Statistics

Psychology is the science of human behaviour. So, one might wonder, what is the utility of
the special form of mathematics called statistics in psychology. The answer lies in the fact
that statistical analysis is a powerful tool for psychological research. Psychologists use
statistics for a number of reasons like finding relationships and correlations among different
things, using results to draw more general conclusions about certain human behaviour.

1. USING STATISTICS:

In psychology, majority of studies or research is designed to yield a series of scores or

numerical data. Then it is required to properly organise the scores or data and subsequently
interpret the data by following particular rules or steps. All these scores or data should be
analysed and expressed in terms of some structured measurement and calculation procedures,
which is otherwise known as statistics. According to Garrett (1966), “Statistics is a branch of
mathematics which deals with the analysis of complex numerical data, that is, data influenced
by several causes". It is 'the science which has to do with the collection and classification of
numerical facts regarding a large group of persons or things'. Statistical analysis generally
proceeds with following steps-

1. First of all, collection of various numerical data from sample groups.

2. Secondly, summarising or tabulating all the scores obtained from different sample groups.

3. Thirdly, analysing the tabulated scores by using different statistical computations.

4. Fourthly, interpreting the results.

5. Fifthly, qualitative representation of the results through bar diagrams, pie charts, line
graph, frequency polygon or histogram.
6. Lastly, a comprehensive conclusion is drawn based on all of the calculations and
interpretations.

Statistics is a flexible tool and can be used for different purposes. In psychology, however,
they are usually employed to accomplish one or more of the following tasks- [1]
Summarising or describing large amounts of data; [2] Comparing individuals or groups of
individuals in different ways; [3] Determining whether certain aspects of behaviour are
related; [4] Predicting future behaviour from current information.

1.1 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF STATISTICS:

In psychology, whenever an experiment is conducted, it gives certain sample of scores. This

data seems meaningless and unless they are grouped to some convenient level of precision.
So, the data is grouped into a frequency distribution table. It gives a summary of how often
different scores occur within a. sample of scores. However, this summary gives a rough idea
of the way the set of scores is distributed. But, more precision is needed in statistics. Such
precision is provided by descriptive statistics. These statistics gives a summary of the major
characteristics of the sample of scores. Generally, it provides an index of the middle score of
the entire sample of scores. This is called measures of central tendency. There are three
important measures of central tendency-Mean, Median and Mode.

Mean is the arithmetic average of a set of given numbers. It is denoted by the letter 'M'. It is
the most common measure of central tendency.

Descriptive statistics also gives an index of the extent to which the scores are spread out
around the midpoint of the sample of scores. This is called measures of variability or
dispersion. The simplest measure of variability is range. It is the difference between the
highest and lowest score. Another important measure of variability is standard deviation. It
reflects the average distance between each score and the mean. It is denoted by σ.

Another crucial concept commonly used in statistics is z-score. It represents the distance
between the raw score and the mean. It is expressed in units of standard deviation. z-score is
negative when raw score is below the mean and vice versa. It can be plotted on a normal
probability curve.

The Normal Probability Curve (NPC), is a bell-shaped curve. It is a symmetrical curve.

This means the right half of the curve is equivalent to the left half of the curve. The middle
line of the NPC denotes the mean. It is indicated by letter '0'. If the total area of the NPC is
100%, then the mean line divides the NPC curve into two equal parts, each comprising 50%.

The entire area under the NPC is divided into different standard deviation units. The right
side of the mean in the NPC is denoted by 10, 20, etc., while the left side is denoted by –l0, -
20, etc. Right side of the mean includes students having scores higher than mean while left
side includes students having scores lower than mean.

1.2 IMPORTANT STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES-AN EXPLANATION:

Statistical techniques are required to ensure that the data is interpreted correctly. Some of the
statistical techniques pertaining to the project work are illustrated in the following section.

