Asian Martial Arts and Approaches of Ins

Theeboom, M., & De Knop, P. (1999).
Asian martial arts and approaches of instruction in

physical education. European Journal of Physical Education (4), 146-161.
Asian Martial Arts and Approaches of Instruction in Physical Education
Theeboom, M.
De Knop, P.
Running head: Asian Martial Arts and Physical Education

Asian Martial Arts and Physical Education
2
Abstract
During the last three decades, Asian martial arts have become popular in the
West. In recent years, there has also been an interest in incorporating martial arts
into the physical education curriculum. Although three different approaches of
Asian martial arts practice can be distinguished (i.e., traditional, efficiency, and
sporting), martial arts instruction in physical education is often limited to one
approach and usually includes only one specific discipline. The present paper
describes the most important characteristics of various Asian martial arts
disciplines and discusses the use of different approaches of instruction in physical
education.
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Introduction
Until the 1960s, only a limited number of Asian martial arts was known to the
West. One of the first martial arts that was introduced outside Asia was Japanese
jiu-jitsu at the end of the 19th century (Long, 1997). Judo, which was derived from
jiu-jitsu, was formally introduced in the United States in the beginning of this
century (Pyecha, 1971; Winderbaum, 1977). From the early 1950s onward, other
Asian martial arts found their way to the West (e.g., Japanese karate, aikido, kendo
and Korean taekwondo) (Watson, 1996; Williams, 1975; Winderbaum, 1977). In more
recent years, there has been a martial arts "boom" as many more Asian disciplines
became known in the West (e.g., Chinese wushu or kungfu; thai boxing or muay thai;
Indonesian pencak silat; Filipino kali or eskrima; Vietnamese viet-vo-dao).
Today, Asian martial arts are popular among youth all over the world. A
comparative study on youth sport in 20 countries around the world has indicated
that in most countries martial arts are among the most popular extracurricular
sports that are practised by youth between 10 and 15 years (De Knop, Engström,
Skirstad & Weiss, 1996). This trend is further documented by the results of a
comparative study on sport participation in 26 European countries (Clearing
House, 1997). Findings indicated that Asian martial arts were among the top 10
most practised sports in general. With regard to organized sport in particular, they
came in second place after soccer and were regarded as one of the most important
new trends in sports participation.
The international popularity of Asian martial arts is also evidenced by the fact
that two of these sports have received Olympic recognition (i.e., judo and
taekwondo). It is worthwhile to mention here that this recognition occurred each
time an Asian country hosted the Games (i.e., Japanese judo during the 1964
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games in Tokio and Korean taekwondo at the 1988 Seoul games as a
demonstration sport). Today, both martial arts still have their Olympic recognition.
According to van Bottenburg (1994), the popularity of the Asian martial arts in
the West has resulted from a number of factors, such as the growing economic
power and international prestige of Japan and, to a lesser extent, other Eastern-
Asian countries. Also, the post war stationing of American and European troops in
Japan and South Korea, as well as the emigration of Asians to the United States
and Europe have contributed to the spread of Asian martial arts in the West.
Other factors may also be accountable for the popularity of the Asian martial
arts. According to Harman (1986), there is a new appreciation for traditional and
holistic approaches in culture at large, which is reflected in the fascination for
psychic phenomena, astrology, reincarnation, extraterrestrial being, etc. More
specifically, this has resulted in the health area in an appreciation, among other
things, for accupuncture, native herbal medicine, faith healing, while in physical
education Eastern movement disciplines (e.g., martial arts and yoga) have become
popular. This evolution, which is primarily concerned with defining values,
meanings and goals, can partly be explained as a reaction to the confusion about
values that exists in modern Western society. Harman indicated that this
confusion, which can be examplified by the substitution of pseudo-values such as
economic indicators to guide our societal decision making, emerged since the
"debunking" of religion by science. This has resulted in the new appreciation for
holistic approaches that not too long ago were dismissed as "pre-scientific". This
trend can partly explain the increasing international popularity of taijiquan, a
traditional Chinese martial art which emphasizes concentration and relaxation
while slowly performing a variety of fighting techniques (Moegling, 1986b; Sagot,
1992).
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The purpose of the present paper is to provide a description of the
characteristics and classification of the Asian martial arts and to discuss different
approaches that can be used for instruction in physical education.
Characteristics of Asian Martial Arts
Although many Asian countries have their own martial arts, it is well-
documented that most of these sports originated in China (Maliszewski, 1992). The
first signs of a structured fighting system date back to the Shang dynasty (1,600-
1,066 B.C.) (Li & Du, 1991). During the "Autumn and Spring Period" (770-476 B.C.),
martial arts contests were held regularly (Xu, 1991). Through the centuries, these
fighting skills became more varied and refined. Gradually this knowledge spread
to other parts of Asia, where specific local variations were developed. This
resulted in a myriad of other Asian fighting styles, in addition to the existing
varied system of Chinese martial arts (Draeger & Smith, 1975).
Asian Martial Arts Disciplines
All martial arts disciplines can be distinguished by their specific
characteristics. For example, some types focus primarily on leg techniques (e.g.,
kicks and sweeps), while others emphasize the use of head-locks, throws and joint-
locks or armed skills (e.g., using traditional swords or sticks). In general, Asian
martial arts practice consists of three forms: (a) individual routines, (b) partner
routines, and (c) free fights.
Individual routines. A routine (or kata) is an individual exercise that consists of
several armed or unarmed techniques that are performed consecutively according
to a pre-arranged set of movements and stances. Routines can also be performed

