20

CHAPTER 3
HIGH IMPEDANCE FAULTS IN RADIAL DISTRIBUTION FEEDER

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The present protection engineers face exclusive challenges by High
Impedance Faults (HIFs) on distribution systems. The abnormal circuit condition of
distribution feeder under fault leads to the dissipation of energy in a manner differs
from serving of proposed linear and non-linear loads. The High Impedance Fault
(HIF) is always a consequence which exists when a live conductor closely approaches
the quasi-insulating objects having large impedance falls on a zero potential ground.
These prior untraceable faults push the public safety into a dangerous zone as well as
creating an arcing ignition of fires.
The conventional over current protection schemes like fuses, overcurrent
relays cannot trace the HIF as it is has got the sufficiently large impedance. Hence,
these HIF may cause for threat of harm to power system circuitry which is generally
not reported in low impedance short circuit fault cases as the fault currents are
comparatively high. Generally, these fault currents range between 0 and 50A. At the
contact point heavy arc or flash occurs when HI Fault arise. There are many differed
opinions on the existence of HIFs in the utilities. Usually, statistics of HI Fault
incident occurrences are not maintained by services. In rare occasions we may see that
a blowing of fuse or C.B. operation. While it is observed that the 5 to 20% of
distribution faults are HIFs.

3.2 MECHANICAL DETECTION METHODS

For every phase a unit or device is attached to cross arm or pole in mechanical
HI Fault identification. It results for a ground fault of low value of impedance type by
locating the conductor fallen. The force produced by the falling of conductor relieves
an internally placed spring that expels a bus bar to make a contact with the fallen
conductor and produce a ground fault. This ground fault manipulated brings the
traditional over current protection schemes into the operation. This mechanical
method is very pronounced in detecting the dropping conductors which are usually
will not touch the earth or its grounded entities. But, the drawback is that the
 21

installing and preservation expenses are relatively rich in value. For bi-directional
analysis, 6 units are needed to be installed on every pole. It is strongly recommended
to use the arrangement on every pole in precise places like temples, schools, and
clinics even though it is a costly affair. The other method of mechanical HIF
identification incorporates a pendulum mounted aluminium rod with hooked ends
which is suspended from an under-built neutral conductor. The conductor which falls
is thus trapped and creates almost a short circuit or low impedance ground fault. This
alerts all traditional over current protection schemes. Practically, a couple of such
units are placed per each span. As reported earlier in this section, this mechanical
method takes care the dropping conductors which are usually will not touch the earth
or its grounded entities. The falling of ice, wind, or tree grass may cause for a
malfunction or a false identification.

3.3 ELECTRICAL DETECTION METHODS

3.3 (i) High Impedance Fault Analysis System

In this strategy of HIF detection by electrical means, the phase of third

harmonic current is estimated with respect to fundamental component of voltage.
Obviously, there is a particular phase relationship between the third harmonic current
and the fundamental faulted phase voltage. The device computes the average ambient
third harmonic current and also stores it. The revised third harmonic current phasor
with the existence of fault gets subtracted vectorially from the saved one. An HI Fault
is confirmed if the value of magnitude is found to be above the set value and angle
matches with a pre-set value for a downed conductor. The relaying current
transformer and voltage transformers feed the current and voltage values to the
device. In most cases, one unit is placed for every distribution feeder and these units
are found in use from the early 1990’s.

3.3 (ii) Open Conductor Detection

This is the other electrical HIF identification approach which makes use the
loss of voltage for the identification of wrecked conductor. Continuously the system
measures the voltage at every end of a single phase lateral. If the voltage of any phase
is identified to be less than a defined value, the transmitter provided sends a signal on
 22

the neutral conductor to a receiver at the upstream equipment. The upstream

equipment gets opened if the voltage exists at the upstream equipment. This type of
techniques are using from 1992.
3.4 IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES

3.4.1 Contrast in Detection Goals

There is a divergence in detecting the goals between Over Current protection

and High Impedance Fault identification. The over current faults furnish sufficiently
large current to be recognised by traditional protection schemes whereas the HIFs
result for extremely low currents. The occurrence of excessive current for longer
durations may cause for equipment damage and hence, an over current protection
scheme is brought in to sense these abnormal conditions. The primary intentions of
high impedance fault detection are assurance of safety and fire prevention rather than
the elimination of equipment damage. The failure in detection of high impedance
faults can cause for loss of millions of dollars for utilities through customer service
issues and other liabilities.

3.4.2 Problems in Electrical and Mechanical Detection

Many detection alternatives of both mechanical and electrical nature were

reported typically, the electrical devices are applied one per feeder and the mechanical
devices applied in certain specific areas like schools and holy places to assure the
protection against falling and sagging conductors. The electrical detection methods
are always proved to be low value of cost to establish and preservation cost. HIFs are
not traceable since the remarkable changes in electric parameters are not observed by
many surfaces and also a wrecked conductor at feeder end.

