NERVOUS SYSTEM- one of the smallest yet

complex system
-Highly organized of billions of neurons
(microscopic)
-2 kg/ 3% of total body weight
Control communication system
Function:
1.) Send and receive messages from external and internal environment
2.) Controls our thoughts and movements
• Afferent-Conveying impulses towards CNS
• Efferent- Conveying impulses away from
CNS
TERMS:
• Neuropeptide-specialized protein messengers; mental functions
• Neuroglia- nourishes the nerve cells in brain and spinal cord
• Meninges- membrane that covers the brain
• Myelin Sheath- insulates, protects nerve cells which is composed of fats and
proteins
• Myelinated- Surrounded by Myelin Sheath
• Neuron- nerve cells; receiving, transmitting impulses
• Nerve- bundle of neuron Fibers outside CNS
• Instinct- aware of knowing something without having to discover or perceived
Immediate apprehension of the mind without reasoning
• Stimulus- agent that directly influence an activity by exciting a sensory organ;
evoking muscular contraction or glandular secretion; positive or negative;
capable of exciting functional activity; produces a response in an organ or part of
an organ
• Impulse- wave excitation transmitted by
nerve fibers and muscles
• Integration- Process which messages are
analyzed, combined, compared and
coordinated; expressed itself through
muscles and glands
NERVOUS SYSTEM – expresses itself through
muscles and glands
Functions:
1.) Sensory Functions- detects internal,
external stimuli; Afferent/ Sensory; Neurons
carry sensory information
Ex: Urge to defecate (internal)
Cold temperature (External)
2.) Integrative Function- integrates sensory
information by analyzing and making
decision for an appropriate response
3.) Motor Response- Responding to
integration; where action takes place
Structural classification of Nervous System
1.) Central Nervous System- Brain and Spinal
Cord
-Acts as the integrating and command
center of Nervous System
-Interprets incoming sensory information,
issued transactions based on past and
current conditions
Ex. Specific Kind of pain
2.) Peripheral Nervous System –outside the
Central Nervous System
-Nerves- extend from brain and spinal cord
a.) Spinal Nerves- Carries impulses to and
from spinal cord
b.) Cranial Nerves- Carry impulse to and
from the brain; connect the brain to
structures of head, neck and trunk
Functional Classification of Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
1.) Sensory(Afferent)-Nerve fibers that convey
impulses to CNS from sensory receptors
a.) Somatic(Wall of body cavity)
-Sensory Afferent Fibers-
Delivers impulses from skin, skeletal muscle and
joints; “General Somatic Afferent Fibers”; Allows
recognizing stimulus, pain, coldness and light touch
-Central Fissures of Parietal Lobe
Cross pathways- Left side detects information from
the right side and vice versa
b.) Visceral(Any internal organs)
-Visceral Efferent Fibers
Transmits impulses from organs and blood vessels;
“General Visceral Efferent Fibers”
2.) Motor(Efferent)-Carries impulses from CNS
to effector organs (ex: heart): Muscle to
glands
Types:
a.) Somatic NS- Voluntary NS
-general somatic efferent fibers
-controls skeletal muscles (But not all)
b.) Autonomic NS- Involuntary NS
-Activity of Cardiac Muscle and Smooth
muscle of intestine and digestive system
-regulates the events that are involuntary
-General Visceral Efferent Fibers
• Visceral Organs(signals)--- CNS – Autonomic
nerves would respond by making
adjustment from the stimuli
Ex: heart beating, blood pressure may be
adjusted
-Sympathetic
-involves in energy expenditure;
-“Fight or flight” response;
- Releases adrenaline and nonadrenaline hormones
(from adrenal glands - medulla)
-arousing state
-heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow increases
except in digestive system (Inhibits functions)
-Parasympathetic
-Housekeeping System
-Calming State
-Maintains Homeostasis by seeing that normal