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simultaneously in a group. Most Asian martial arts have individual routine
practice.
Partner routines. These routines are performed with a partner. Similar to the
individual routines, they include a pre-arranged set of armed or unarmed
techniques.
Free fights. In this kind of form, two opponents can freely use their techniques
according to a specific set of rules. Most Asian martial arts include free fights. In
contrast to the Chinese martial arts, some Japanese martial arts include free fights
with weapons. An example is the Japanese art of kendo (or sword fighting), in
which participants use (bamboo) swords and wear protective gear.
To provide a basic understanding of the most important variations of the
Asian martial arts that are practiced in the West today, a short description of the
most popular disciplines follows.
Chinese Martial Arts

The Chinese martial arts consist of a wide variety of schools and styles.
According to Wang (1990), there are well over a thousand variations in China.
Although in China the martial arts are generally referred to as wushu, they became
known in the West as kungfu. However, because kungfu merely means "skill" or
"work", it is more appropriate to use the term wushu, which literally means "war
art" (Wong, 1993).
In general, wushu is comprized of "internal" and "external" styles (Mark, 1981).
The internal styles are characterized by soft, relaxed movements that are often
performed very slowly. While all styles of wushu pay attention to the coordination
of physical and mental aspects to a certain extent (e.g., the use of concentration
techniques during exercise), this is even more important during the practice of
internal wushu styles as this is one of their most specific characteristics (Simplified
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Taijiquan, 1986). Although only one internal wushu style is fairly well-known in
the West (i.e., taijiquan, better known as tai chi chuan), many other internal styles
exist. There is also a very large number of external wushu styles in China (Wu, Li,
& Yu, 1992). These external styles are characterized by fast, vigorous and dynamic
movements. Although some styles are imitation movements of attacking and
defensive techniques of specific animals (e.g., tiger, monkey, snake, crane), other
styles can be distinguished by their specific features (e.g., wide ranged
movements, excessive leg techniques or low body positions) (Yang, s.d.). The most
popular external styles are changquan ("long fist boxing"), characterized by its
many extended and fast arm and leg movements, and nanquan ("southern fist
boxing") with its forceful and steady movements that are very popular among
wushu participants from the South. In fact, both changquan and nanquan are only
general names for a wide variety of styles that correspond to the aforementioned
characteristics. There are also numerous traditional weapons that are used in
wushu (e.g., sword, stick, spear and chain). It is said that 18 wushu weapons exist
(Wu et al., 1992). However, many more are known as each kind of weapon has
several variations (e.g., in size and shape). Although the actual fighting relevance
of these weapons is long since gone, weapons practice remains an important part
of wushu.
Japanese Martial Arts
Although China is the origin of most of the Japanese martial arts, they have a
long tradition in Japan as well. As a result, most of these forms can easily be
distinguished from the Chinese martial arts and a wide variety of styles exists. In
general, a distinction can be made between bugei (or "martial arts") and budo (or
"martial ways") (Random, 1979). The bugei, which have been developed in Japan
since the 10th century, are efficient fighting systems that were originally used for
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real warfare. However, their usefulness diminished as political situations became
more stable and warfare methods were modernized (e.g., the introduction of fire
arms). Most of the bugei can be recognized as they have the suffix jitsu. Among the
most popular bugei forms is jiu-jitsu. Budo on the other hand, is regarded as a
product of the 20th century. The emphasis in these forms is on mental and
spiritual discipline. Similar to the Chinese martial arts, the budoka (or budo
practitioner) strives for harmony between the physical and mental level. As a
result, budo forms put less emphasis on the outcome of fighting techniques and
more on the experience during the activity. These forms are recognizable through
the suffix do. The most popular budo forms are judo, aikido and kendo.
Jiu-jitsu is characterized by mostly unarmed techniques which are very
versatile and which involve locks on various joints (e.g., fingers, wrists, arms, feet),
throws, arm and hand techniques (e.g., punches and finger jabs), leg techniques
(e.g., kicks and sweeps), knee kicks, head-locks and chokes. Jiu-jitsu is translated
as “gentle art” (Long, 1997). This refers to the principle that many jiu-jitsu
techniques include joint-locks, which can be executed with only a limited use of
physical strength.
Judo developed from a bugei form, namely jiu-jitsu, and puts less emphasis on
the martial aspects compared to its original form. This martial art is characterized
by unarmed techniques, throws, leg sweeps and head-locks (Kano, 1992).