3.4.3 Customer Service

Due to the rapidly increasing competition in utility industry, the customer

service factor and the continuity of service are given utmost priority. The HIFs have
the threat of causing for service interruptions and delivery of low quality power to the
consumers. Presently, a HIF is claimed to be unidentified till anyone observes the
wrecked conductor or arc at line and communicates the issue to the authorities. The
 23

application of detection techniques of electrical nature assures faster response against

these down conductor occurrences. Typically, it may take more time to contact the
service authorities, to detect the conductor by HIF detector and to de-energise. The
Operating times of the electrical HIF detectors are within a few minute time frames,
which to a protection engineer seems to be an eternity, but utilities must realize that
the response of a HIF detector is much faster than waiting to receive a customer
complaint call. Irrespective of type of HIF detector used, the accuracy, reliability and
secure operation are very important. When a down conductor is reported by any of
electrical detection methods, the response procedures are devised by some utilities
that incorporate the output of the HIF detector and a customer complaint. The HIF
detectors can be converted into a complete fault detection system by including a
conventional over current protection, reclosing and metering. This can detect almost
all low impedance faults like short circuits and high impedance faults (95-98% faults)
on a distribution system assuming that 10% of the faults are due to down conductors
that can be detected in 80% of the time.

3.4.4 Selection of Feeder

Ideally, it is recommendable to install HIF detectors on all distribution feeders

at once. Keeping the economic constraints in view, a planned or phased installation of
HIF detectors can be exercised at every feeder. The basis for consideration of circuits
for HIF detection can be circuits with past HIF occurrences, dense population nearby
circuits, areas prone to be fire accidents, aged circuits with undersized conductors, 11
to 33kV circuits, overhead construction and ungrounded and grounded systems. The
Underground distribution circuits pose less of a public safety concern.

HIFs cannot produce huge fault current which can be sensed by the traditional
over current relays or fuses. The implementations of different strategies that are in use
currently are presented when application of this technology is needed.

Since the days of the invention of generator and transformer the electrification
of the neighbourhood increased leaps and bounds. The distribution system evolved
consistently with innovations and development in techniques to address various
problems. The reliability indicators have become popular as the power utilities
 24

became privatized which resulted in severe competition. The consumer or the end
user became aware of the need of quality power, its importance and effect in daily
life, necessity of continuity of power supply and within reasonable minimum cost.

In this context the requirement for a dependable method to identify a system

fault is felt necessary. The power engineers have developed metrics to denote the
customer satisfaction like Customer Minute Loss (CML), System Average
Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI), and System Average Interruption Frequency
(SAIF) etc, to ensure themselves of the possibility of retaining the customers and to
assure customers of their dependability.
Faults on the system arise due to multiple reasons and are categorised as a)
Mechanical, b) electrical and c) Combination of Both.
Mechanical fault is one where the physical connection between the supply and
the consumer is snapped like breaking of conductors, breakage of equipment etc.,
while an electrically a fault is the insulation deterioration, loss of generation, a fault
with high impedance , a fault having low impedance etc.
In this work the focus is on HIGH IMPEDANCE Faults. (HIF)

3.5 HI FAULTS (HIF)

The impedance at a given point is voltage to current ratio at that said point and
the value is i.e. impedance would be very low when a heavy current is noticed at that
point and a HI is observed when current is measured to be of minimum value. These
HIF to identify are difficult to detect by the conventional methods of over current
relaying techniques. The methods of detection are depicted in table 3.1 .In this work
the faults are analysed by different classifiers and compared in table 3.2
 25

Table 3.1 Some HIF detection methods

S.No. Methods Description
1 Mechanical Special Devices are employed to catch the fallen
methods conductor, for giving of maximum conductivity.
2 Electrical Ratio ground relay
Time domain Proportional relay method / algorithm.
methods feature extraction by smart relay
Detection of Arc method
3 Frequency Based on harmonic component using Fourier transform.
domain Inter harmonic component method.
High frequency spectra method.
Kalman filtering method.
fractal theory method
4 Wavelet Wavelet transforms (WT) to analyse the transient
transform behaviour of a signal

Table 3.2 AI Techniques and their roles in the proposed methods.

S.No. Decomposition / feature extraction Classifier
1 WT Fuzzy Logic
2 WT ANN
3 WT ANFIS
4 WT KNN

The two-diode circuit generates HIF currents. The model using direct current
sources V1, V2 has variable resistances R1, R2 representing fault value of resistance.
The sense of direction of current flow is based on the difference in voltages V1 and
V2. Two diode HIF model implemented in this study and its MAT LAB simulated
model is shown in fig 3.1 where R1 and R2 resistances are continuously changed to
generate the waveforms.
 26

Capacitor switching transients generate high frequency currents and their

magnitude is dependent on distance and rating of capacitor from the monitoring point.
Capacitor banks are intermittently connected, whenever pf. Improvement is to be
done.

