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120
Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
According to Philip [7], the solution to Equation 2 on Darcy's law may be expressed as:
a planar slope is independent of x* except for a small h
q k (5)
region from the crest or the point of the slope change. z
Therefore, Equation 2 can be simplified to become
Equation 3. In this case Darcy flux q is constant throughout the
depth and is equal to –f, because q is positive upward
d (3) while f is positive downward. If points 1 and 2 are
D k z * cos
t z * z * d located respectively at the ground surface and just
on the dry side of wetting front, Equation 5 can be
Equation 3 indicates that except for the difference of approximated by
coordinate definition, the only change needed to use h h
Equation 1 on sloping surfaces is to replace k with k f k 1* 2* (6)
cos . The dynamic meaning of this modification is
z 1 z 2
that on sloping surfaces, only gravity normal to the
where,
surface direction is changed by cos (i.e. capillary
h1 = h0 (6a)
forces are unchanged). Conversely, the down-slope
component of gravity does cause flow, but it does not h2 zw* cos (6b)
change the water content profile along the normal zw* = z1* – z2* (6c)
direction on a planar slope because the flow field is
independent of x*. Therefore, as an approximate In Equation 6, is the suction head at wetting front,
solution, the GA model can be redefined with this and zw*.cos represents gravity head at the wetting
same modification. front. Darcy's law for this system is written as:
h zw* cos
Figure 1b depicts the simplification picture of the GA f k 0 (7)
model. The wetting front is a sharp boundary zw*
dividing soil if moisture content below i from if the ponded depth h0 is negligible compared to
saturated soil with moisture content above. The and zw*, then Equation 7 can be rewritten as
wetting front has penetrated to a depth zw in time t Equation 8. This assumption is usually appropriate
since infiltration began. Water is ponded to a small for surface water hydrology problems because it is
depth h0 on the soil surface. Considering the assumed that ponded water becomes surface runoff.
continuity equation in a vertical column of soil of zw* cos
unit horizontal cross-sectional area, the cumulative f k (8)
depth of water infiltrated into the soil F is zw*
F zw* (4) Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 8 gives
121
Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
dF F cos (10) Equation 11 and 12 are the GA equations for cumu-
k
dt F lative infiltration and infiltration rate respectively
for sloping surface. For unsteady rainfall with
Integrating Equation 10 with respect to time inter- respect to time t, those equations can be solved by
val from 0 to t, gives iteration method as illustrated in the flow chart in
Figure 2. The algorithm in Figure 2 was modified by
F t cos (11)
F t ln 1 k cos t Muntohar and Ikhsan [8] from Chow et al. [9].
cos
Slope Failure Modeling
and
(12) Rainwater infiltrates into the soil through the vadose
f t k cos
F t zone on the slope surface during the rainfall duration.
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Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
123
Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
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Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
Figure 8. Distribution of the Minimum Factor of Safety for Failure Occurrence of the Slope
Central Rainfall Pattern
Figure 10 shows the PDF with respect to the elapsed
time of rainfall. The calculated probability of failure
using MCSM (noted with labels) are closer to the log-
normal PDF (noted with lines). The estimated time
of slope failure are indicated by the arrow which TA,
TC, TD, and TU representing time of failure for the
advanced, central, delayed, and uniform rainfall
pattern respectively. The figure demonstrates that
the time of slope failure is essentially influenced by
the rainfall distribution. The slope will fail as early
as 4 hours (TA = 4 hours) when the rainstorm is
simulated as an advanced rainfall pattern, whilst a
longer time of failure (TD = 13 hours) is obtained for
Figure 9. Distribution of the Minimum Factor of Safety for delayed rainfall pattern. In this study, it can be
Uniform Rainfall Pattern stated that the landslide occurrences will be quick
during advanced rainfall and followed by uniform,
Table 2. The Mean () and COVs of the FSmin, Probability central, and delayed rainfall pattern (TA < TU < TC <
of Failure (Pf) and Time of Failure (Tf) TD) as presented in Table 2 and Figure 10. This
Rainstorm pattern COV Pf Tf
result is in agreement with Tsai [17] and Ng et al.
FSmin
[22].
Advanced 0.942 0.174 0.690 4
Delayed 1.023 0.179 0.492 13
Central 1.019 0.164 0.464 11
Uniform 0.971 0.174 0.603 8
TF = the mean value of the occurrence time of failure
(hours) which is calculated from the onset of rainfall
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Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
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Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
that failure probability measures of the degree of The failure probability distribution with respect to
belief regarding the possible states of nature. Using time for Boso Peninsula is shown in Figure 16. At
the term of degree of belief, it can be stated that the the end of rainstorm, the slope is susceptible to slip
slope was likely to fail since the failure probability with probability 0.573. Based on the PDF in Figure
was greater than 0.5. 16, it was observed that the slope was likely to fail
after 11 hours prolonged rainstorm. It is about at 11
am on 1 August 1989 which is in agreement with
Matsushi et al. [28]. The rainfall-triggered landslides
can be estimated about 313 mm. The average hourly
rainfall is 28.5 mm/h prolonged 11 hours of rainfall.
Conclusions
Acknowledgement
Figure 15. Distribution of the Minimum Factor of Safety
This paper is part of the fundamental research
entitled “Numerical and Experimental Studies of
Rainfall Infiltration Induced Slope Stability”.
Authors thank for the funding granted in 2011–2012
by the Directorate General of Higher Education,
Ministry of National Education Republic of Indo-
nesia. Authors also thank Yuki Matsushi, Ph.D
(Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University) for the data provided of Boso peninsular.
References
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Muntohar, A.S. et al. / Influence of Rainfall Patterns on the Instability of Slopes / CED, Vol. 15, No. 2, September 2013, pp. 120–128
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