*Drawing up of a Frequency Distribution Table:

The data collected from tests and experiments have to be arranged or classified in a
systematic way to be able to use it effectively and meaningfully. The method of arranging the
raw into a frequency distribution table is illustrated below-

1. A range or gap between the highest and the lowest score in the raw data is to be
determined.

Range = Highest score - Lowest score

2. The numbers of classification grouping are to be decided. The length of the class interval
or group interval is normally 3, 5 or 10 units, as they are easier for later calculations. On the
basis of the range, approximate numbers of class intervals are obtained. So, an appropriate
length of class interval needs to be chosen so that the data is neither spread out too much, nor
too crowded and the numbers of class intervals are between 10-15 units. A class interval of 5
units would have the units, for example, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (0-4) and the next interval would have 5,
6, 7, 8, 9 (5-9).

3. The scores need to be tallied at the proper class interval. The total number of tallies for
each class interval would give the frequency of that class interval. The sum of the frequency
should be equal to the number of scores tallied.

**Calculation of the Mean by the Short method:

The mean of the scores tabulated into a frequency distribution table is calculated. The mean
gives us a representative score of all the scores of the group. Thus, we get a very concise
description of the nature of the scores. The mean also helps us to compare the performance or
behaviour under study of two or more groups. To calculate mean, the following steps need to
be followed -

1. The assumed mean needs to be calculated. Guess or assume a mean at first. It is best to
take the midpoint of the class interval at the centre of the distribution. preferably the class
interval with the highest or second highest frequency.

2. Next the x' needs to be calculated. The x' stands for the deviation of the midpoints of the
class intervals from the assumed mean in the units of class interval. The x' score
corresponding to the assumed mean will be 0. The x' score of the class intervals lesser than
the class interval that has the assumed mean will have negative scores, and those that are
greater will have positive scores. So, from 0 x' score, the x' scores will go as -1, - 2, - 3, etc.
towards the lesser class intervals. While at the greater class intervals, the scores will go as 1,
2, 3, etc.

Then the frequency of the class interval is to be multiplied by the x' score of that class
interval and the column ƒχ' is filled.

4. The ƒχ' column is added up to give us the summation of fx' score. This score helps us to
get the correction (C) score. The C is needed as the mean is computed by assuming or
guessing the mean.

5. Hence, the mean is calculated by the following formula according to short cut method-

Mean = AM + Cἰ

where, AM = assumed mean; C = correction term; i = length of the class interval and, C =
Ʃƒχ' / N; where, f = frequency, x' = deviation of the midpoints of the class interval from the
AM in the units of class interval; N = total number of scores or Ʃƒ

***Calculation of the Standard Deviation (SD):

After the mean of a distribution is computed, a measure of variability of the distribution

needs to be found. The measures of variability show how much the individual scores are
scattered or spread around the central tendency score. A low measure of variability denotes
that the scores lie near the central tendency, signifying that the group is similar or
homogeneous. A high measure of variability, on the other hand, denotes that the scores are
far away and very scattered from the central tendency. This signifies that the group is not
well described by the central tendency. In other words, it is a heterogeneous group. One of
the common measure of variability is standard deviation. Standard deviation can be
calculated by the following method-

1. First calculate the x'. Then the square of x' is calculated. Note here that all the negative
scores are also turned into positive in this column.

2. Then, x' is multiplied by the frequency score of that class interval. The scores of this
column are added up to yield Ʃƒχ'- score. The standard deviation (denoted as σ ) is thus,
computed by the formula -

σ =i (Ʃfx'2 / N – C2

where, f is the frequency, x' is deviation of the midpoints of the class interval from the
assumed mean in the units of the class interval, N = total number of scores or Ʃf, C is
correction term (Ʃfx/N )

****Calculation of the z-score:

The z-score is calculated to carry out the individual analysis of the data. It generally enables
to compare two scores. This scores also gives the idea of percentage of cases lying below and
above a particular score. It is calculated by the following formula-

z=X-M/σ
#GUIDELINES FOR PROJECT WORK ON STATISTICS:
The aim is to study the group differences in examination results between two same classes of
different schools or two separate sections of same class of same school. The steps or
guidelines for the project work are summarised below-

1.Selection of group: Students of two different classes or two different sections of same
class are to be selected. All the students must be of same age, sex.

2. Data collection: Marks obtained in an examination of a particular year by each student of

two sections of a particular class or two same classes of different schools are to be collected.
If the sample groups are from different schools, the schools should be of same board. The
subject and syllabus of the examination should also be same.