HIF model

Fig 3.1 Simulation model of HIF

 27

3.6 Designs and Detection in High Impedance Faults (HIF)

An objective study of HIF would reveal that, when a logical analysis has to be done
the following key steps are essential.
1. Decision to consider a quantity as decisive which reveals about the point
under Consideration, i.e. HIF, in the operating system.
2. Compiling sufficient Data regarding the decisive quantity, for a
considerable period, so as to arrive at a running average, pre and post fault
condition.
3. Segregation of important data and noise, use of suitable tuning methods.
4. Arriving at a significant value which represents the hall mark of the HIF
and is not corrupted by any extraneous condition.
The natures of HIFs are replicated by a circuit model, which consists of nonlinear
diodes, capacitors, linear resistors, as represented in Fig 3.1. The nature of a HIF i.e.
dynamic variations of conditions are approximated using nonlinear components of
diodes and capacitors, and the randomness by the ever changing amplitude of the dc
source , every half cycle.
3.7 Capacitor switching
Switchgear must have the capability to handle various loads like inductive,
capacitive currents, including short-circuit currents. Power electronics cause voltage
distortion and increase in harmonics. The sensitivity of devices causes distortions
which produce harmonics. Typically P.f. correction equipment is used in wind
turbines, converter-controlled motors in industry, or decentralized power grids for
energy supply is needed for 10 MW. output or less. Capacitive switching by MV
switchgear results more frequently than envisaged
3.8 Test Model: To investigate and simulate a practical condition at site, a 13 node
IEEE test feeder as depicted in Fig 3.2 is taken. The data pertained to the 13 node
model, as considered, is given below:
3.8.1 Line Configuration Data:
Per mile/ phase impedance and admittance matrices are listed for every
configuration made of the feeder. A resistivity of 100 Ohm-meters and a relative
permittivity of 2.3 for the admittance matrix are assumed.
 28

3.8.2 Radial Flow Summary:

A compact is provided , giving input parameters different electrical loads on
the system ,complete losses and capacitors of shunt type added, for single phase or
sum of 3-ф in the system.
3.8.3 Voltage Profile:
Voltage immensity in per unit and its angles at every node.
3.8.4 Radial Power Flow:
Altogether system data at every node includes power flow value indicating in
amperes and its phase angles in degrees. Total loss of power for every phase with sum
of 3-ф also tabulated [20].
IEEE Feeder consisting of 13 numbers of nodes is considered. This system exhibits
interesting characteristics.
1. System consists of 4.16 kV feeders
2. Three single phase, star connected units for one substation voltage regulator.
3. Overhead lines with phasing of all varieties.
4. Bank of capacitors of shunt type
5. Transformer
6. Loads of concentrated, unbalanced type and distributed type
This feeder will contribute good test for the predominantly general features
from software of distribution analysis, data as given below is for this system [19].
 29

Fig 3.2 Single line diagram of IEEE 13 bus test feeder

Table 3.3 Overhead Line Configuration Data:

Config. Phasing Phase Neutral Spacing

ACSR ACSR ID
601 BACN 556,500 26/7 4/0 6/1 500

602 CA 4/0 6/1 4/0 6/1 500

603 CBN 1/0 1/0 505

604 ACN 1/0 1/0 505

605 CN 1/0 1/0 510
 30

Table 3.4 Line Segment Data:

Node A Node B Length(ft.) Config.

632 645 500 603

632 633 500 602

633 634 0 XFM-1

645 646 300 603

650 632 2000 601

684 652 800 607

632 671 2000 601

671 684 300 604

671 680 1000 601

671 692 0 Switch

684 611 300 605

692 675 500 606

Table 3.5 Capacitor Data:

Node Ph-A Ph-B Ph-C

kVAr kVAr kVAr

675 33.33 33.33 33.33

611 100

Total 33.33 33.33 133.33

 31

Table 3.6 Transformer Data:

kVA kV-high kV-low R -% X -%

Substation: 5,000 115 – D 4.16 Gr.Y 1 8

XFM -1 500 4.16 – Gr. W 0.48 – Gr.W 1.1 2

Table 3.7 Spot Load Data:

Node Load Ph-1 Ph-1 Ph-2 Ph-2 Ph-3 Ph-3

Model kW kVAr kW kVAr kW kVAr

634 Y-PQ 160 110 120 90 120 90

646 D-Z 0 0 230 232 0 0

652 Y-Z 128 86 0 0 0 0

692 D-I 0 0 0 0 170 151

611 Y-I 0 0 0 0 170 80

Table 3.8 Distributed Load Data:

Node A Node B Load Ph-1 Ph-1 Ph-2 Ph-2 Ph-3 Ph-3

Model kW kVAr kW kVAr kW kVAr kW

632 671 Y-PQ 17 10 17 10 17 10

 32

3.9 Wavelet Transform:

Signal wave form for its various components can be analysed by different
techniques, one being fast Fourier transforms. However the FFT is useful only when
the waves are not stationary. Hence the appropriate signal processing by Wavelet
transform technique (WT) is adopted for this work. WT as the new trend in signal
analysis and has found ready acceptance in the area of power quality study , in areas
of monitoring and power systems applications ,analysis study of transformer inrush
phenomena etc. [167-168].
Since HI faults generate weak signals at fault, because of large impedance,
such signals offer rich scope in analysis using WT. A single wavelet, when modified
by operations such as scaling and translation generate many functions therefore
wavelet is called mother wavelet. Scaling is dilation or a compression operation.
A Continuous wavelet transform of a signal x (t) with respect to a mother wavelet
y (t) is defined mathematically and is represented as

Where  *(.) is a complex conjugate of the mother wavelet  (.) a, the discourse and
b the transformation factor. The expression that is in one-dimensional time domain
signal in x (t) is mapped to a new two-dimensional function space across scale ‘a’ and
translation b. A WT coefficient CWT f ( a, b) , for a specific scale and translation

indicates the relative matching with the original signal x (t) and scaled/translated
mother wavelet and therefore these coefficients represent the original signal with
respect to the mother wavelet.

Where the mother wavelet  (.) is dilated by the scale parameter aom , discretely and

translated using the translation parameter nbo a0m , where a o and bo are fixed values

with >1 and bo >0. m and n are integers. The dyadic transform, which can be viewed

as a a o special kind of DWT spectral analyzer, a o =2 and bo =1.

 33

3.10 Decision Tree (DT): decision tree technique is the known as one of the
fascinating proposal of recognizing the patterns. Training and testing are the two steps
adopted by the decision tree for generating the tree regardless of the strategy. In first
step the system is simulated for various faults and input values of features with
familiar pertinent classes are applied for algorithm of decision tree. In the procedure
of constructing the tree various norms are applied for assessing the consequence of
input value of features in determining the classes of output. Normally the most
successful feature is selected as the initial node of the tree and its frontier value is
taken for designing two dissimilar branches. Now by using the same basis next better
successful feature is established in every branch. The procedure is resumed till the last
nodes achieved in every branch carry best of output classes. Generating a tree, by
adopting the most effective features as the starting node and then adding two other
values to the parent node, as the branches and continuing in this manner, we can build
the tree [150]. After the tree is built with the necessary data, the pruning process of
the tree is taken up, to eliminate the unwanted nodes / branches.

A typical DT is presented in Fig 3.3 with ellipsoidal type of nodes as inputs

and rectangular nodes as the outputs. Frontier values of every branch are denoted on
it.
For the accuracy the tree which is created has tested at test stage by using
distinct features as input from simulations and the outputs are compared.
 34

x1 < 22.5163 x1 >= 22.5163

x1 < 24.0512 x1 >= 24.0512

B

x1 < 23.2033 x1 >= 23.2033 x1 < 26.2688 x1 >= 26.2688

x1 < 23.203 x1 >= 23.203 x1 < 23.2145 x1 >= 23.2145 x1 < 30.1311 x1 >= 30.1311
N

x1 < 23.2089 x1 >= 23.2089 x1 < 23.2343 x1 >= 23.2343 x1 < 35.3057 x1 >= 35.3057
L I K

x1 < 23.224 x1 >= 23.224 x1 < 23.239 x1 >= 23.239

C A H E

x1 < 23.261 x1 >= 23.261

F J M

G D

Fig.3.3 A Typical Decision Tree

Distinct methods are used to establish a DT are available in literature. The tree
procedure is identified by comparing the relevant accuracies and other parameters to
solve any problem.
Decision Tree

“n=max(size(d1));
x1=[];x2=[];x3=[];x4=[];
std1=[];std2=[];std3=[];
% std for d1
for i=1:3
for j=1:n
term=(d1(j,i) - (1/n)*sum(d1(j,i)))^2;
x1(i,j)=term;
end
std1(i)=sqrt((1/(n-1))*sum(x1(i,:)));
end
% std for d2
for i=1:3
 35

for j=1:n
term=(d2(j,i) - (1/n)*sum(d2(j,i)))^2;
x2(i,j)=term;
end
std2(i)=sqrt((1/(n-1))*sum(x2(i,:)));
end
% std for d3
for i=1:3
for j=1:n
term=(d3(j,i) - (1/n)*sum(d3(j,i)))^2;
x3(i,j)=term;
end
std3(i)=sqrt((1/(n-1))*sum(x3(i,:)));
end
% std for d4
for i=1:3
for j=1:n
term=(d4(j,i) - (1/n)*sum(d4(j,i)))^2;
x4(i,j)=term;
end
std4(i)=sqrt((1/(n-1))*sum(x4(i,:)));
end

std=[std1 std2 std3 std4];

load('input_data.mat')
in = 0.9999*input_data';
input = input_data';
out = ['A','B','C','D','E','F','G','H','I','J','K','L','M','N']';
DT = classregtree(in,out, 'method', 'classification',...
'minparent', 2, 'prune', 'on', 'splitcriterion', 'gdi');
view(DT);
 36

