Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy & Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Passive cooling techniques for building and their applicability in

different climatic zones—The state of art
Dnyandip K. Bhamare, Manish K. Rathod∗, Jyotirmay Banerjee
Mechanical Engineering Department, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat, Gujarat, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Building energy consumption is a vital component of the global energy mandate. A major part of the
Received 2 January 2019 building energy is consumed in providing thermal comfort to occupants. Passive cooling techniques can
Revised 5 June 2019
be a promising alternative to satisfy the cooling requirements of the building as well as to reduce the
Accepted 10 June 2019
building energy consumption. Selection of suitable passive cooling technique is dependent on many fac-
Available online 11 June 2019
tors, including climatic conditions, building space constraints and performance of the passive technique.
Keywords: Thus, in order to adopt a suitable passive cooling technique for a given building, a thorough knowledge of
Building energy consumption different passive cooling techniques along with their applications and performance parameters is neces-
Solar and heat protection sary. The objective of this article is to provide a comprehensive review on passive cooling techniques
Heat modulation along with its classification, working, applications, recent developments and to analyze the influence
Heat dissipation of significant parameters such as building cooling load and indoor temperature on the performance of
passive cooling techniques. The review establishes that passive cooling techniques have the potential to
maintain the indoor temperature within comfort range while reducing the building cooling load.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
1.1. Passive cooling techniques and their classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
1.2. Scope of the review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
2. Solar and heat protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2.1. Microclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2.1.1. Landscaping and vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
2.1.2. Water surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
2.2. Solar control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
2.2.1. Aperture control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
2.2.2. Glazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
2.2.3. Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
2.3. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3. Heat modulation technique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3.1. Thermal mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3.1.1. PCM integration in wallboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
3.1.2. PCM integration in ceilings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
3.1.3. PCM integration in roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3.1.4. PCM integration in window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
3.2. Free cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3.3. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
4. Heat dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mkr@med.svnit.ac.in (M.K. Rathod).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.06.023
0378-7788/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
468 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

4.1.Convective cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

4.1.1. Wind driven ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.1.2. Buoyancy driven ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
4.1.3. Trombe wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.1.4. Solar chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
4.2. Evaporative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.2.1. Direct evaporative cooling (DEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.2.2. Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
4.3. Radiative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.3.1. Nocturnal radiative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.3.2. Radiant cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
4.4. Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
6. Conclusion and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485

