Original Article

Journal of Low Frequency Noise,

Vibration and Active Control
Vibration and dynamics analysis 2021, Vol. 40(3) 1 241­–1251
! The Author(s) 2021
of electric vehicle drivetrains DOI: 10.1177/1461348420979204
journals.sagepub.com/home/lfn

Xia Hua and Eric Gandee

Abstract
The importance of the vibration and dynamics of electric vehicle drivetrains has increased because of noise and dura-
bility concerns. In this study, the important dynamic responses of drivetrains, including the dynamic mesh force acting at
the gear teeth, dynamic loads acting at the bearings, and torsional fluctuation of the tire or load under major vibration
excitations, such as motor torque fluctuation excitation and spiral bevel gear mesh excitation, were investigated.
The results demonstrate that at a lower motor speed, dynamic responses such as the dynamic mesh force, dynamic
bearing loads, and dynamic torsional displacement of the tire or load under motor torque fluctuation are dominant. At a
higher motor speed, however, the dynamic responses under the gear mesh excitation are dominant. In addition,
increasing the pinion-motor torsional compliance is an effective approach for suppressing the dynamic responses of
drivetrains under motor torque fluctuation.

Keywords
Vibrations, dynamics, electric vehicle, drivetrain, motor, spiral bevel gear

Introduction
The automobile industry is undergoing a major paradigm shift. The electric vehicle (EV) is becoming more
prominent. Largest automobile manufacturers in the world have announced the investment of billions of dollars
to convert existing factories to ones dedicated to the production of EVs.1 This shows that the largest automakers
in the world are starting to shift their business models to include EV production. From the traditional vehicles to
EVs, there is a dramatic change in the powertrain system configurations. For example, the powertrain of a
traditional rear-wheel-drive automobile is in the form of engine–transmission–axle as shown in Figure 1(a).
In the electric rear-wheel-drive automobile, however, the powertrain is in the form of motor–axle as shown in
Figure 1(b). Although the traditional powertrain has been thoroughly studied, the understanding of the EV
powertrain is deficient—especially the dynamics and vibration characteristics of the EV powertrain. It is impor-
tant to understand the vibration and dynamics characteristics of the EV powertrain more clearly because these
characteristics are an important factor affecting powertrain machine element durability and acoustic noise gen-
eration. As the EV market share grows, so must the understanding of the dynamics and vibration phenomenon
found inside the EV powertrain that makes this technological revolution possible.
Studies have recently been conducted on the noise and vibration of EVs. For example, Zeng et al.2 conducted
an experimental study on resonance sources and vibration transmission for a pure electric bus. Lennstr€ om et al.3
studied the effect of the spatial resolution of the acoustic transfer functions on the estimated interior noise from an
electric rear axle drive. Fang and Zhang4 investigated the influences of the harmonic order noise and switching
noise radiated by a pulse-width-modulation-fed electric powertrain on sound quality. Li et al.5 analyzed the

Weisberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, USA

Corresponding author:
Xia Hua, Weisberg Department of Mechanical Engineering, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755, USA.
Email: huax@marshall.edu
Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission
provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
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Figure 1. Powertrain of a rear-wheel-drive: (a) traditional automobile and (b) electric automobile.