Aikido also emerged from jiu-jitsu. The harmony between body and mind
plays a major part in this budo form (Drengson, 1992). Aikido is characterized by
unarmed techniques, throws, locks on various joints, and head-locks. Aikido
literally refers to "the search of unity between the personal and surrounding
energy". This unity is reflected in the use of specific body techniques in such a way
that the attacker’s strength is used in favour of the defender. Its participants are
usually dressed in a black skirt over a white kimono.

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Karate was only introduced in Japan in 1922 from Okinawa (Funakoshi, 1973).
Although the term karate is well-known, it is more correct to refer to karate-do as
this martial art can be regarded as a budo form. Karate, which literally means
“empty hand”, exists primarily of unarmed techniques. It is characterized by hand
and arm techniques (punches), leg techniques (kicks and leg sweeps), and low
body positions.
Unlike Chinese wushu, where most styles have unarmed as well as armed
techniques, Japanese martial arts can generally be divided into armed and
unarmed styles. Kendo, which means “the way of the sword”, is one of the most
popular Japanese styles making use of a weapon (Draeger & Smith, 1975). The
sword is held with both hands. Another style, kyudo (or “the art of archery”) uses a
bow which differs greatly from the European bow (Draeger & Smith, 1975).
Traditionally, Japanese archers were very skilled with this weapon while riding a
horse.
Korean Martial Arts
Similar to the Japanese martial arts, the styles that were developed in Korea
were strongly influenced by the Chinese martial arts (Young, 1993). The most
popular Korean martial art is taekwondo. It is a style of unarmed fighting that
especially makes use of high leg techniques and jumps. Its name can be translated
as "the way of unarmed combat with feet and hands". As mentioned previously,
taekwondo is one of the Asian martial arts with Olympic recognition. It will be
formally introduced in the Sidney Games in 2000.