% note here the class labels are contained in the cell y_est
[y_est, node, labels] = eval(DT, std);
% plotconfusion(trueClass(class),class)
sfit=eval(DT,input);
pct=mean(strcmp(sfit,out));
fprintf('Recognition rate of Desicion Tree = %f \n',pct*100)
close all
figure('Units','pixels', ...
'Color',[1 1 1], ...
'Name','classifier',...
'NumberTitle','off',...
'Position',[850 50 500 600], ...
'ToolBar','none');
uicontrol('Units','normalized', ...
'BackgroundColor','w','FontSize',12, ... ...
'FontWeight','bold', ...
'ForegroundColor',[0 0 0], ...
'Position',[0.01 0.9 0.6 0.06], ...
'String','CLASSES', ...
'Style','text');
clas={'A --> "Normal" {0}',...
'B --> "cap A" {1}','C --> "cap B" {2}','D --> "cap C" {3}',...
'E --> "Load A" {4}','F --> "Load B" {5}','G --> "Load C" {6}',...
'H --> "HIF1 A" {7}','I --> "HIF1 B" {8}','J --> "HIF1 C" {9}',...
'K --> "HIF2 A" {10}','L --> "HIF2 B" {11}','M --> "HIF2 C" {12}',...
'N --> "Non Linear" {13}'} ;

uicontrol('Units','normalized', ...
'BackgroundColor','w','FontSize',12, ... ...
'FontWeight','bold', ...
'ForegroundColor',[0 0 0], ...
'HorizontalAlignment','left', ...
 37

'Position',[0.05 0.47 0.6 0.43], ...

'String',strcat(clas),...
'Style','text','fontname','courier new');

uicontrol('Units','normalized', ...
'BackgroundColor','w','FontSize',12, ... ...
'FontWeight','bold', ...
'ForegroundColor','b', ...
'Position',[0.01 0.4 0.7 0.06], ...
'String',strcat('Desicion Tree classification : ',y_est),...
'Style','text','fontname','courier new');
if strcmp(y_est,'A')
str='No Switchings';d=[d1(:,1) d2(:,1) d3(:,1) d4(:,1)];Is=I_s;
str1='';
elseif strcmp(y_est,'B')
str='Capacitor Switching on Phase A';
Is=I_s(:,1);If=I_C(:,1);ylab='I_c';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -100 100];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'C')
str='Capacitor Switching on Phase B';
Is=I_s(:,2);If=I_C(:,2);ylab='I_c';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -100 100];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'D')
str='Capacitor Switching on Phase C';
Is=I_s(:,3);If=I_C(:,3);ylab='I_c';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -150 150];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'E')
str='Load Switching on Phase A';
Is=I_s(:,1);If=I_L(:,1);ylab='I_L';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -40 40];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'F')
str='Load Switching on Phase B';
 38

Is=I_s(:,2);If=I_L(:,2);ylab='I_L';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -40 40];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'G')
str='Load Switching on Phase C';
Is=I_s(:,3);If=I_L(:,3);ylab='I_L';
str1='';axi=[0 2000 -40 40];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'H')
str='High Impedance Fault 1 on Phase A';
Is=I_s(:,1);If=I_f1(:,1);ylab='I_f_1';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -30 30];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'I')
str='High Impedance Fault 1 on Phase B';
Is=I_s(:,2);If=I_f1(:,2);ylab='I_f_1';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -30 30];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'J')
str='High Impedance Fault 1 on Phase C';
Is=I_s(:,3);If=I_f1(:,3);ylab='I_f_1';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -30 30];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'K')
str='High Impedance Fault 2 on Phase A';
Is=I_s(:,1);If=I_f2(:,1);ylab='I_f_2';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -20 20];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'L')
str='High Impedance Fault 2 on Phase B';
Is=I_s(:,2);If=I_f2(:,2);ylab='I_f_2';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -20 20];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'M')
str='High Impedance Fault 2 on Phase C';
Is=I_s(:,3);If=I_f2(:,3);ylab='I_f_2';
str1='Trip Circuit';axi=[0 2000 -20 20];
elseif strcmp(y_est,'N')
str='Non Linear Load Switching';
 39