1. Introduction dissipation of heat gain [6]. Thus, passive cooling techniques can be
broadly classified into heat protection, heat modulation and heat
World population has reached to 7.442 billion in 2016 [1]. This dissipation technique [6,7].
is associated with overall growth in industrial, agriculture, trans-
• Heat Protection: In this technique, the building is protected
port and infrastructure sectors. Among all, industrial and residen-
from direct solar heat gains. The protection from solar heat gain
tial building sectors are contributing significantly to the rise in
may involve landscaping, water surface, active vegetation, shad-
electric energy demands [2]. Even if the figures vary from coun-
ing of the building surfaces, etc. Heat protection technique is
try to country, building sector, which includes residential, commer-
also further classified into microclimate and solar control based
cial, public service, agriculture, forestry, fishing, etc. is responsi-
methods.
ble for approximately 30–40% of total energy demand [3]. Major
• Heat Modulation: In this technique, the heat gain of a building
components of energy consumption in the building sector are in
is modulated with the help of the thermal storage capacity of
heating, cooling, air conditioning, ventilation, etc. It is also argued
the building structure. It protects the building by discharging
that globally around 40% of total building energy is consumed for
the stored heat at a later time. The thermal storage capacity
space heating or cooling applications in both residential and com-
of a building largely depends on the type of the thermal mass
mercial sectors [3]. Further, demand for space cooling application
of the building structure. Also of importance are the methods
is increasing due to a rise in atmospheric temperature associated
(such as free cooling) adopted for effective discharge of stored
with carbon emission and global warming [4]. Room air condition-
heat. Geetha and Velraj [7], Santamouris and Kolokotsa [6] and
ers are mostly used worldwide as air cooling appliance. However,
Prieto et al. [8] had given importance to thermal mass in their
a rise in the sale of air conditioning appliances has led to seri-
classification of heat modulation technique, while Panchbikesan
ous environmental issues associated with the depletion of ozone
et al. [9] classified heat modulation techniques based on both
level and global climate [5]. Hence, there is a need for the devel-
thermal mass and free cooling.
opment of passive cooling techniques which reduces energy con-
• Heat Dissipation: Heat dissipation technique finds usefulness in
sumption, supports the environment and ecosystem and provide a
climatic conditions where heat protection or heat modulation
satisfactory degree of comfort. However, in order to address the
is unable to provide the required comfort conditions. In this
energy and environmental impact associated with building appli-
technique, excess heat of a building is disposed to the suitable
cations, the selection of suitable passive cooling technique plays
environmental heat sink at a lower temperature. Disposal of
a vital role. In this regard, present work summarizes the details
excess heat depends on two main factors i.e. availability of en-
of available passive cooling techniques along with their classifica-
vironmental heat sink and thermal coupling between building
tion, working, applications and performance parameters. The ar-
and heat sink. Available environmental heat sinks are ambient
ticle also provides guidelines to the building designer, architect,
air, water, and sky. The heat dissipation technique may provide
and researchers for the selection of suitable passive cooling tech-
instantaneous cooling effect or it may extract coolness during
nique for building applications. These guidelines are based on past
night time and release it during the daytime. Such a behav-
experiences accumulated from the applicability of passive cooling
ior depends on the mode the of heat transfer from source to
techniques for different climatic conditions. Further, at the last, the
sink and the type of fluid flow. Geetha and Velraj [7] classified
major conclusions drawn from the literature and future scope re-
this technique on the basis of thermal energy storage, whereas
lated to passive cooling techniques and their applicability are high-
Panchbikesan et al. [9] had given the classification on the basis
lighted.
of air movement and humidity content.