electromagnetic noise of the permanent-magnet motor of an electric city bus at the start and during acceleration
and suggested a method for the noise control of electric buses. Dupont et al.6 developed a simulation process and
optimization approach for the noise radiated by electric motors. A few studies have been conducted on the
dynamics and vibrations of EV drivetrains. For example, Holehouse et al.7 developed an approach for analyzing
the noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) in EV drivetrains. Wegerhof et al.8 developed a NVH validation
methodology for complex elastic multibody simulation models and used this methodology for an electrified
drivetrain. In addition to EVs, research has also been conducted on vibrations in other systems in the recent
years. For example, Esmaeili and Beni9 created a nonlinear size-dependent electromechanical coupling model of a
functionally graded nanobeam and studied the vibration behavior of the nanobeam by using this new model.
They demonstrated that the natural frequency of the nanobeam increases as the flexoelectric coefficient, power
index and size effect diameter increase. Sedighi10 studied the effect of vibrational amplitude on natural frequency
and pull-in stability of actuated microbeam typically used in MEMS applications. Ouakad and Sedighi11 studied
the nonlinear structural vibrational behavior of MEMS arches using a reduced-order numerical modeling
approach. Benchouaf and Boutyyour12 used an asymptotic numerical approach as well as harmonic balance
method for the study of nonlinear vibrational behaviors of a buckled von Karman plate. Salamat and
Mohammad-Sedighi13 used the nonlocal cylindrical shell approach to study the vibrational and dynamics behav-
ior of a single-walled carbon nanotube under the impact of a moving nanoparticle. Big-Alabo and Ossia14 ana-
lytically investigated the coupled nonlinear vibrations of a new fixed-end two-mass system which has different
masses and more applicable to machine design problems.
Previous research on EV drivetrain dynamics has focused on the application of EV drivetrain of an east–west
(E–W) configuration, as shown in Figure 2(b), in which the gearbox is composed of parallel axis gears—typically
helical gears. However, little study has been devoted to the dynamics of EV drivetrains with a north–south (N–S)
configuration, as shown in Figure 2(a), in which the axle is composed of a nonparallel axis gear set, i.e., a spiral
bevel gear set or hypoid gear set. Therefore, the focus of this study was on investigating the vibration and
dynamics characteristics of EV drivetrains with nonparallel axis gears. The major vibration excitations, including
motor torque fluctuation excitation and gear mesh excitation, were considered. The important quantities, includ-
ing the dynamic mesh forces acting at the gear teeth, dynamic loads acting at the bearings, and tire or load
torsional fluctuations, were investigated.

Methodology
A dynamic finite-element model of an EV drivetrain with spiral bevel gears is proposed based on a model reported
previously.15 An electric powertrain system used in industrial applications is modeled. There are 16 nodes in the
entire system model illustrated in Figure 3. The mass and moment of inertia of the pinion and ring gear are
separately lumped at one node located at the center-of-gravity, with gear mesh coupling between the two nodes.
The mass and moment of inertia of the differential assembly are lumped at a single node. The motor mass and
moment of inertia are also lumped into a single node. The pinion shaft and gear shaft are modeled using
Timoshenko beam elements, and consistent mass matrices are applied for beam elements. The bearing stiffness
formulations16,17 used to calculate the 6  6 stiffness matrices of each roller bearing are based on the actual
bearing design. The stiffness matrices representing the bearings connect the ground to the shaft nodes located
at the centers of the bearings. The load and motor shaft are each represented by one node having only a torsional
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Figure 2. Powertrain of (a) North–South (N–S) configuration and (b) East–West (E–W) configuration in a rear-wheel-drive EV.

Figure 3. Dynamics modeling of EV drivetrain with nonparallel axis gears.

degree of freedom, while all other nodes in the system have 6 degrees of freedom. In total, there are 86 degrees of
freedom in the model illustrated in Figure 3. Two vibration excitation sources are considered: motor torque ripple
excitation and gear transmission error excitation.
The mass matrix for the complete dynamics system is obtained as follows

½M� ¼ ½Mpg � þ ½Ms � þ ½MM;L � (1)

where ½Mpg � denotes the gear pair mass matrix for the entire system, ½Ms � denotes the shaft mass matrix for the
entire system, and ½MM;L � denotes the mass matrix of the motor and load for the entire system.
The stiffness matrix for the complete dynamics system is obtained as follows

½K� ¼ ½Kpg � þ ½Ks � þ ½Kb � þ ½Kts � (2)

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where ½Kpg � denotes the gear pair mesh stiffness matrix for the entire system, ½Ks � denotes the shaft stiffness matrix
for the entire system, ½Kb � denotes the bearing stiffness matrix for the entire system, and ½Kts � denotes the stiffness
matrix of the torsional spring elements for the entire system.
The proportional damping matrix for the entire dynamics system is calculated as follows

½C� ¼ fs ð½Ks � þ ½Kb � þ ½Kts �Þ þ fm ½Kpg � (3)

where fs and fm are system damping ratio and gear mesh damping ratio, respectively.
The motor torque ripple excitation for the entire dynamics system can be formulated as follows
 
FM ðtÞ ¼ ½� � � TM � � � �T (4)

where TM is the motor torque ripple.