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Indonesian Martial Arts
Indonesia also has a number of distinct fighting sports. The most common is
pencak silat (Alexander, Chambers, & Draeger, 1970). This discipline is
characterized by offensive and defensive techniques that originated from the
movements of a number of animals (e.g., tiger, monkey). Pencak silat also makes
use of a variety of weapons (e.g., knife or "kris", sword, stick).
Thai Martial Arts
The most well-known martial art from Thailand is thai boxing or muay thai
(Draeger & Smith, 1975). It is a very hard discipline because of the limited
restrictions on techniques (e.g., elbow, knee techniques and low kicks are allowed).
Consequently, thai boxing is regarded by many as one of the most efficient Asian
martial arts.
Besides the aforementioned countries, martial arts were also developed in
other parts of Asia. For example, specific martial arts can be found in Vietnam
(e.g., viet-vo-dao), Malaysia (e.g., silat), Burma (e.g., bando), India (e.g.,
kalarippayattu), and the Philippines (e.g., kali) (Maliszewski, 1992). Martial arts from
these countries are practised in the West to a lesser extent. However as indicated
by van Bottenburg (1994), the growing commercialization among martial arts
schools has resulted in a constant search for other variations. Consequently, it can
be expected that in the near future a number of these styles will find their way to
the West.
Finally, it is also important to mention that all of the Asian martial arts in fact
only refer to general disciplines as each of these can be further divided into more
specific schools. For example, karate-do is a general name for at least 15 schools
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(e.g., shotokan, goju-ryu, wado-ryu, kyokushinkai) each with its own specific
characteristics (Wingate, 1993).
Classification of the Martial Arts
To date, no conclusive data are available on the international popularity of
specific martial arts disciplines. According to J. Corcoran, a noted documentalist
on martial arts and author of an encyclopedia on martial arts, this is due to the
existence of the hundreds of schools and styles (personal communication,
September 3, 1998). This variety has also resulted in a range of martial arts
governing bodies, often within the same discipline. Consequently, there is no way
to validate the claims made by the many international martial arts federations on
the numbers of members they represent worldwide as this information is often
solely used for propaganda purposes in order to receive as much official and
public recognition as possible.
As a result of the great diversity of disciplines and styles of Asian martial arts,
several authors have attempted to establish a classification system for the martial
arts. A number of criteria have been used to classify martial arts (e.g., physical,
functional, cultural, historical, philosophical). Classification based on cultural
differences is by far the most popular (Donohue & Taylor, 1994). Often, it is
indicated that a distinct difference exists between Eastern and Western martial
arts. Examples of the latter include wrestling, boxing and fencing. According to
Back and Kim (1979), the difference between Eastern and Western martial arts lies
in the fact that, with regard to the former, there is an additional gain in other
aspects besides fighting skills, such as the promotion of a nonviolent attitude and
artistic enjoyment. However, Donohue and Taylor (1994) have indicated that the
popular argument for a dichotomy between Eastern and Western martial arts, in
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which the former are described as more refined and with a higher cultural
aesthetic sense, is historically inaccurate and too predisposed. They argued that:
"All fighting is dirty, destructive, and practical. Complex social, historical and
economic reasons account for the disparate development of fighting systems
between East and West, not the intrinsic moral superiority of Asian culture." (p.
14).
Also, variations over time have altered the characteristics of the Asian martial
arts. Due to cultural and situational differences between Eastern and Western
societies, the introduction of Asian martial arts in the West has had a distinct
influence on their specific characteristics (Förster, 1986; Fuller, 1988; Guttmann,
1991). As a result, even Asian martial arts that are practiced in the West cannot be
characterized by a clear and uniform concept. Three different approaches to Asian
martial arts practice in the West have been described: (a) traditional, (b) efficiency,
and (c) sporting (Theeboom, De Knop, & Wylleman, 1995).
Traditional Approach. In this approach, participants strive for unity and
coordination between internal (e.g., spiritual and mental) and external (e.g.,
physical) elements. According to this view, physical excellence in martial arts will
not go without spiritual or mental cultivation (Kleinman, 1986). This approach can
also be described as "holistic". Back and Kim (1984) described four criteria that
need to be fulfilled to keep the status of a traditional Asian martial art: (a)
recognition of national or cultural origin, (b) development of fighting skills, (c)
presence of artistic aspects, and (d) spiritual development.
Efficiency Approach. The efficiency approach emphasizes effectiveness and
application of the techniques in a fight. Martial arts in this approach are mainly
practised for self-defense reasons. Although one might argue that this approach
actually goes back to the origin of the martial arts, that is, to know how to protect
oneself, in Asia this function has lost a great deal of its importance, as other
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functions became more important (e.g., aestheticism, health and fitness). For
example, distinct changes in form, content and function have characterized the
development of the Chinese martial arts (Theeboom & De Knop, 1997). In the West
however, the efficiency approach is very popular. According to van Bottenburg
(1994), this is the result of a growing commercialization among martial arts
schools. Often, the value of these schools is measured by the degree to which
fighting skills are used efficiently by their students. As a result, many martial arts
schools are constantly looking for harder and more efficient fighting techniques to
offer. van Bottenburg (1994) has described this evolution as the "hardening" of
martial arts.
Sporting Approach. The sporting approach does not focus primarily on the
acquisition of fighting competence, but rather regards martial arts as sports with
positive effects on the physical, mental and social state of its participants. Unlike
the efficiency approach where "anything goes", in this third view the variety of
fighting skills is restricted to what is allowed according to specific competition
rules. Although it is important to mention that recent evolutions in martial arts
competitions, such as the introduction of so-called "ultimate or cage fighting"
where only a very limited set of rules is used, raise doubts about whether these
activities can still be referred to as sport. Consequently, some have described this
trend as a "desportification" of the martial arts (van Bottenburg & Heilbron, 1996),
as these extreme fighting systems have a very limited set of rules and consequently
show more resemblance to real combat than to sport. One can refer here to the
definition of sport as described by Steenbergen and Tamboer (1998), who defined
sports as "physical games" in which players are confronted with movement
problems (e.g., running faster or jumping higher than others). These problems can
only be solved by overcoming a number of "unnecessary obstacles" (limitations or
rules). With hardly any of these obstacles (forbidden techniques), most of these
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extreme fighting forms cannot be regarded as sports. Förster (1986) even described
this trend as the "brutalization" of the Asian martial arts.
With regard to the sporting approach, reference can also be made to Goodger
and Goodger (1980) who described the changing pedagogical practices in judo in
post-war Britain. According to their analysis, judo instruction changed from a
carefully guided and hierarchically-ordered traditional teaching approach with
distinct philosophical aspects in the 1950s and early 1960s, into a more modern,
international and competitive orientation.
The concept that three different approaches of martial arts practice exist shows
similarity with recent findings of Columbus and Rice’s (1998) phenomenological
analysis of everyday life experiences of martial artists, in which they distinguished
either compensatory or emancipatory adaptive functions contingent on context.
According to their study, for some participants martial arts training compensated
for felt lack of safety or lack of order and self-discipline, while others experienced
martial arts in an emancipatory mode which would help them to use their skills to
overcome challenges in everyday life and expanded their psychological life. While
the former function of compensation shows some resemblence with the efficiency
approach, the latter function can be compared to the traditional approach.
Furthermore, Columbus and Rice pointed out that other contexts are possible as
well. They referred here to martial arts as competitive sports, which clearly shows
similarity with a sporting approach of martial arts practice.
Martial Arts and Physical Education
As indicated earlier, the martial arts have become popular, especially among
young people. In Europe, for example, they are not only popular as organized
sports, in recent years there has been an interest to introduce martial arts in
physical education classes at school (e.g., Calmet, Bourrely, & Ontanon, 1994;
15
Janalik, 1997; Lohre, 1995). To determine the current status regarding the extent to
which martial arts are actually part of the physical education curricula at schools
in Europe, we have sent a questionnaire to all 13 member countries of the
European Physical Education Association (EUPEA) in which they were asked to
provide more information regarding their country. Nine out of 13 countries
responded. These countries were Germany, The Netherlands, England, France,
Belgium, Luxemburg, Ireland, Czechia and Estonia. In general, the questions
related to two aspects: (a) the types of martial arts and the extent to which they are
introduced during physical education classes and (b) the extent to which physical
education teachers come in contact with martial arts during their teacher
education.
Data indicated that in the majority of countries martial arts are introduced
during physical education classes in secondary schools (i.e., for pupils 10 to 14
years of age). Only two countries, Ireland and Estonia, indicated that no martial
arts were introduced. Table 1 provides an overview of the specific martial arts
disciplines that are incorporated in the physical education curricula in each
country.
_____________________________
INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE
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Findings showed that some disciplines are more popular than others: such as
judo, karate and self-defense. Other disciplines are only introduced in a limited
number of countries: aikido, boxing, wrestling, taekwondo, savate or French boxing
and fencing. Data also revealed that martial arts courses range from 5 to 12 hours
per year. In some cases, older pupils can choose optional classes with more hours
(up to 35 hours). All but one of the countries introducing martial arts at school
indicated that physical education curricula explicitly refer to martial arts. Only in
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England martial arts are no part of the national physical education curriculum,
which makes the introduction of martial arts during physical education dependent
on the individual interest of schools and teachers.
Results also showed that in two-thirds of the countries (66.7%), teachers come
in contact with martial arts during teacher education. Again, some specific
disciplines were mentioned more than others: namely, judo and karate (see Table
2).
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INSERT TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE

_____________________________
Self-defense, boxing and wrestling are introduced in three of the responding
countries that have martial arts instruction at school. Other disciplines are less
popular: aikido, taekwondo and fencing. Most countries indicated that these
martial arts instructional programs differ from one university to another with
regard to the kind of martial arts that are taught as well as with regard to the
number of hours per year. In general, this ranged from 25 to 60 hours per year.
The situation in the United States is different from that of Europe, as American
children are not introduced to martial arts during physical education classes (J.
Corcoran, personal communication, September 3, 1998). Instead, they are sent to
commercial schools. According to J. Graden, executive director of the National

Association of Professional Martial Artists (NAPMA), there are an estimated three
million participants in the 18,000 commercial martial arts schools in the United
States (J. Graden, personal communication, September 3, 1998). Although there is
no martial arts instruction for young children in physical education, many
universities in the United States offer martial arts classes to their students.
Findings from a recent study by Chen (1998) showed that 63.6% of 162 university
physical education departments in the United States offered some kind of martial
17
arts classes. A majority of these classes (65.0%) were oriented towards self-defense
instruction with an emphasis on the development of physical self-defense skills
and prevention strategies. It is noteworthy that only a small number of courses
that were analyzed in Chen's study included the development of skills other than
self-defense (e.g., body conditioning/fitness 20.9%; self-confidence 20.9%;
enjoyment 4.5%; self-esteem 3.0%).
Martial Arts Instruction
Often, martial arts instruction at school is regarded as an instruction in one
specific discipline and most authors only describe the possibilities of that
particular martial art in a physical education context: such as judo (Bronchart,
1990; Janalik, 1997; Vanderghote, Heylen, & Veulemans, 1990), aikido (Linden,
1984; Van Dongen, 1995); kendo (Calmet, Bourrely, & Ontanon, 1994; Kloen, 1995);
karate (Thirion, 1990); taijiquan (Baron, 1993; Kolb, 1994); and taekwondo (Lohre,
1995). However, taking into account the wide variety of Asian martial arts and the
fact that distinct differences exist between disciplines, instruction which is limited
to only one style often provides a one-sided view on martial arts. Furthermore, the
variation in approaches of martial arts practice should also be taken into
consideration with regard to martial arts instruction in physical education.
The traditional approach is generally regarded as the most valuable as there is
a common belief in its positive sociopsychological effects on participants (e.g.,
Devans & Sandler, 1997). A broad variety of values of the martial arts in physical
education classes or to youth in general has been described in the literature: among
others, aesthetic (Min, 1979); relaxation (Sparkes, 1985); movement awareness
(Linden, 1984); strategic thinking (Spear, 1989) and conflict resolution (Hendrey,
1997; Abel & Raithel, 1997). Also, a number of authors have described their
experiences of using the martial arts as a means of “movement meditation” during