Is=I_s;If=I_NL;ylab='I_N_L';
str1='';
axi=[0 2000 -5 5];
end
uicontrol('Units','normalized', ...
'BackgroundColor','w','FontSize',16, ... ...
'FontWeight','bold', ...
'ForegroundColor',[1 0 0], ...
'Position',[0.01 0.3 1 0.06], ...
'String',str,...
'Style','text','fontname','courier new');
uicontrol('Units','normalized', ...
'BackgroundColor','w','FontSize',16, ... ...
'FontWeight','bold', ...
'ForegroundColor',[1 0 0], ...
'Position',[0.2 0.2 0.7 0.06], ...
'String',str1,...
'Style','text','fontname','courier new');
figure('color','w','name','GRID CURRENT','numbertitle','off','position',[10 400 800
280])
axes1 = axes(...
'LineWidth',1.0,...
'FontWeight','bold',...
'FontSize',16,...
'FontName','Courier new');
box(axes1,'on');
hold(axes1,'all');
plot(Is,'linewidth',1.5,'parent',axes1)
xlabel('samples'),ylabel('I_s')
axis([0 2000 -100 100])
grid on
if strcmp(y_est,'A')==0
 40

figure('color','w','name','Switching CURRENT','numbertitle','off','position',[10 30 800

280])
axes1 = axes('LineWidth',1.0,...
'FontWeight','bold',...
'FontSize',16,...
'FontName','Courier new');
box(axes1,'on');
hold(axes1,'all');
plot(If,'linewidth',1.5,'parent',axes1)
xlabel('samples'),ylabel(ylab)
% axis([0 2000 -100 100])
axis(axi)
grid on
end”

3.11 High impedance fault (HIF) detection

HI and LI faults are separated from transient switching. Hence the HI fault is
modelled and the relevant current waveforms are captured at the feeders. The HI
faults are simulated as per the model given in fig 3.1 and the model comprises of
nonlinear elements of diodes, linear resistors, time varying input voltage sources. The
resistor representing fault and the randomness of current flow is created by altering
voltage and state of diodes. The following steps are adopted, for analysing the model:
a) The block schematic is as in fig ( 3.4)
b) WT is applied in stages of de-noising, signal decomposition and dimension
reduction.
c) The dimension values are used to construct a decision tree.
d) The study of the DT recognises HI fault or otherwise.
e) On identification as a HI fault, the relay trips.
The features of the above key steps are
a) In de- noising, Daubechie wavelet db2, level 4 is applied.
b) In signal decomposition, Daubechie wavelet db2 in four levels is to obtain,
various frequency bands for proper discrimination. The signal
 41

decomposition depends on sampling frequency. Here 512 samples per

cycle are chosen, and the decomposition is a db2 level.
c) The STD is applied for extracting the features to the collected data on
energy, RMS value of every frequency, and normalised and processed
further.
d) Decision tree stage involves, the decision of a feeder being healthy, this is
done by MATLAB / SIMULINK block as shown in fig (3.5) and the
logic of the flow chart is as indicated in fig (3.6)

Fig. 3.4 Schematic diagram of the methodology

3.12 Wavelet Transform process
During HIF detection, data from the signal for application of WT can be
segregated into:
(a) De-noising.
(b) Decomposition.
(c )Features extraction.
The Wavelet Toolbox of MATLAB [167] facilitates implementation of the
WT in an efficient way by use of command functions or by means of GUI tools. The
use the DWT has been considered.
 42

3.12.1 De-noising process

The de-noising enables elimination of the signals distortion, which resulted
because of several events like switching. The DWT pre-processing is done to
transform the phase currents into one dimensional, hard threshold, de-noising stage.
Daubechies wavelet (db2), level 4 decomposition for every simulated case, is
implemented for each feeder for de-noising.

3.12.2 Signal decomposition

To de-noised time signals get modified into time frequency domain using the
DWT. The large coefficients of various frequency range appear with the occurrence
of the disturbances. The Daubechies wavelet (db2) decomposition has been used in
four stages to various frequency ranges or bands. The qualities obtained from these
components have been utilised to show the remarkable discrimination in the results.
The current signal characteristics are analysed through DWT in the following aspects:
(i) Frequency of sampling
(ii) Length of the window
(iii) Decomposition levels
(iv) Type of Wavelet
In the situations of faults and switching operations, high sampling whose
frequency is among 128, 256 and 512 Hz to capture the characteristic information of
the signal. A fair value of 2.56 kHz rate of sampling is used in the analysis.
The length of the window and the levels of decomposition are identified by the
sampling value of frequency and the Wavelet basis function. The hypothesis of Multi
Resolution Analysis imperative the use of DWT filtering and down sampling in
inverse relation to the constituents of frequency at any level of value. If the
decomposed levels are higher, the frequency components are lower and vice versa.
The nature of the Wavelet basis functions is able to specify the selection of an
appropriate mother Wavelet for fast information extraction and is critical for the
performance improvement. The Wavelets having less filter components or
evaporating ends are found to be mostly restricted in time than in frequency.
Therefore, depending on applications for collecting information at a particular
moment of time, underneath Wavelet premise with lower number of coefficients are a
 43