The gear transmission error excitation for the entire dynamics system can be formulated as

fFg ðtÞg ¼ ½� � � fhp g � � � � fhg g � � � �T ðkm eL þ cm e_ L Þ (5)

where fhp gand fhg g are, respectively, the coordinate transformation vectors between the line-of-action direction
of the spiral bevel gear pair and generalized coordinate directions for pinion and gear, km denotes the gear
mesh stiffness, cm ¼ fm km denotes the gear mesh damping, and eL denotes the loaded translation static transmis-
sion error.
The excitations for the complete dynamics system can then be calculated as
     
FðtÞ ¼ FM ðtÞ þ Fg ðtÞ (6)

The gear mesh stiffness km can be derived as18

km ¼ Ftotal =ðeL � e0 Þ (7)

where Ftotal ; eL and e0 , respectively, denote the total static gear mesh force, the loaded translation static trans-
mission error, and the unloaded translation static transmission error and are calculated by a quasi-static three-
dimensional finite-element tooth contact analysis program.19
The equation of motion for the entire spiral bevel geared rotor dynamics system can be formulated as

€
½M�fXðtÞg _
þ ½C�fXðtÞg þ ½K�fXðtÞg ¼ fFðtÞg (8)

After fXðtÞg is solved from equation (8), the dynamic responses of the pinion Xp g and ring gear fXg g can then
be extracted from fXðtÞg:
The dynamic transmission error for the spiral bevel gear pair can be derived as follows

dd ¼ fhp gfXp g � fhg gfXg g (9)

The dynamic mesh force in the line-of-action direction of the spiral bevel gear pair can be calculated as follows

Fm ¼ km ðdd � eL Þ þ cm ðd_ d � e_ L Þ (10)

where km; cm ; and eL ; respectively, denote the gear mesh stiffness, gear mesh damping, and loaded translation
static transmission error. *
The dynamics* responses of pinion and ring gear, including the
*
axial displacement Xl;axial ðl ¼ p; gÞ, transverse
displacement
*
Xl;trans ðl ¼ p; gÞ, torsional displacement Xl;torsion ðl ¼ p; gÞ, and bending displacement
Xl;bend ðl ¼ p; gÞ can be formulated as follows
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*
Xl;axial ¼ Xl ð1Þ � ^i (11)

*
Xl;trans ¼ Xl ð2Þ � ^j þ Xl ð3Þ � k^ (12)

*
Xl;torsion ¼ Xl ð4Þ � ^i (13)

*
Xl;bend ¼ Xl ð5Þ � ^j þ Xl ð6Þ � k^ (14)

The bearing load Fbi g ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ at each of the four bearings can be calculated as

Fbi g ¼ ½Kbi �fXbi g þ fs ½Kbi �fX_ bi g (15)

where Xbi g ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ denotes the dynamic displacement of a shaft node at one of the bearing locations and
½Kbi � ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ denotes the stiffness matrix of an individual bearing. *
The bearing *
load at each individual bearing, including bearing axial
*
forces Fbi;axial ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ, bearing trans-
verse forces Fbi;trans ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ, and bearing bending moments Mbi;bend ði ¼ 1;2; 3;4Þ can be calculated as
*
Fbi;axial ¼ Fbi ð1Þ � ^i (16)

*
Fbi;trans ¼ Fbi ð2Þ � ^j þ Fbi ð3Þ � k^ (17)

*
Mbi;bend ¼ Fbi ð5Þ � ^j þ Fbi ð6Þ � k^ (18)

System parameters
A torque fluctuation is superposed on the nominal driving torque acting on the motor shaft, while the torque on
the load component is maintained at a constant nominal value. A three-phase electric motor with one pair of poles
is employed in this study. The torque ripple magnitude is assumed to be 20% of the nominal driving torque with a
frequency of six times the motor shaft rotational frequency. The spiral bevel gear mesh frequency is equal to the
number of pinion teeth (i.e., 14) times the motor shaft rotational frequency. The system parameters are listed in
Table 1.

