2.

1 Gas exchange

http://napavalley.edu/people/bmoore/PublishingImages/Pages/Histol
ogy-Page/Diaphragm%20100X.bmp
Objectives

2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living

organisms (large surface area to volume ratio, thickness of surface
and difference in concentration)
2.1 (ii) understand how the rate of diffusion is dependent on these
properties and can be calculated using Fick’s Law of Diffusion
2.1 (iii) understand how the structure of the mammalian lung is
adapted for rapid gaseous exchange
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Organisms require a supply of chemical substances e.g.

glucose and oxygen for cellular respiration. These are usually
transported from outside of a cell into a cell.

While respiration supplies energy for other other reactions of

life, it also produces waste products (e.g. carbon dioxide)
that need to be removed from the cells or else they may
cause damage to the living organism.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

To undergo aerobic respiration, living

organisms need oxygen and produce waste
carbon dioxide.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

An amoeba is a eukaryotic
(complex) organism that is
microscopic in size and
moves via retracting arm-
like pseudopods.

Single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular

organisms do not need a specialized system for gas exchange.
Why?
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Surface area to volume ratio:

Surface area and volume are both very important

factors in the exchange of materials in organisms
• Surface area refers to the total area of the
organism that is exposed to the external
environment
• Volume refers to the total internal volume of the
organism (total amount of space inside the
organism)
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

We use models to assist our understanding of SA:Vol ratio.

SA = 6(42)
SA = 6(16)
SA = 96mm2
VOL = 43 = 64
SA: VOL
4mm Cube
= 96:64 = 3:2
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Surface
Length of Volume Surface area Area:
side (mm) (mm3) (mm2) Volume
Ratio
1
5
10

TASK: Practice now. Complete this table and describe what

occurs as a CUBE becomes larger. What effect(s) will this
have?
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Surface
Length of Volume Surface area Area:
side (mm) (mm3) (mm2) Volume
Ratio
1 1 6 6:1
5 125 150 1.2 : 1
10 1000 600 0.6 : 1

Conclusion: As the overall ‘size’ of the organism increases, the surface area
to volume ratio decreases. This is because volume increases much more
rapidly than surface area as size increases.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Surface area to volume ratio is the key factor that

determines whether or not the organism has a specialized
gas exchange system or any other specialized transport
systems (e.g. circulatory system).
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Single-celled organisms and small microscopic

multicellular organisms have a large surface area
to volume ratio
• Substances diffuse into or out
of a cell through the cell
membrane (the “surface”)
• Their surface area in contact
with the outside environment is
very large when compared to
the volume of the inside of the
organism (i.e. large surface
area to volume ratio SA:Vol)
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Single-celled organisms and small microscopic

multicellular organisms have a large surface area
to volume ratio

• They have less parts and

less demand for nutrients
and energy
• They do not regulate their
own temperature and the
cells do not use much
oxygen/nutrient or produce
much carbon dioxide
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

The SA:Vol ratio of

this tiny jellyfish larva
is relatively large, so
simple diffusion is
enough to supply all
its needs and remove
waste products.

Single-celled organisms and microscopic multicellular

organisms can achieve all their needs/removal of wastes by
diffusion so they do not need specialized transport systems.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Why do larger sophisticated animals like mammals

require transport systems?

• Larger organisms require specialised mass

transport systems for a number of reasons:
(1) Increasing transport distances
(2) Surface area: volume ratio decreases
(3) Increasing levels of activity
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Large organisms
(1) Increasing transport distances
• In larger and more complexed organisms (both
plants and animals), the important exchange
sites tend to be far away from the other cells
within the organism
• This large transport distance makes simple
diffusion a non-viable and inefficient method
for transporting substances all the way from
the exchange site to the rest of the organism
– Diffusion wouldn’t be fast enough to meet the
metabolic requirements of cells
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Large organisms
(2) Surface area to volume ratio decreases
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Large organisms

(2) Surface area to volume ratio decreases

• There is less surface area for the absorption of
nutrients and gases and excretion of waste
products.
• In addition, the greater volume results in
a longer diffusion distance to the cells and
tissues of the organism.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Large organisms

(3) Increasing levels of activity

2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Large organisms

(3) Increasing levels of activity

• Larger organisms are not only more physically active
but they also contain more cells than smaller
organisms
• More cells results in a higher level of metabolic
activity
– As a result, the demand for oxygen and nutrients is
greater and more waste is produced
• The increased demand for oxygen and nutrients along
with the greater need for the disposal of waste means
that diffusion is not an efficient transport mechanism
for larger organisms
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Once SA:VOL is too small, we

have to think about many ways
to supply all of our cells and
remove waste products in more
efficient way. .