superior preference than vice versa. The Daubechies Wavelets function, db2 has been
tested where the mother functions are orthogonal. The functions ensure exact
identification of low value of amplitude with less time span and spoilage signals
rapidly.
3.12.3 Feature extraction
In the process of getting data, the feature extraction receives the critical information
from the original waveform or transformed format, leaving the significant information
which specifies the basic problem nature. The coefficients of standard deviation have
been adapted for DT.
The generality, intelligibility, efficiency, confluence speed, energy etc are the
contingents for feature selection. This provides data related to the level of alteration of
the signal frequency distribution.

Where “x” and “n” are data vector and its elements respectively

3.12.4 Decision Tree stage

After the training, testing processes, the networks will be ready for operation.
The DT outputs vary from ‘0’ to ‘1’ is processed with a ‘round’ function, to obtain an
integer value for data vector.
After all the stage wise operations indicated above, the outputs indicate the
condition of a feeder. On implication whether it is HI fault or transient for 12
repetitions continuously, the outturn trigger a suitable action. However if the feeder is
normal, a fresh data window is considered after 200 samples and detection
methodology repeated. The designed DT in SIMULINK of MAT LAB is shown in
Fig. 3.5
 44

Fig.3.5 simulation diagram for Structure of DT controller

 45

Fig. 3.6 Flow chart for DT

 46

3.13 SIMULATION AND RESULTS

Methodology developed is verified on a set of cases on a IEEE 13 bus Test
Feeder, under different conditions, modelled and simulated with
MATLAB/SIMULINK as shown in fig. 3.7
.

Fig. 3.7 simulation model of IEEE 13 bus feeder

Finally, the DT is tested using following cases.

3.13.1 High impedance fault1: HI Fault 1 is created at feeder bus 632 in phases A, B
and C with a resistance of 100 Ω at fault. Fig. 3.8 gives the current waveform.
 47

50

0
Is

-50

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

30
20

10
I f1

-10

-20

-30
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig. 3.8 High Impedance Fault 1 distorted current on phase- A

After the de-noising and decomposing of signals of the phase currents in the
faulted feeder under a HIF1 situation are as shown in Fig. 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11. The high
amplitude Wavelet levels are D1 and D4, which are treated as dominant wavelets,
representing the sub-harmonic frequencies where as the bigger transient frequencies
are represented by levels D2 to D4.
100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig. 3.9 DWT analysis of phase A feeder for HIF1

 48

d1 100

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.10 DWT analysis of phase B feeder for HIF1

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
4
2
d2

0
-2
-4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.11 DWT analysis of phase C feeder for HIF1

STD gives the variations in the decomposition levels and these when applied
to the selected DT, the exact output corresponding to each HIF situation, can be
obtained. Hence feeder 632 is under HIF1.
3.13.2 High impedance fault2: HI Fault 2 generated at bus 680, with a resistance of
100 Ω at fault. Fig. 3.12 gives the current waveform
 49

50

0
Is

-50

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

20

10
I f2

-10

-20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.12 High Impedance Fault 2 distorted current on phase A

After the de-noising and decomposing of phase current signals in faulted
feeder under HIF2 situation are given in Fig. 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15. The high amplitude
Wavelet levels are D1 and D4, which are treated as dominant wavelets, representing
the sub-harmonic frequencies where as the bigger transient frequencies are
represented by Wavelet levels D2 to D4.

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.13 DWT analysis of phase A feeder for HIF2

 50

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.14 DWT analysis of phase B feeder for HIF2

100
1

0
d

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
2

0
d

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
3

0
d

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
4

0
d

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.15 DWT analysis of phase C feeder for HIF2

STD gives the variations in the decomposition levels are applied to the selected DT,
the true output of each HIF situation, can be obtained. Hence feeder 680 is under
HIF2.
3.13.3 Capacitor switching: capacitor switching created at feeder bus 675 in phases
A, B and in C with 33.33 kvar and 0.05Sec. to 0.5 Sec. of inception time. Fig. 3.16
shows the signal current for capacitor switching in feeder 675.
 51

40

20

0
Is

-20

-40
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

20

10

0
Ic

-10

-20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.16 capacitor switching distorted current on phase- A

After applying WT to the current signals, for de noising process for all
frequency levels, and then STD is calculated and given as input for DT. The output of
DT represents the type of fault in a feeder.