digestion and elimination occur and that energy is
conserved
-Rest and Digestive Response
-Lowers heart rate, blood pressure and blood flow
NERVOUS TISSUE-Over 100 billion nerve cell/
neuron structural and functional unit of NS
Part of Neuron:
1.) Cell Body(Perikaryon)
nucleus- metabolic center of the cell
2.) Dendrites(Little Trees)
-neuron processes that conduct electric
currents toward the cell body
3.) Axon(Axis)- Generate nerve impulses and
conducts them away from the cell body
-may have hundreds of branching dendrites
but only one axon
Properties:
Irritability- ability to respond to stimulus
and converts to nerve impulse
Conductivity-ability to transmit the nerve
impulse to other neurons, muscle and
glands
Facts:
1.) Neurons no longer have the ability to
undergo Mitosis and proliferation
- Because of intaking illegal drugs,
alcohol, trauma and oxygen
deprivation
• Neurotransmitters- Chemicals that transmit
nerve impulses across the synapses acts as
post-synapse in neuron- “Neuropeptides”
-50 types
1.) Enkephalins, Endorphins
- Occurring naturally in brain
-blocks transmission perception of pain by
inhibiting Substance P
2.) Substance P
-Aids in transmission of impulses from pain
receptor
3.) Acetylcholine
Stimulate skeletal muscle contraction
4.) Norepinephrine
-Creates sense of feeling good
-Low level leads to depression
• Synapse- Site of communication between 2
neurons and neuron and effector
a. Presynaptic Neuron-Neuron sending
impulse
b. Post synaptic neuron- receives the
impulse
• Supporting Cells-includes many types of
cells that generally support, insulates,
protects the neurons.
-Grouped together- “Neuroglia”- Nerve
Glue
• Glia- Each type of neuroglia
-Special type of connective tissue with
different cells
Types of Supporting Cells
1.) Astrocytes
-star shaped
-1/2 of neural tissue
-connects neurons to blood vessels
-forms structural support between
-capillaries and neurons within CNS
2.) Microglia
-microglial cell
-spider shaped
-phagocytes and disposed debris
3.) Ependymal Cells
-Line cavities of brain and spinal cord where
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is circulated
4.) Oligodendrocytes
-tubs the nerve fibers and produce myelin sheath
-located around the axons and within the brain and
spinal cord
- myelin sheath within CNS
5.) Ganglionic Gliocytes
-Satellite cells
-Supports ganglia within CNS
6.) Neurolemmocytes
-“Schwann cells”
-Form myelin within PNS
DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
1.) Central
A. Brain
-control center of Nervous System
-1.4 kg – 1.5 kg (33 lbs)
-more than 100 B of neurons
-10-50 trillion of neuroglia
-soft, spongy, mottled, pinkish gray
-protected by the skull and meninges
4 MAJOR DIVISIONS OF BRAIN
1. Brainstem
-about size of the thumb
-3 inches long structure
-regulates cardiac and respiratory function
-Acts as vehicle for sensory information
-between spinal column and cerebral hemisphere
o Midbrain
-Between diencephalon and pons
-Small part of brain stem (top)
-2 bulging fiber tracts
a. Cerebral Peduncles
- Conveys afferent or efferent which helps
control posture and movement
Cerebral- Related to brain
Peduncles- stem type that joins organs
b. Corpura Quadrigemina
- Reflex centers involved in vision and
hearing
- -quadruplet bodies
o Pons
-Bridge(rounded) protruded from midbrain
-hind brain that sits directly above the medulla
oblongata
-important nuclei- involved in breathing
-serves as message
-1 station from cortex and cerebellum
-connect upper and lower part of brain
Plays a role in (REM) rapid eye movement when
sleeping
o Medulla Oblongata
-Most inferior part of the brain stem
-contains center that controls heart rate, blood
pressure, breathing, swallowing and vomiting
 2.) Cerebellum
- Cauliflower
- Separated from the medulla and pons
- Inferior to the occipital lobes of cerebrum
- Projects dorsally from under occipital lobe
of the cerebrum
- 2 hemispheres control the surface