Imagine trucks delivering to

different areas at different
times. One way would not work.
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)

Complex organisms have evolved to have specialized

gas exchange systems which take in oxygen and
remove carbon dioxide

Fish use gills

Humans and many large

land animals use lungs
Insects use the tracheal system
 understand
(i) know
2.1 (ii) how theof
the properties rate
gasofexchange
diffusion issurfaces
dependent on these
in living properties
organisms and
(large can be
surface calculated
area using
to volume Fick’s
ratio,
thickness
Law of surface and difference in concentration)
of Diffusion

Gases are exchanged by simple diffusion

Faster diffusion across a membrane can be achieved by:

• Larger surface area to volume ratio
• Steeper concentration gradient of the particles diffusing - Large concentration
gradient means more particles on one side of a membrane compared with the
other; this allows faster diffusion.
• Thinner exchange surfaces (the shorter diffusion distance).
 understand
(i) know
2.1 (ii) how theof
the properties rate
gasofexchange
diffusion issurfaces
dependent on these
in living properties
organisms and
(large can be
surface calculated
area using
to volume Fick’s
ratio,
thickness
Law of surface and difference in concentration)
of Diffusion

Fick's Law of Diffusion

Fick's Law relates the rate of diffusion to the concentration gradient, the
diffusion distance and the surface area.

surface area x concentration difference

rate of diffusion ∝
thickness of exchange membrane or barriers

The rate of diffusion will double if:

1. surface area or concentration difference is doubled or
2. thickness of the exchange membrane is halved.
 understand
(i) know
2.1 (ii) how theof
the properties rate
gasofexchange
diffusion issurfaces
dependent on these
in living properties
organisms and
(large can be
surface calculated
area using
to volume Fick’s
ratio,
thickness
Law of surface and difference in concentration)
of Diffusion

surface area x concentration difference

rate of diffusion ∝
thickness of exchange membrane or barriers

Question:
The cell membrane has a thickness of 10 nm.
Describe what happens to the rate of diffusion of oxygen into the cell if
the thickness changes to 20 nm.

Answer: the rate of diffusion will halve

 understand
(i) know
2.1 (ii) how theof
the properties rate
gasofexchange
diffusion issurfaces
dependent on these
in living properties
organisms and
(large can be
surface calculated
area using
to volume Fick’s
ratio,
thickness
Law of surface and difference in concentration)
of Diffusion

Faster diffusion across a membrane can be achieved by:

• Larger surface area to volume ratio
• Steeper concentration gradient of the particles diffusing
• Thinner exchange surfaces (the shorter diffusion distance).
In addition to the above, an effective gas exchange system also has:
• rich blood supply to the respiratory surfaces to maintain a steep
concentration gradient
• moist surfaces to dissolve gases for diffusion
• permeable surfaces that allow free passage of respiratory gases
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Nasal cavity
• main route for air to enter the
system
• has relatively large surface area but
no gas exchange takes place here
• has good blood supply to to warm
the air
• the lining secretes mucus and is
covered with hair
• the hairs and mucus filter out and
remove dust, small particles and
pathogens such as bacteria in
inhaled air. This protects the lungs
from damage and infection
• moist surfaces increase the level of
water vapor in the air
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Mouth

air enter the gas exchange

system, but misses out on
the cleaning, warming and
moistening effects of the
nasal route
Epiglottis

A flap of tissue that closes

over the glottis in a reflex
action when food is
swallowed, preventing food
from entering the gas
exchange system
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Larynx
The voice box, which uses the
flow of air across it to produce
sounds.

Trachea
The major airway to the
bronchi, lined with cells
including mucus-secreting
goblet cells. Cilia on the
surface of the trachea move
mucus and any trapped
microorganisms and dust
away from the lungs
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Incomplete rings of cartilage

Prevent the trachea and bronchi
from collapsing but allow food to
be swallowed down the
esophagus

Left and right bronchi

Tubes that lead to the lungs and
are similar in structure to the
trachea but narrower. They divide
to form bronchioles
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Bronchioles
Small tubes that spread through
the lungs and end in alveoli.
Their main function is still as an
airway, but some gas exchange
may occur.