Results
Figure 4 shows the dynamic mesh force responses subjected to the excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b)
gear transmission error, and (c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error. Figure 4(a) shows the
dynamic mesh force response calculated under the excitation of motor torque fluctuation and plotted as a func-
tion of motor shaft speed and motor torque fluctuation frequency. As the motor shaft speed or motor torque
fluctuation frequency increases, the dynamic mesh force generally decreases. Moreover, Figure 4(b) shows the
dynamic mesh force response calculated under the excitation of gear transmission error and plotted as a function
of motor shaft speed and gear mesh frequency. As the motor shaft speed or gear mesh frequency increases, the
dynamic mesh force generally increases and then fluctuates around a constant value. In Figure 4(a) and (b), the
main peaks are found at frequencies of 16, 46, 441, 726, and 800 Hz and higher. This indicates that the main spiral
bevel gear pair torsional resonance is considerably excited by either the motor torque fluctuation or the gear
transmission error. It can be observed that, for the same motor shaft speed, the spiral bevel gear mesh frequency is
higher than the motor torque ripple frequency; therefore, as shown in Figure 4(c), as the motor shaft speed
increases, the main gear pair torsional resonance is excited first by the gear mesh excitation and then by motor
torque ripple. In addition, at a lower motor speed, in general, the dynamic mesh force subjected to motor torque
ripple is greater than that subjected to gear mesh excitation. However, at a higher motor speed, in general, the
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Table 1. System parameters.

Loading parameters
Operating condition Drive
Motor torque 350 Nm

Gear parameters
Pinion Gear

Number of teeth 14 45
Pitch angle (rad) 0.4 1.3
Pitch radius (mm) 67 215
Spiral angle (rad) 0.5 0.5
Face width (mm) 63 63
Type Left hand Right hand
Loaded side Concave Convex

Shaft parameters
Pinion shaft Gear shaft

Outer diameter (mm) 90 120

Inner diameter (mm) 0 0
Young’s modulus (GPa) 207 207
Poisson’s ratio 0.3 0.3

Bearing parameters
Bearing #1 Bearing #2

kxx (N/m) 8.9e8 3.3e8

kxy (N/m) 2.1e1 1.7e1
kxz (N/m) 1.0e2 1.7e2
kxhy (N/rad) 1.7 2.9
kxhz (N/rad) 4.9e-1 1.2e-1
kyy (N/m) 8.9e9 8.6e9
kyz (N/m) 1.3e1 4.6
kyhy (N/rad) 2.5e-1 3.1e-1
kyhz (N/rad) 1.5e8 1.5e8
kzz (N/m) 8.9e9 8.6e9
kzhy (N/rad) 1.5e8 1.5e8
kzhz (N/rad) 2.5e-1 3.1e-1
khyhy (Nm/rad) 3.9e6 3.6e6
khyhz (Nm/rad) 7.3e-3 1.0e-2
khzhz (Nm/rad) 3.9e6 3.6e6

Bearing #3 Bearing #4

kxx (N/m) 1.9e9 1.1e9

kxy (N/m) –7.9 4.0e1
kxz (N/m) 2.0e2 –7.4e1
kxhy (N/rad) 3.7 1.7
kxhz (N/rad) –1.4 –2.8e-1
kyy (N/m) 1.0e10 5.0e9
kyz (N/m) 5.8e1 2.2e1
kyhy (N/rad) –7.2e-1 –3.4e-1
kyhz (N/rad) –2.6e8 1.2e8
Kzz (N/m) 1.0e10 5.0e9
kzhy (N/rad) 2.6e8 –1.2e8
kzhz (N/rad) 7.2e-1 3.4e-1
khyhy (Nm/rad) 7.6e6 3.1e6
khyhz (Nm/rad) –2.7e-2 2.0e-3
khzhz (Nm/rad) 7.6e6 3.1e6

Dynamic parameters
Mesh damping ratio 0.06
System (support components) damping ratio 0.02

Motor shaft Load

Torsional moment of inertia (kgm2) 2.6 5.2

Torsional spring connected to motor shaft Torsional spring connected to load

Torsional stiffness (kN/m) 12 74

Pinion Gear Differential

Mass (kg) 12.6 34.2 81.9

Torsional moment of inertia (kgm2) 0.05 1.0 0.9
Bending moment of inertia (kgm2) 0.02 0.9 0.9
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Figure 4. Dynamic mesh force response subjected to excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission error, and
(c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error.

Figure 5. Dynamic force at Bearing #1 subjected to excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission error, and
(c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error.
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dynamic mesh force subjected to motor torque ripple is smaller than that subjected to gear mesh excitation.
Furthermore, as the motor speed increases, the difference in the dynamic mesh force responses under the two
types of excitations generally becomes larger.
Figures 5 and 6, respectively, show the dynamic force and dynamic bending moment at Bearing #1 subjected to
the excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission error, and (c) motor torque fluctuation and
gear transmission error. Because the findings for the dynamic force and dynamic bending moment at the four
bearings are similar, the result for Bearing #1 is illustrated here as an example. In general, the findings for the

Figure 6. Dynamic bending moment at Bearing #1 subjected to excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission
error, and (c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error.