Outer cortex- gray matter
Inner region- white matter
- Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity
- Coordination, appropriate trajectory and
point
- Maintenance of the posture, balance
movement
- Balance and equilibrium of the body
- Closing of the eyes
- ATAXIA- disorder; clumsy and
uncoordinated movement; inability to carry
out smooth, stead and precise movement
- Staggering gang
3.) Cerebrum(Cerebral Hemisphere)
- 85% of brain tissue
- Telencephalon- largest, most developed
part of the brain
- Covered by gray matter (cerebral cortex)
- Connected by corpus callosum(2
hemispheres)
Left hemisphere- dominant in 90% of
people – language, mathematical, logical,
analytical, language processing - right
handed
Right Hemisphere- dominant in 10% of
people – visual, spatial skills, intuition,
emotion, art and music appreciation- left
handed
Visual spatial skills- capacity to understand
reason and remember the spatial relations
among objects or space
1.) Perception- ability to form
mental images that are observed
2.) Memory- visualizing objects
based on verbal description
3.) Logical Visual spatial thinking –
Visualizing objects as observed
from the different point of view
4.) Creative Visual Spatial Thinking-
creating fantasy images
-“Janusian Imagery”- holding 2
mental images
-generally think in pictures
a.) Cerebral cortex
-Surface of Cerebellum (gray matter)
-has manifold (convolutions)
-speech memory, logical and emotional response
as well as consciousness, interpretation of
sensation and voluntary movement
b.) Basal Ganglia
-white matter
-large masses of gray matter
-Controls cognition, movement, coordination,
voluntary movement
c.) Corpus Callosum
-connects 2 cerebral Hemispheres
-bundle of nerve fibers
-allows cerebral hemisphere to communicate
-major pathways
Cerebral Hemisphere (2 differs in processing
information)
1.) Gyri- elevated ridges of tissue of the cortex of
the brain
2.) Sulci- furrow groove, separating the gyri or
convolution of the brain; fissures
a.) Central Sulci
b.) Lateral Sulci
c.) Pareito- occipital sulci; mark off the
boundaries of the occipital lobe
3.) Fissure- a deeper groove which separates large
region of the brain
a.) Longitudinal fissures- single, deep
fissures that separates the cerebral
hemisphere
b.) Lateral fissures-Separates the frontal
from temporal lobe
c.) ______________- separates temporal
from occipital lobe
NERVE TISSUES
1.) Gray (Grey) Matter- nerve cell bodies,
dendrites, unmyelinated axon and neuroglia
-outer convoluted cerebral cortex
-nerve cells bodies and spinal cord
2.) White Matter- aggregation of myelinated
axons
-forms tracks of bundles of nerve fibers
within CNS
MENINGES
1.) Dura Mater- outer layer, tough, fibrous
membrane that merges with filum
terminale
-contains blood vessels and nerves
-attached to the inside of cranial cavity
2.) Arachnoid Mater
-middle layer
-runs caudally to sacral to 2 sacral vertebral
level it joins the filum terminal (gives
longitudinal support to spinal cord_
-spreads over the brain and the spinal cord
3.) Pia Mater
-innermost layer
-highly vascular
-tightly attached to spinal cord and its roots
-thin, contain blood vessels that nourishes
underlying cells of the brain and spinal cord
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
-clear watery ultrafiltrate solution formed primarily
from the blood in choroid plexus of the brain
Functions:
1.) Support and protects the brain and spinal
cord
2.) Maintains uniform pressure around there
delicate structure
3.) Acts as cautions and shock absorber
between brain and cranial bones
4.) Keeps brain and spinal cord moist,
interchange of the substances between CSF
and nerves such as nutrients and waste
products
LOBES OF THE BRAIN
1.) Frontal Lobe Association
-Involved in higher intellectual reasoning
-concentration on planning, problem solving,
judging
-Personality is formed
-motor area- generates impulses from voluntary
movement