Alveoli
The main site of gas exchange
in the lungs
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Ribs:
Protective bony cage
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Intercostal muscles:
Found between the ribs
and it is important in
breathing. They allow air
to move into and out of
the lungs to maintain a
steep concentration
gradient for rapid gas
exchange.
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Pleural membrane:
Surround the lungs and
line the chest cavity
forming a sterile, sealed
unit

Pleural cavity:
Space between the pleural
membranes, usually filled
with a thin layer of
lubricating fluid that allows
the membranes to slide
easily with breathing
movements
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The human gas exchange system

Diaphragm:
Broad sheet of tissue
made of tendon and
muscle that forms the
floor of the chest cavity,
also important in
breathing
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Alveoli (singular: alveolus) are

tiny air sacs responsible for
most of the gas exchange in
human lungs.
Each alveolus:
Alveoli
- is made of a single layer of flatten
epithelial cells
- has dense network of blood capillaries
that surround it
- held to the blood capillary’s wall by a
layer of elastic connective tissue, which
plays a role in exhalation
- is coated by a layer of lung surfactant (a
special phospholipid) that prevents the
alveoli from collapsing
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Between the alveolar wall and capillary wall is a layer of elastic

connective tissue, which holds them together. This tissue stretches
during inhalation and then helps to force air out of the lungs – known
as elastic recoil of the lungs.

Both the alveolar walls and the capillaries walls are very thin (p.s. one-cell
thick), providing a very short distance for diffusion (about 0.5-1.5
micrometers).
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Alveolar air has a relatively

high oxygen content and a
relatively low carbon dioxide
content.

Blood has a relatively

low oxygen content and
a relatively high carbon
dioxide content.
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The alveoli provide an enormous surface area for gas exchange (about 10-18 table
tennis tables).
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The air within the alveoli is constantly being refreshed with air by inhalation. The
continuous blood flow in capillaries maintains a steep concentration gradient on the
capillary side.

Movement of gases into

and out of the alveoli is
mainly by diffusion, but
the movement of air into
and out of the lungs is
by a mass transport
system.
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

TASK: Compare the change in percentage of gases in the human gas

exchange system

Gas Percentage of gas in:

Inspired air Alveolar air Expired air
oxygen 20.70 13.20 14.50
carbon dioxide 0.04 5.00 3.90
nitrogen 78.00 75.60 75.40
water vapor 1.24 6.20 6.20
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Presence of phagocytic white blood cells to keep alveoli free of most pathogen
(disease-causing microorganisms).
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

The liquid lung surfactant on the inner surface of alveoli is a special phospholipid that
helps lower surface tension, which keeps the alveoli from collapsing after exhalation
and makes breathing easy.
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/s
tudent_view0/chapter25/animation__gas_exchange_d
uring_respiration.html
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Summary
Why do we need a ventilation system?
We are large organisms.
• Oxygen cannot diffuse into all our cells
directly from the air, nor can waste
products be directly ejected from the
body.
• We have specialized organ systems, which
are efficient, but need delivery of
nutrients and removal of waste. The
ventilation system ensures the blood can
be the medium for this.

Diagram from: http://www.sciencequiz.net/jcscience/jcbiology/gapfilling/breathingsystem.htm

2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Summary
Why do we need a ventilation system?
We are land-borne.
• Gases need moist surfaces (membranes) in order
to diffuse. Our lungs are moist membranes,
allowing oxygen to diffuse into the blood and
carbon dioxide to diffuse out.

Diagram from: http://www.sciencequiz.net/jcscience/jcbiology/gapfilling/breathingsystem.htm

2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Summary
Why do we need a ventilation system?
The ventilation system maintains a large
concentration gradient between the alveoli and
the blood.
• The constant flow of past the alveoli brings
blood with a high CO2 concentration and low
O2 concentration.
• Breathing out keeps the CO2 concentration in
the alveoli low, so it diffuses out of the blood.
• Breathing in keeps O2 concentration in the
alveoli high, so it diffuses into the blood.