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physical education courses or school sport activities (Gong & Ross, 1991; Janalik &
Knörzer, 1986; Moegling, 1986a-b; Patermann, 1986; Sagot, 1992; Van Dongen,
1995). They have indicated that Asian martial arts instruction can provide to all
pupils an alternative to the highly product-oriented sports that are introduced
during physical education classes. This alternative regards bodily movement as the
purpose of all action (i.e., body awareness), instead of as simply a means to
achieve external goals (e.g., scoring or performing). Although to date, the effect of
movement meditation on pupils remains unclear, several studies have provided
data regarding the impact of traditional martial arts practice on the psychological
health and personal development of participants (e.g., Baron, 1993; Cummings,
1988; Reiter, 1975; Richman & Rehberg, 1986; Seitz, Olsen, Burt & Quam, 1990). A
number of studies have specifically investigated the role of martial arts practice as
an intervention strategy for specific target groups, such as behaviorally disordered
adolescents (Gorbel, 1991) and juvenile delinquents (Gonzalez, 1990; Trulson,
1986). However, despite the positive psychological effects that are often reported
by these and other studies (e.g., Duthie, Hope, & Barker, 1978; Konzak & Klavora,
1978; Nosanchuk, 1981; Rothpearl, 1980), many have used cross-sectional designs
to compare the personality traits of martial artists of different levels. Such a design
does not rule out changes due to selection biases, because it is possible that
participants with specific personality traits are more likely to persist in martial arts
practice compared to others. As indicated by Fuller (1988), longitudinal studies are
required to establish a more distinct cause-and-effect relationship with actual
martial arts practice.
A number of studies not only investigated the psychological effects of
traditional martial arts practice but also other outcomes as well, such as technical
skill level (Caine, 1987/1989; Murray, 1981; Weinberg, Seabourne & Jackson, 1981).
Most of these studies made use of a design in which different teaching approaches
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were compared. In general, findings were inconclusive as only in some of these
studies did the traditional approach result in a more positive outcome.
In a more recent study, King and Williams (1997) found that participants in
traditional martial arts classes showed a positive relationship between mastery
motivational orientation, performance and enjoyment. According to goal
orientation theories, which have in recent years dominated research on motivation
in academic and sport settings (Nicholls, 1984, 1989), mastery or task orientation
refers to a focus on effort, trying hard in the face of difficulty, being interested in
the task, and persisting in the task over time (Roberts, 1992). On the other hand,
ability or ego orientation refers to a concern for success as an evidence of
competence, by doing better than others, or by succeeding with little effort. It is
often indicated that a mastery motivational orientation is to be preferred over an
ego orientation in a youth sport context (Duda, 1992; Roberts, 1992).
Consequently, the reported positive relationship between mastery orientation and
traditional martial arts practice can be regarded as an important indication of its
value in a pedagogical context. However, it is important to mention here that King
and Williams' study only referred to adults. Other empirical data showed that
children's involvement in a traditional martial arts program resulted in lower
levels of enjoyment, performance and perceived physical competence compared to
a mastery motivational oriented program (Theeboom, De Knop & Weiss, 1995).

The latter employed more variety in exercises, shared decision-making between
teacher and students, partner or small-group exercises, and focused on effort and
improvement. Based on Ames' (1992) description of mastery motivational teaching
strategies for pupils, Theeboom et al. have argued that traditional martial arts
practice for Western children can be characterized as outcome oriented, as it
emphasizes the use of basic drills for practice, the authoritarian role of the teacher,
individual exercises, and a focus on performance outcome. The mastery