-precise contraction of muscle
Left motor- controls movement on the right side
Right motor- controls movement on the Left side
a.) Premotor areas- anterior to motor area
-learned motor skills that requires
sequence of movement
Ex: Clapping, beating, tying shoes
b.) Prefrontal(orbitofrontal) Cortex
-Emotional Response in appropriate
response to the situation
2.) Temporal Lobe Association
-remember visual scenes, music, complex pattern,
complex memories
-sense of smell (olfactory)
-hearing (auditory)- comprehends meaning of
speeches, sound, pitches
3.) Parietal Lobe Association
-Understand speech using words to express
-process sensory information within seconds
-taste, temperature and touch are processed
-receives impulses from the skin, feels and
interprets
4.) Occipital Lobe Association
-combine visual images and other sensory
experience
-“conscious seeing”- important to correctly
understand what your eyes are seeing (visual
information)
Insula (not considered as lobe)
-Memory integration of other cerebral activities
-deep within the lateral sulcus covered by frontal,
parietal and temporal lobes
*Impaired: Visual confusion
• Broca’s area- Motor Speech area
-Speaking language
-base of the precentral gyrus
-ability to speak
-coordinated contraction of the skeletal
muscle of larynx and pharynx
*Paul Broca- Surgeon (1861)
-Broca’s area serves articulation
Damage: Unable to speak properly
• Wernicke’s Area- Allows for comprehension
of the emotional content of language
-to understand what is being said
*Karl Wernickes- 18th century
APHROSODIA (lacking comprehension)
-Contain motor neuron- comprehension of
speech
WERNICKE’S APHASIA- Difficulty
understanding speech/ language
DIENCEPHALON (interbrain)
-Thalamus and Hypothalamus
-linked between the nervous system and endocrine
system via pituitary gland
-top of the brainstem enclosed by the cerebral
hemisphere
Major Structure:
1.) Thalamus
- Consists of 2 symmetrical lobes
-encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain is
a relay station for sensory impulses passing upward
to sensory cortex
-Sensory impulse from the whole body except
olfactory
-function for sensation
-can suppress other sensation
-some sensation can be felt by thalamus and pain
that cannot be localized
*Cerebrum localizes the pain, other sensations
2.) Hypothalamus- makes up the floor of
diencephalon
-function for the pleasure or reward center, when
activated releases Dopamine-a neurotransmitter
that creates pleasing, enjoyable sensation
Roles in regulation of
1.) Body Temperature (sweating, shivering)
2.) Water and electrolyte balance
3.) Metabolism (hypothalamus)
4.) Endocrine Function- Production of
hormones
5.) Urine formation
6.) Gastrointestinal Activity
7.) Hunger
8.) Acceleration and deceleration of heartbeat
9.) Sleeping and Wakefulness
10.) Center of many Drives and Emotion
(Thirst, appetite, sex, pain and pleasure)
*respirations are controlled by medulla oblongata
that acts with the pons
LIMBIC SYSTEM
- Roughly donut shape neural loop inside the
brain
- Include structure of hypothalamus,
amygdala (processes emotions; almond
shape) hippocampus (behaviors; sea horse),
fornix (associated in memory loss; arch)
- Involved in new memories, learning and
emotions
- Generates emotions and involved in short
term memory through the hippocampus
B. SPINAL CORD
- 31 pairs of the spinal nerves
- 17 inches long
- continuation of the brain
- communication link between the brain and the
body
- spinal reflex action whether somatic/visceral
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Consist of nerves and scattered of neural
cells bodies (ganglia)
STRUCTURE OF NERVE
1.) Neuron Fiber (Processes)-this is wrapped in
protective connective tissue covering
2.) Endoneurium- delicate connective tissue
sheath that surrounds a fiber
3.) Perineurium- group of fibers that bounds a
coarse connective tissue wrapping to form
fiber bundles
CRANIAL NERVES
-12 pairs