1.1. Passive cooling techniques and their classification A comprehensive classification of passive cooling techniques is
developed based on the literature review and is shown in Fig. 1.
Passive cooling techniques use ambient cooling sinks like build-
ing material, air, water, night sky, etc. to mitigate the rise in tem- 1.2. Scope of the review
perature of the building due to heat sources such as ambient air,
direct solar heat gain, building an internal heat gain. Passive cool- Selection of suitable passive cooling technique is an impor-
ing techniques can help in maintaining the required comfort condi- tant task as it depends on climatic conditions, building space con-
tions of the building with minimum energy consumption. In order straints and performance of the passive technique. Thus, in order
to create thermal comfort conditions at the interior of a building, to adopt a suitable passive cooling technique for a given build-
passive cooling techniques need to be designed at three levels i.e. ing, exhaustive information of different passive cooling techniques
protection of heat gain, modulation of heat gain and rejection or along with an understanding of their applicability is necessary.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
Fig. 1. Classification of passive cooling techniques.
Further, a combination of two or more techniques may reduce a
considerable amount of energy consumption along with satisfying
the cooling requirements of the building. Thus, a comprehensive
understanding of each technique is required for establishing the
applicability of the passive cooling technique in building applica-
tions. Previous review articles [9–21] on passive cooling techniques
have largely focused on only one of the techniques individually or
separately. For example, review articles [10–12] focused on PCM
based passive cooling techniques only. Articles reported in [9,13–
15] showed important findings related to evaporative cooling and
radiative cooling. Importance of ventilation cooling, night cooling,
shading techniques were reviewed in [16–20]. To the knowledge of
authors, there is no study which presents a comprehensive state-
of-the-art overview of all the passive cooling techniques. Thus, the
present paper is aimed at a critical review of passive cooling tech-
niques used for building application. In this review, the working of
these techniques, applications and discussion on the key parame-
ters to establish its performance are presented in details. This re-
view will be a helpful tool for the building designer, architect and
researchers working on energy efficient green buildings.
2. Solar and heat protection
The protection of heat gain is the first step towards achieving
comfort conditions in the interior of a building. Heat gains can
be divided as external heat gains and internal heat gains. External
heat gain arises from direct solar radiation and ambient tempera-
ture, whereas internal heat gain has sources like human activities,
appliances, lightening, cooking, etc. Protection from external heat
gains can be achieved through improving microclimatic conditions
of a building or direct solar control.
2.1. Microclimate
The microclimate is the variation in the atmospheric conditions
around the building over a period of time. Energy performance of
the building majorly depends on the microclimate of a building.
The building microclimate is significantly affected by spatial ar-
469
rangements like landscaping and vegetation or water surfaces near
the building.
2.1.1. Landscaping and vegetation
Using trees and green vegetation near or around the building is
a very old, convenient and cheap solution for protecting the build-
ing from solar heat gains. Trees and green vegetation are helpful
in achieving the cooling effect with the process of evapotranspi-
ration in which it absorbs heat from the microclimate. Effective
vegetation can be accommodated in two ways, in-house vegeta-
tion or outside vegetation. In-house vegetation includes vegetation
inside the most common places of the building like roof green-
ing, terrace greening, indoor plants in atria, etc. Greening the heat
prone surface of the building can significantly impact the energy
performance of the building. The energy impact of in-house green-
ing is reported in detail by Raji et al. [22]. They considered five
in-house greening systems, namely green roof, green wall, green
balcony, a sky garden and indoor sky garden considering impor-
tant parameters like seasonal energy savings, climatic factors and
building insulation properties. However, the article has not elab-
orated the energy impact of in-house greening based on energy
saving for different climatic conditions. Effective vegetation around
the building not only reduces the building’s temperature but also
acts as an obstacle to heat flow. A variety of obstacles are sug-
gested by Gandemer and Guyot [23] which include alternatives
of surface texture, height, width, length, shape, profile, orienta-
tion, the density of vegetation, etc. Strategically planted vegeta-
tion around the building has been considered as an effective way
to limit the solar heat gain of the buildings. In this regard, Meier
[24] presented a review on strategic landscaping, vegetation and
its impact on air conditioning savings. It was concluded that differ-
ent landscaping, vegetation techniques are helpful in reducing the
air conditioning load for dry as well as humid climatic conditions.
Achieving energy savings and reduction in the indoor temperature
of the building with the use of landscaping and vegetation is not a
new concept, but the effectiveness of these techniques in achieving
energy saving and indoor temperature reduction is not reported in
detail in the literature. Table 1 shows a summary of the literature
470 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Table 1
Summary of study based on effect of active vegetation on passive cooling of building.

Author Location Climate Research type Research outline Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
or Energy savings (%)

[25] Nanjing, (China) Hot, humid. Numerical Study the effect of tree shading on 10.3%
building cooling load.
[26] Japan Hot, humid. Experimental Analyze the microclimate of residential 7 ̊C
building using active vegetation
planted near window.
[27] Melbourne, (Australia) Hot, dry. Experimental Study the impact of tree shading on 9 ̊C
building thermal performance.
[28] Putrajaya, (Malaysia) Hot, humid. Experimental Evaluate building cooling achieved 29%
through the modification of tree
canopy density and quantity, albedo
values of ground materials.
[29] Auburn, (USA) Hot, humid. Field study and numerical Estimates energy savings by shade 14.4%
producing trees in a suburban
environment.
[30] Sacramento, (California) Hot, humid. Field study and numerical Presents the models to study shading 6.1%
effect of trees on residential energy use
for 178 residences.
[31] Los Angeles, (USA) Hot, dry. Numerical Evaluate the performance of cool 20%
surface and tree shades to reduce the
energy use.
[32] Pretoria, (South Africa) Mediterranean Field study and numerical Simulate the effect of deciduous and 5 °C during summer and 3 °C
evergreen vegetation cover on building during winter season
walls in order to improve thermal
performance.