Figure 7. Dynamic bearing forces subjected to motor torque fluctuation.

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Figure 8. Dynamic torsional displacement of load subjected to excitation of (a) motor torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission
error, and (c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error.

Figure 9. Effect of pinion-motor torsional stiffness on (a) dynamic mesh force, (b) dynamic torsional displacement of load, and (c)
dynamic force at Bearing #4, subjected to the excitation of motor torque fluctuation.
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dynamic bearing force and bending moment are similar to those for the dynamic mesh force as shown in Figure 4.
As the motor speed increases, the bearing force and bending moment subjected to motor torque fluctuation
generally decrease, while the bearing force and bending moment subjected to the gear transmission error excita-
tion generally increase and then flatten. In a low motor speed range, the bearing force and bending moment are
generally larger under the motor torque fluctuation than under the gear transmission error. In a high motor speed
range, the phenomenon is reversed.
The dynamic forces at the four bearings subjected to motor torque fluctuation are compared in Figure 7. At a
low motor speed or in a low motor torque fluctuation frequency range in which the excited gear pair torsional
modes are minorly coupled with shaft bending, the difference among the dynamic forces at the four bearings is
generally small. At a high motor speed or in a high motor torque fluctuation frequency range, in which the excited
gear pair torsional modes are significantly coupled with shaft bending, the difference among dynamic forces at
different bearings is generally more significant.
Figure 8 shows the dynamic torsional displacement of load or tire subjected to the excitation of (a) motor
torque fluctuation, (b) gear transmission error, and (c) motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error.
As the motor speed increases, the dynamic torsional displacement of the load subjected to motor torque fluctu-
ation or gear transmission error generally decreases. The dynamic torsional displacement of the load is generally
larger under the excitation of motor torque fluctuation than under the excitation of gear transmission error in a
lower motor speed range but is smaller under the excitation of motor torque fluctuation than under the excitation
of gear transmission error in a higher motor speed range.
The influence of the stiffness of the torsional spring connecting the motor shaft and pinion shaft, represented
by Ktsp , on the dynamic mesh force response, dynamic torsional displacement of load, and dynamic bearing force
subjected to the excitation of motor torque fluctuation was investigated. Because the findings for dynamic bearing
forces at the four bearings are similar, the dynamic force at Bearing #4 is used here as an example. The results are
shown in Figure 9(a) to (c). As Ktsp decreases from 10 to 1 kN/m and finally to 0.1 kN/m, the dynamic mesh force,
dynamic torsional displacement of load, and dynamic force at Bearing #4 generally decrease in a wide frequency
range. This demonstrates that increasing pinion-motor torsional compliance is an effective approach for reducing
the various dynamic responses subjected to motor torque fluctuation.

Conclusions
The dynamics and vibrations of EV drivetrain systems with nonparallel axis gears subjected to vibration excita-
tion sources, including motor torque fluctuation and gear transmission error, were predicted. The results dem-
onstrate that, at a lower motor speed, the dynamic responses, including dynamic mesh force, dynamic bearing
loads, and dynamic torsional displacement of load or tire subjected to motor torque fluctuation, are larger than
those subjected to gear mesh excitation. At a higher motor speed, however, the dynamic responses subjected to
motor torque fluctuation are smaller than those subjected to gear mesh excitation. In a low motor speed or motor
torque fluctuation frequency range in which the excited gear pair torsional modes are minorly coupled with shaft
bending, the difference among dynamic loads at the four bearings under motor torque fluctuation is generally
small. However, in a high motor speed or motor torque fluctuation range in which the excited gear pair torsional
modes are significantly coupled with shaft bending, the difference among dynamic loads at the four bearings
under motor torque fluctuation is more significant. The results also show that increasing pinion-motor torsional
compliance is an effective approach for reducing the system dynamic responses subjected to motor torque fluc-
tuation. This investigation provides an important guidance from the viewpoint of dynamics and vibrations to
automotive and vehicle engineers designing EV drivetrains.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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ORCID iD
Xia Hua https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0412-4329

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