3.Statistical analysis: The raw data or primary data of two groups are to be tabulated or
distributed in groups by a suitable frequency distribution table. After tabulation, data need to
be analysed using statistical calculations. Firstly, group analysis is been done using two
statistical measurement procedures-Measurement of Central Tendency (Mean) and
Variability (Standard Deviation). The statistical treatments are to be used for two groups
separately. Then, a comparison on the basis of the results of two groups' Mean and SD score
should be done. After group analysis, individual analysis needs to be carried out. The marks
of any two individual students from each group are to be selected randomly. One of the
student's marks must be above the mean of the group and another student's marks is below
the mean of the group. Then z-score is to be computed for the selected students and
interpretation of the z-score is to be done. Qualitative analysis may be done by graphical
representation using bar diagram or pie charts or any other method to be chosen solely by the
student.
##A SAMPLE PROJECT WORK ON STATISTICS
1.General Problem: On Statistics.

2. Specific Problem: To study the group and individual differences in examination

results/marks of the students (two different sections of class XII) for English, in a particular
year by using statistical methods.

3. Basic Concept: According to Garrett (1966), 'Statistics is a branch of mathematics which

deals with the analysis of complex numerical data, that is, data influenced by several causes'.
It is 'the science which has to do with the collection and classification of numerical facts
regarding a large group of persons or things'. Statistics is a flexible tool and can be used for
many different purposes. In psychology, however, it is usually employed to accomplish one
or more of the following tasks-[i] Summarising or describing large amounts of data; [ii]
Comparing individuals or groups of individuals in different ways; [iii] Determining whether
certain aspects of behaviour are related; [iv] Predicting future behaviour from current
information.

4. Preliminaries: 2 sample groups, each of 30 students are drawn from 2 separate sections of
class XII-[i] Age: 17-18 years; [ii] Sex: Girls; Year: 2016; [iii] Education: Studying in class
XII.
6. Interpretation: The mean score of Section A is 345.5 and SD is 53.22. The mean score
of Section B is 354.17 and SD is 42.246. This indicates that, the average result of Section B is
better than Section A. Besides that, their SD scores indicate that, the scores of Section B are
more homogeneous than that of Section A.

7. Conclusion: Students of section B has a higher mean score, showing better performance
than the students of section A. These students even have shown greater homogeneity in their
scores. The position of two students are plotted on the NPC.

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 Attitude
Attitude is the mere expression of our likes and dislikes towards any object, person, situation
or any event. These expressions involve various kind of behaviours or reactions. Such types
of behaviours or reactions develop out of certain feelings towards a particular object, person,
situation or event. All the feelings or opinions, positive or negative, grow out of the
information that the person gathers through his or her experiences. Attitude is a measurable
entity. It may be appraised and evaluated by certain methods which show the intensity of
expressions towards any object or issue. There are different methods or techniques, which are
used to scientifically study different attitudes of people.
1. MEASURES OF ATTITUDE
An attitude is best defined by the A-B-C model of its components. "A" means the enduring
system of affective or feeling component. It relates to the emotions regarding the object of
attitude. 'B' means the behavioural component. It relates to the action or behavioural
tendencies associated with the object of attitude. 'C' means the cognitive component. It relates
to the belief regarding the object of attitude. A person's attitude may be directed towards any
event, object, situation, person or even towards social customs, rules, rituals. acts, and many
other economic, religious and political activities.

There are numerous measures of attitude. One of the most popular measures of attitude is the
self-report inventory. Under this method, there are a large number of statements. which
directly inquire the persons about their attitudes towards a particular thing. Such self-report
inventories are known as attitude scales. These attitude scales are constructed. They consist
of a set of statements towards which the person (whose attitude is being measured) needs to
indicate his/her attitude. One of the most widely used techniques of scale construction has
been developed by Likert. Such scales are known as Likert Scale.
While measuring attitudes, the following two underlying basic assumptions are taken into
consideration-

1. During a study, relating to measurement of attitude, it is assumed that an individual's

feelings with respect to the particular object of attitude will remain consistent in all situations.
For example, if a person dislikes social drinking behaviour, he will continue to dislike the
same, across all situations. If consistency in attitude is not displayed by the person, then it
becomes difficult to assess one's attitude.

