It demonstrates that the root
means square error of FFPLA approach compared
to the conventional techniques is ± 8.62 %. In
addition to this, it also reveals more than 86 % of
parcels mapped are within 10% of deviation of
area. This study also depicts FFPLA strategy is 3
Authors would like to thank Kanakai municipality
and Land Issues Resolving Commission for
providing access to the necessary datasets used for
this study.
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Planning and Management, Land Readjustment,
Geo-information Technologies and capacity
building in geoinformatics. She holds PhD in the
Title “Understanding Urban Land Governance
through" Action Space": Implications for Access
to Land for Low-Income Housing in Managing
Informal Settlements” from the Faculty of
Geoinformation Science and Earth FOSS4G-
ASIA2021 OCTOBER 1ST &2ND
DHULIKHEL, NEPAL 11 Observation,
University of Twente
Mr. Uma Shankar Panday is Assistant Professor at
Department of Geomatics Engineering, School of
Engineering, Kathmandu University. He has been
working at the University since 2013. He
specializes in Photogrammetry and Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle (UAV). He is interested in IoT
sensors, Agro-informatics, land use planning for
ensuring food security, and cadastral mapping
using Fit-For-Purpose Land Administration
Approach. He leads a number of research and
development projects at the university. He has
been serving as Geospatial Experts in various
governmental and non-Governmental projects
too. He received his M.Sc. in Geo-informatics
from the Faculty of Geo-information Science and
Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente,
Enschede, the Netherlands in 2011. He also holds
a Bachelor’s Degree in Computer Engineering.

8 Authors biography
Mr Raja Ram Chhatkuli is a land professional with
long experience in land administration and
Mr. Bishaz Siwakoti currently works at UN-
management in Nepal. He is currently affiliated
Habitat as LIS Assistant. His work of area is in IT
with UN-Habitat Country Office in Nepal.
sector with past experience in web development.

Mr. Sijan is a young geomatics engineering

graduate from Kathmandu University in 2020. He
currently works as Geomatics engineer in an
NGO; Community Self Reliance Center located at
Kathmandu. He’s current interest is on advanced
geospatial technologies for sustainable land
management.

Dr Reshma Shrestha is an Assistant Prof. in the

Department of Geomatics Engineering at
Kathmandu University. She has more than six
years of experience in the academic field. Besides
academics, she has professional experience in
many projects related to the application of
geoinformation technology in land management.
She was Co-chair for the working group in FIG
commission 2 from 2015 to 2018. Her research
interest is in Urban Land Governance, Land
Administration, Land Use Planning, Urban
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