20
motivational program that was organized for this study was characterized by a
variety of exercises, shared decision-making between teacher and students, partner
or small group exercises, and a focus on effort and improvement. The lower scores
on enjoyment, performance and perceived physical competence among (Western)
children that followed the traditional program might suggest that they were not
ready to fully understand the specific principles that underlie traditional martial
arts. Hsu (1986) has also indicated the difficulties Western participants encounter
when becoming involved in traditional (Chinese) martial arts. Back and Kim (1984)
even reported distinct differences in interest in the martial arts among Anglo
students compared to Asian students. Their analysis showed that the former were
less interested in the specific characteristics of traditional martial arts practice such
as meditation, doing (analytical) drills and concentrating only on a few techniques
at a time. Especially in a physical education context where martial arts are
introduced only during a few lessons, one can expect that principles of traditional
martial arts training will be difficult to understand for pupils and therefore might
not attract them. However, this does not mean that once youngsters have found
the way to a more regular practice of Asian martial arts (e.g., in a sports club), they
might be open for a traditional approach as they become more familiar with some
of its specific characteristics. A mastery motivational oriented teaching method for
youngsters within the martial arts might facilitate this step towards a traditional
approach as it can be regarded as a more appropriate way of introducing them to
Western children (see Theeboom & De Knop, 1998).
The efficiency approach is probably the most popular way in which the martial
arts are introduced at secondary schools. Often, martial arts courses during
physical education put an emphasis on self-defense (e.g., judo, karate, aikido, etc.)
(Bosdriesz, 1996; Houthoff, 1994; van der Gugten, 1986; Van Dongen, 1995;
Vrijhoef-Vos, 1989). In most cases, a variety of effective self-defense techniques are

21
taught as well as skills to improve ones assertiveness in an attempt to provide
pupils a basic understanding on how to react to an assault. This emphasis on the
use of an efficiency approach of martial arts instruction in physical education is
probably based on the concerns that exist among educators with regard to the
threats from crime and violence to children's personal safety. Although, as earlier
mentioned, the situation in American schools is different from schools in Europe in
that there is no martial arts instruction, some authors have argued in favour of
introducing the martial arts through an efficiency approach at school. For example,
in their recent study on self-defense knowledge among American elementary

school students, Chen and Mauk (1999) concluded that there is a lack of systematic
education relating to self-defense lessons at school. They recommended that "Self-
defense should be included in the physical education curriculum, since its skill
domain has the same nature as other sport skills. This profession should take
leadership and majority of the responsibility for teaching children how to protect
themselves against crimes." (p. 61). Although one can agree that the martial arts
skills domain has a similar nature as other sports skills, emphasizing the self-
defense aspects of martial arts practice in a physical education context is a one-
sided view of the martial arts and might create the impression that self-defense is
the only motivation for studying the martial arts. It disregards other values and
functions of martial arts practice. Similarly, the rationale for teaching swimming
skills during physical education cannot merely be regarded as a way of preventing
pupils from drowning. Here too, other objectives can be pursued. Moreover, the
one-sided approach where only self-defense aspects are emphasized, will help to
confirm the notion that exist with regard to martial arts, in that they are mainly
used to learn how to fight or to defend oneself.
Furthermore, it is important to put self-defense classes for pupils in a realistic
perspective. Youngsters have to be properly informed about the actual efficiency

22
of the techniques that they learn. They have to be aware that learning to defend
oneself effectively in all situations cannot be taught within a few lessons; otherwise
the teacher might bring about false feelings of security among pupils, which can
eventually put them in a vulnerable position.
Also, as the efficiency approach emphasizes the acquistion of effective martial
arts skills, one should take into account its possible impact on young children.
According to Mitchell (1992), a nine-year-old black belt is not a martial artist, but
“at best he is a nine-year-old child who has been trained to use potentially
dangerous techniques” (p.105).

Consequently, the introduction of Asian martial arts in physical education
should be viewed rather as a way to get to know the possibilities that exist when
one wants to become involved in martial arts practice as a leisure activity. Pupils
should discover that in essence martial arts are not different from other sports as
they also can bring about feelings of enjoyment, sporting competence, and so forth
(Boudreau, Folman, & Konzak, 1995). The fact that, through martial arts practice,
one can also learn how to defend oneself, should be regarded as an important aim,
but not as the only aim. Therefore, in our view, a sporting approach is to be
recommended when dealing with martial arts instruction in physical education.
An emphasis on a sporting approach of martial arts instruction will clearly involve
a change in the mindsets of teachers, as martial arts practice in general is often

regarded from a self-defense perspective. However, a sporting approach of martial
arts instruction is more in accordance with one of the primary aims of physical
education, that is, to prepare pupils for a healthy and sporting lifestyle through the
introduction of a wide variety of sport experiences.

23
Conclusion
The Asian martial arts consist of a wide variety of disciplines that can be
distinguished by specific characteristics. Apart from several classification systems
that exist within the martial arts, three different approaches to martial arts practice
have been described (i.e., traditional, efficiency, sporting). In recent years, there
has also been an interest in introducing these sports during physical education
classes at school. Data indicated that in several European countries martial arts are
actually introduced during physical education. In most countries instruction is
limited to a few specific martial arts styles. Also, an efficiency approach is often
used in which the emphasis is put on self-defense. The present paper has argued in
favour of a sporting approach of martial arts instruction at school as it provides a
broader perspective of martial arts practice. One might argue that a traditional
approach can offer an even broader perspective as it can provide a good setting for
multicultural experiences and learning. Indeed, the introduction of a traditional
approach of martial arts instruction at school can be situated in what De Sensi
(1995) has described as "... the ongoing major educational reform initiative aimed
toward multiculturalism ..." (p.34) in which specific additions to the physical
education curriculum have been suggested such as international games, dance and
sport activities. However, as studies have showed that Western youngsters
encounter difficulties to fully understand the underlying principles of a traditional