40
20
d1

0
-20
-40
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
5
d2

-5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d3

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.17 DWT analysis of phase A feeder for capacitor switching

 52

d1 100

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

50
d2

-50
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

10
d3

0
-10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
4
2
d4

0
-2
-4
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.18 DWT analysis of phase B feeder for capacitor switching

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
10
d2

-10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
10
d3

-10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
5
d4

-5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.19 DWT analysis of phase C feeder for capacitor switching

The performance has been tested completely, under various conditions and
compared to training patterns. There are large spikes in d1 to d4 coefficient in signal
waveform as shown in fig.3.17, 3.18 and 3.19 for capacitor switching.
 53

3.13.4 Load switching: load switching is created between feeder 632 and 671in
phases A, B and in C with a 10 kw and 17 kvar load at 0.05Sec.to 0.5Sec. Since
inception. Fig. 3.20 gives the current signal by load
100

50

0
Is

-50

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

50
L

0
I

-50

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.20 Load switching distorted current on phase A

By applying DWT to the current signals for de noising process for all
frequencies and then STD is calculated and given for DT. The output of DT
represents the type of fault in a feeder.

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.21 DWT Analysis of phase A Feeder at Load switching

 54

d1 100

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.22 DWT Analysis of phase B Feeder at Load switching

100
d1

-100
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
2
d2

-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
1
d3

-1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples
0.5
d4

-0.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
samples

Fig.3.23 DWT Analysis of phase C Feeder at Load switching

The proposed method was tested under different condition where in the test
data set was different than pattern set. When we observe wavelet detail coefficients a
large spike can be found in d1 to d4 which is shown in fig.3.21, 3.22 and 3.23. Hence
feeder 632 and 671 under load switching.
 55

3.13.5 Non- Linear Load Switching:

Non-linear load switching created at feeder bus 645 in phases A, B and in C
at 0.05Sec.to 0.5 Sec. of inception time. Fig. 3.24 exhibits the non-linear load current.

40

20

0
Is

-20

-40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

5
NL

0
I

-5
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (s)

Fig.3.24 Nonlinear load distorted current on phase A

By applying DWT to the current signals for de noising process for all
frequencies and then STD is calculated and given for DT. The output of DT
represents the type of fault in a feeder.

Fig.3.25 DWT Analysis of phase A Feeder at Non- linear Load switching

 56

Fig.3.26 DWT Analysis of phase B Feeder at Non- linear Load switching

Fig.3.27 DWT Analysis of phase C Feeder at Non- linear Load switching

The proposed method was tested under different condition where in the test
data set was different than pattern set. When we observe wavelet detail coefficients a
large spike can be found in d1 to d4 which is shown in fig.3.25, 3.26 and 3.27. Hence
feeder 645 is under non-Linear load switching.
 57

Table 3.9 Pattern Recognition by Decision Tree

S.No. Type of switching Target output Actual output

1 No Switching A F
2 Capacitor Switching on Phase –A B B
3 Capacitor Switching on Phase –B C C
4 Capacitor Switching on Phase –C D D
5 Load Switching on Phase –A E E
6 Load Switching on Phase –B F F
7 Load Switching on Phase –C G G
8 HIF-1 on Phase – A H H
9 HIF-1 on Phase – B I C
10 HIF-1 on Phase - C J M
11 HIF-2 on Phase - A K K
12 HIF-2 on Phase - B L C
13 HIF-2 on Phase – C M M
14 Non-Linear Load Switching N N

The Results obtained for the Algorithm for Decision Tree is tabulated as per
table 3.9. It can be seen that the output and the target pattern, has deviation as
highlighted against S. No 1, 9, 10 and 12. This can be inferred as the algorithm
needing refinement further. To overcome this anomaly, we are proposing the other
method known as Artificial Intelligent techniques as given next chapter.
3.14 CONCLUSION
The overview of the Distribution Feeder has been described. The impacts on
the system for AC faults have been discussed. Undetected Downed conductors create
a HIF which if not detected by conventional relays, poses a serious hazard, with the
possibility of a fire breakup, has been presented in detail. The Distribution Feeder is
simulated in MAT LAB/SIMULINK environment. The operation of the model by
simulating a Decision Tree has been shown.
 58

Wavelet and Decision Tree analysis for HIF faults, load switching, capacitor
switching and switching of Non-Linear loads are presented. The methodology was
verified and many cases analyzed. The Decision Tree works only IF-THEN-ELSE,
with more recovery time and less Pattern Recognition which is not suitable for HIF
faults analysis.
This is overcome by adopting AI techniques such as Fuzzy logic, ANN,
ANFIS and K-NN etc. such that HI faults analysis of the Distribution Feeder can be
done, as explained in next the chapter