Diagram from: http://www.sciencequiz.net/jcscience/jcbiology/gapfilling/breathingsystem.htm

2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Breathing / ventilation
Inhalation Exhalation
2.1 (i)
2.1 (iii)know the properties
understand howofthe
gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces in living organisms
the mammalian (large surface
lung is adapted area to
for rapid volume ratio,
gaseous
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Video of ventilation / breathing

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NM3PK5qy9uA
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange
Summary of the mechanics of ventilation / breathing
Active inhalation Passive exhalation
energy needed? yes no
diaphragm contracts relaxes
(flattens, moves downwards) (moves upwards into its resting domed
shape)
abdominal muscles relax
external intercostal contract relax
muscles
ribcage movement upward and outward downward and inward
volume of chest increase decrease
cavity
pressure inside decrease increase
chest cavity (hence, air enters the lungs (hence, air moves out of the lungs
because air pressure within the because air pressure in the chest cavity
chest cavity is lower than the is greater than that of the atmospheric
atmospheric air pressure); air air pressure)
moves into the lungs until the
pressure inside and outside
equalizes
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

How can singers maintain long, powerful notes?

2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

How can singers maintain long, powerful notes?

by forced exhalation
Passive exhalation Force exhalation
Energy needed? No Yes
diaphragm relaxes
(moves upwards into its resting domed shape)
abdominal contract (pushes diaphragm upwards)
muscles
intercostal Relaxation of external Contraction of internal intercostal
muscles intercoastal muscles muscles
ribcage downward and inward
movement
volume of chest decrease
cavity
air pressure increase (air moves out of the lungs because air pressure in the chest cavity
inside chest is greater than that of the atmospheric air pressure); air moves out of the
cavity lungs until the air pressure inside the chest cavity is the same as that of the
atmospheric air
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

Coughing is another form of forced

exhalation which is used to force mucus out
from the respiratory system.
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

THINK: What else can we

Protecting the lungs do to protect out lungs?
• Presence of phagocytic white blood cells in alveoli
• Runny mucus along the airway that traps tiny particles (e.g. dust, pollen grains and
smoke particles) and pathogens (i.e. microorganisms that cause disease such as
bacteria and virus)
• Cilia sweeps mucus upwards to the throat for removal by spitting out or swallowing
to stomach
• Stomach acids and digestive enzymes digest the mucus and everything in it,
including pathogens.
2.1 (i)
(iii)know
understand howofthe
the properties gasstructure
exchangeofsurfaces
the mammalian lung is adapted
in living organisms for rapid
(large surface gaseous
area to volume ratio,
thickness of surface and difference in concentration)
exchange

http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP15104
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
ExtraCauses
6.4.A2
thickness information
and consequences
of surface and difference of
in emphysema.
concentration)

Emphysema
The main cause of emphysema is smoking but it
can also develop in people with a long history of
chest infections. emphysema can also be caused by
air pollution. All of which cause an inflammatory
response in the lungs.
Protease is released by leukocytes (white blood
cells) and inflamed lung tissue. The protease breaks
down the connective tissue, such as elastin) of the
lungs. This results in the destruction of small airways
and alveoli. This results in the formation of large air
pockets and the breakdown of capillaries.

Consequently large air pockets have a much lower

surface area to volume ratio than the alveoli which
causes insufficient ventilation. When combined with
the reduced blood supply this in turn means
inefficient gas exchange and hence low blood oxygen Symptoms include:
levels. • Difficulty breathing
• Cough
Emphysema is not curable, but there are • Loss of appetite
treatments that can help you manage the disease • Weight loss

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blausen_0343_Emphysema.png
2.1 (i) know the properties of gas exchange surfaces in living organisms (large surface area to volume ratio,
ExtraCauses
6.4.A2
thickness information
and consequences
of surface and difference of
in emphysema.
concentration)
“Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer in the U.S.”
http://www.cancer.gov/types/lung
Lung cancer is cancer that starts in the windpipe (trachea),
the main airway (bronchus) or the lung tissue.

By far the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. It causes more

than 8 out of 10 cases (86%) including a small proportion caused by
exposure to second hand smoke in non smokers (passive smoking).
Some other things increase lung cancer
Like most cancers lung cancer, if untreated, will end with risk by a small amount:
death. Because detection of lung cancer is difficult it is often • Exposure to radon (a radioactive) gas
only diagnosed in the later stages. As a consequence only • Air pollution
10% of those diagnosed will survive for 5 years. • Previous lung disease
• A family history of lung cancer
• Past cancer treatment
The symptoms of lung cancer may include:
• Previous smoking related cancers
• Being short of breath
• Lowered immunity
• Having a cough most of the time
• Coughing up phlegm with blood
• An ache or pain in the chest or shoulder
• Loss of appetite
• Tiredness/fatigue
• Losing weight

http://spacecoastdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Cigarette-Smoking-is-Mainly-Causes-of-Lung-Cancer.jpg
Source: http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/type/lung-cancer/