approach due to distinct cultural differences, it will be necessary first to develop
pedagogically sound teaching strategies through which the Asian martial arts can
be introduced during physical education classes without disregarding their unique
characteristics.
24
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33
Table 1
Specific Martial Arts Disciplines in Physical Education Programs of European
Countries
Country
Belgium Czechia England France Germany Luxemburg Netherlands
Disciplines
judo x x x x x x x
karate x x x x x
self-defense x x x x
aikido x
boxing x x
wrestling x x
taekwondo x
fencing x
savate x x
hours 6 12 variable 12 8 7 5
(per year)
34
Table 2
Specific Martial Arts Disciplines in Teacher Education Programs of European
Countries
Country
Belgium Czechia France Germany Luxemburg Netherlands
Disciplines
judo x x x x x x
karate x x x x x
self-defense x x x
boxing x x x
wrestling x x x
taekwondo x
aikido x
fencing x

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Theeboom, M., & De Knop, P. (1999).

Asian martial arts and approaches of instruction in

Asian Martial Arts and Approaches of Instruction in Physical Education

Running head: Asian Martial Arts and Physical Education

into the physical education curriculum. Although three different approaches of

sporting), martial arts instruction in physical education is often limited to one

disciplines and discusses the use of different approaches of instruction in physical

Indonesian pencak silat; Filipino kali or eskrima; Vietnamese viet-vo-dao).

comparative study on sport participation in 26 European countries (Clearing

new trends in sports participation.

taekwondo). It is worthwhile to mention here that this recognition occurred each

holistic approaches in culture at large, which is reflected in the fascination for

psychic phenomena, astrology, reincarnation, extraterrestrial being, etc. More

popular. This evolution, which is primarily concerned with defining values,

confusion, which can be examplified by the substitution of pseudo-values such as

trend can partly explain the increasing international popularity of taijiquan, a

traditional Chinese martial art which emphasizes concentration and relaxation

while slowly performing a variety of fighting techniques (Moegling, 1986b; Sagot,

approaches that can be used for instruction in physical education.

Characteristics of Asian Martial Arts

resulted in a myriad of other Asian fighting styles, in addition to the existing

varied system of Chinese martial arts (Draeger & Smith, 1975).

Asian Martial Arts Disciplines

All martial arts disciplines can be distinguished by their specific

routines, and (c) free fights.

Individual routines. A routine (or kata) is an individual exercise that consists of

several armed or unarmed techniques that are performed consecutively according

to a pre-arranged set of movements and stances. Routines can also be performed

individual routines, they include a pre-arranged set of armed or unarmed

which participants use (bamboo) swords and wear protective gear.

To provide a basic understanding of the most important variations of the

most popular disciplines follows.

Chinese Martial Arts

art" (Wong, 1993).

In general, wushu is comprized of "internal" and "external" styles (Mark, 1981).

movements. Although some styles are imitation movements of attacking and

styles can be distinguished by their specific features (e.g., wide ranged

Japanese Martial Arts

Jiu-jitsu is characterized by mostly unarmed techniques which are very

by unarmed techniques, throws, leg sweeps and head-locks (Kano, 1992).

unarmed techniques, throws, locks on various joints, and head-locks. Aikido

usually dressed in a black skirt over a white kimono.

Although the term karate is well-known, it is more correct to refer to karate-do as

“empty hand”, exists primarily of unarmed techniques. It is characterized by hand

Korean Martial Arts

popular Korean martial art is taekwondo. It is a style of unarmed fighting that

formally introduced in the Sidney Games in 2000.

pencak silat (Alexander, Chambers, & Draeger, 1970). This discipline is

characterized by offensive and defensive techniques that originated from the

use of a variety of weapons (e.g., knife or "kris", sword, stick).

Thai Martial Arts

Besides the aforementioned countries, martial arts were also developed in

by van Bottenburg (1994), the growing commercialization among martial arts

characteristics (Wingate, 1993).

Classification of the Martial Arts

To date, no conclusive data are available on the international popularity of

specific martial arts disciplines. According to J. Corcoran, a noted documentalist

existence of the hundreds of schools and styles (personal communication,

the numbers of members they represent worldwide as this information is often

public recognition as possible.

functional, cultural, historical, philosophical). Classification based on cultural

economic reasons account for the disparate development of fighting systems

characterized by a clear and uniform concept. Three different approaches to Asian

and (c) sporting (Theeboom, De Knop, & Wylleman, 1995).