-arise from the surface of the brain
-primarily serves the head and neck
-only one pair extends to the thoracic and
abdominal cavities- Vagus Nerve
-Numbered in order
-Most cranial are mixed nerves (sensory and
motor)
-supplies the head, neck, and major organs
-inferior to the brain
NERVE FIBER CLASSIFICATION
1.) Sensory Nerves-conduct impulses to the
CNS
2.) Motor Nerves-conducts impulses to the
muscles and organs
3.) Mixed-both sensory and motor nerve
fibers; mostly are motor
• General Somatic Efferent Fibers- carry
motor impulses from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
• General Visceral Efferent Fibers- carry
motor impulse away from CNS to smooth
muscle and glands
• General Somatic Afferent Fibers- carry
sensory impulses to CNS sensory impulses
to CNS from the skin and skeletal muscles
• General Visceral Afferent Fibers- carry
sensory impulses to the CNS from vessels
and internal organs
• Special Somatic Efferent Fibers- carry
motor impulses from brain to receptors
-site, hearing, equilibrium
• Special Visceral Afferent Fibers- from
olfactory and taste receptors
• Special Somatic Afferent Fibers- site,
hearing, equilibrium
12 CRANIAL NERVES
1.) Olfactory
a. sensory
b. Fibers transmit impulses associated
with smell
2.) Optic
a. Vision (sensory)
b. Supplies information to the retina of
the eyes in the form of ganglion
3.) Oculomotor-primarily motor
-papillary constrictions
-motor impulses to muscles that:
a. Raise eyelids
b. Move the eyes
c. Focus lenses
d. Adjust light entering eye
4.) Trochlear
–exits the posterior side of the brain stem
-primarily motor
-motor impulses to muscles that moves the
eye laterally
5.) Trigeminal
-largest cranial nerve (mixed)
Ophthalmic division
-sensory from surface of eye, tear glands,
scalp, forehead and upper eyelids
Maxillary Division
-sensory from the upper teeth, upper gum,
upper lip, palate and skin of face
Mandibular Division
-sensory from scalp, skin of jaw, lower
teeth, lower hum and lower lip
-motor to muscle of mastication and
muscles of floor of mouth
6.) Abducens
-primary motor
-motor impulses to muscles that move the
eye laterally
7.) Facial
-mixed
-sensory from taste receptors
-motor muscles of facial expression, tear
glands and salivary glands
-present in the brain stem
8.) Vestibulocochlear
-sensory
-sensory from equilibrium receptors of ear
-sensory from hearing receptors
9.) Glossopharyngeal
-mixed
-sensory from pharynx, tonsils, tongue and
carotid arteries
-glands and muscles of pharynx
10.) Vagus
-longest
-mixed
-somatic motor to muscle of speech and
swallowing
-autonomic motor to viscera of thorax and
abdomen
-sensory from pharynx, larynx, esophagus
and viscera of thorax and abdomen
11.) Accessory
-Spinal nerves
-primary motor
-motor to muscle of soft palate, pharynx,
larynx, neck and back
12.) Hypoglossal
-primary motor
-motor to muscle of the tongue
Spinal nerve and nerve plexus are:
Nerve plexus
-branching network of nerves composed of
afferent and efferent fiber that arise from merging
of anterior Rami of the spinal nerve and blood
vessels
-31 pairs of human spinal nerves formed by the
combination of ventral and dorsal roots of the
spinal cord
5 ROOTS OF SPINAL NERVE
1.) Cervical Nerve- 8 pairs of nerve impulse
that supplies the limbs, neck and diaphragm
2.) Thoracic Nerve-12 pairs; supplies the
muscle of the chest and back
3.) Lumbar Nerve- 5 pairs; supplies the lower
abdomen and parts of lower limb
4.) Sacral- 5 pairs
Supplies reproductive organs, bladder and
other parts of limbs
5.) Coccygeal- 1 pair
Supplies reproductive organs, bladder and
other parts of limbs
Types:
1.) Smaller Dorsal Rami- serves the skin and
muscle of the posterior body trunk
2.) Ventral Rami (spinal nerve T1 – T12)-serves
muscles between ribs, skin and muscles and
anterior lateral trunk
3.) Ventral Rami of all other SP- form complex
network of nerves called plexuses which serves the motor or sensory nerves of thelimbs