2. Attitude cannot be measured directly. It can only be inferred from the person's behaviour.
The responses provided to every statement of the attitude scale indicate the person's
behaviour towards the object of attitude. The responses together constitute the degree of
favourableness or unfavourableness of attitude towards the object.
GUIDELINES FOR PROJECT WORK ON ATTITUDE:
The aim is to construct an attitude scale and to study the attitudinal differences among 2
groups [preferably two different generations like parents and children or between gender
(boys and girls)] using the scale. The steps or guidelines for the project work are summarised
below-
1. Selection of topic: The project work and consequent attitude scale need to be constructed
on any one of the following topics-[i] Fashion, [ii] Work/Lifestyle, [iii] Marriage.

2. Selection of group: The two groups, whose attitudes are to be measured, need to be
selected. The groups may either be-[i] two groups belonging to two generations like one
group containing mothers and the other containing their daughters, or [ii] two groups
belonging to different gender, like one containing boys and the other containing girls, both
preferably from class XI or XII.

3. Construction of scale: A 5-point rating scale (containing 10-15 items) with positive and
negative statements on the selected topic is to be constructed by these steps:

[i] Step-I: Information is to be collected from various sources, such as persons, books,
internet, social media, etc., regarding the selected topic.

Step-II: Statements are to be constructed based on the information, which reflect either
positive or negative opinion towards the topic.

Step-III: Each statement is to be rated on a 5-point scale from A to E, where, A denotes

'Strongly Agree', B denotes 'Partially Agree', C denotes 'Undecided or Neutral', D denotes
'Partially Disagree' and E denotes 'Strongly Disagree'.

4. Administration and data collection: The attitude scale is to be administered to both chosen
groups (parents and children or boys and girls). Data of the different responses, i.e ., the
rating of each person of the groups to each statement are to be collected.
5 Statistical analysis: Total scores need to be computed for each statement for all persons
based on the scoring procedure. Further statistical analysis of the scores are to be carried out
by calculating mean of all the scores obtained from each group for each statement. On basis
of the mean, a comparison among the groups is to be drawn.

6 Results and interpretation: After construction, administration and analysis of the attitude
scale, the responses are to be used to draw inference.
A SAMPLE PROJECT WORK ON ATTITUDE
1. General Problem: On Attitude

2. Specific Problem: To construct an attitude scale to measure and compare the attitude of
two groups (boys and girls) towards marriage.

3. Basic Concept: Attitude is simply an opinion of a person towards any object, event or
person. His/her behaviour is determined based on the attitude. A person or a group of people
either have positive view or negative view towards the target object, event or person. People
may also have ambivalent or neutral view towards it.

4. Preliminaries: 2 groups of randomly selected 10 boys and 10 girls.

Age: 17-18 years

Date of Study: DD-MM-YYYY
Education: Studying in class XII
Time of study: XX-XX AM/PM
Condition: Fresh and cooperative

5. Materials Required: Pen, pencil, paper, ruler, and information through magazines. books,
internet or persons (in order to construct statements).

6 Plan of Work:
7. Instructions to the Participants or Subjects (each group member): "Please sit comfortably
and pay attention to my instruction. I shall present a list of 10 statements regarding marriage.
Please go through them carefully and put a tick against the suitable option with which you
agree. Ask me, if you have any inconvenience.

8. Scoring Procedure:

9. Data and statistical Analysis:

10. Interpretation and Inference: After administering the attitude scale on each group of
students (10 boys and 10 girls), the mean of all the statements are calculated From these
mean values, the group mean values are found as 2.12 for the group of boys and 4.34 for the
group of girls. The results indicate that the mean value for the group of boys is below the
mean value of 3 of all the statements. This indicates that the boys have unfavourable attitude
towards marriage. While the girls' mean value is above the mean value of 3. This indicates
that the girls have a favourable attitude towards marriage.

9.Conclusion: On the basis of the present study, it can be concluded that girls have more
favourable attitude towards marriage than the boys.