demonstrating the effect of landscaping and vegetation on energy
saving and reduction in the indoor temperature of the building.
2.1.2. Water surface
The roof receives the strongest solar radiation from the sun for
the longest time as compared to other elements of the building.
Nahar et al. [33] argued that about 40% of heat gain comes through
the metallic roof; particularly in arid climatic conditions. Water
surface which includes ponds, sprays, pools or water fountain can
provide passive cooling to the building. The roof pond technique
is a cheap, nontoxic and popular passive cooling technique as wa-
ter is an ideal thermal mass having high volumetric heat capacity.
The vapor pressure difference between the water surface and the
surrounding air is the driving force for a roof pond cooling action.
The evaporation rate calculated based on mean summer climato-
logical conditions can define the cooling potential of the roof pond
technique [34].
The reduction of heat flux using roof pond (water surface) was
probably first observed at the University of Texas in 1920 but
due to some structural difficulties of the building, its use was re-
stricted [35]. To date many theoretical and experimental studies
on roof pond with a number of variants like open roof pond with-
out sprays, with sprays, with movable insulation, night time water
sprays, roof pond with gunny bags, a shaded roof pond without
sprays, shaded roof pond with sprays, ventilated roof pond, evapo-
reflective roof pond, cool pool etc. have been reported. Some vari-
ants of roof pond are shown in Fig. 2. A systematic review on pas-
sive cooling of the buildings using roof ponds was presented by
Shariffi and Yamagata [36]. A detailed review of 19 different types
of roof cooling and 4 roof heating techniques were presented along
with an evaluation of performance, the effect of climatic condi-
tions and design configurations. It was concluded that the roof
pond technique is efficient in achieving the thermal comfort condi-
tions for building and reduces the energy demand for cooling and
heating. Spanaki et al. [37] also reviewed 12 different roof pond
variants focusing on the comparative characteristics. Details of the
selection of roof pond variant for passive cooling focusing on pa-
rameters affecting different constructional demand as well as in
varying climatic conditions were discussed in details. However,
comparative evaluation of roof pond variants was not discussed in
details by the authors. It was concluded that the roof pond tech-
nique has potential towards gaining the highest cooling efficiency
with the lowest maintenance.
Limitations of stable water in a roof pond limits this technique
to be more favorable passive cooling technique. Several researchers
have carried out experimental as well as numerical analysis in or-
der to achieve passive cooling using roof pond technique. However,
there is a limited number of studies in which comparative evalua-
tion of different roof pond variants is made based on either indoor
temperature reduction or in terms of energy savings. Summary of
literature pertaining to comparative evaluation roof pond variants
is presented in Table 2.
2.2. Solar control
Reduction of transmitted solar radiation through building com-
ponents is referred as solar control technique. Direct penetration of
solar radiation can be controlled by modifying the space available
i.e. aperture control or by reducing the intensity of transmitted so-
lar radiation through transparent elements like windows i.e. glaz-
ing or by completely diverting the incoming solar radiation using
shading devices i.e. shading control. Thus, the solar control tech-
nique is further classified as aperture control, glazing and shading
method.
2.2.1. Aperture control
Aperture control refers to modify the space or openings through
which solar radiation passes to the building interior. It is possible
by either accurate sizing of opening or modifying the orientation
of the openings present on building envelope [44]. Such modifica-
tion is dependent on energy requirements, location and architec-
ture of the building. In many cases, apertures are meant primar-
ily for lighting and air circulation, also referred as fenestration e.g.
doors, windows, skylights, etc. Fenestration is also important from
an architecture point of view as they add aesthetics to the building
design. Any modification in aperture has to deal with the penalty
towards effective lightening and air circulation. Hence, there is lim-
ited use of aperture control techniques in the passive cooling of the
buildings.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 471

Fig. 2. Different variants of roof pond [36].

2.2.2. Glazing
Addition of heat from the ambient to the interior of the build-
ing through a window is responsible for an increase in cooling load
of a building. About 45–60% of the building cooling load generates
due to windows in cases where 20–30% of the walls are covered by
windows [45,46]. Performance of window is dependent on optical
and thermal properties of glazing like U-value, solar heat gain co-
efficient and visible transmittance. The details of these properties
are listed in Table 3.
Glazing techniques can be differentiated as static glazing and
dynamic glazing. In static glazing, thermal and optical properties
remain fixed while in dynamic glazing, optical and thermal prop-
erties for the fixed thickness of glazing vary in a certain range. Dy-
namic glazing shows advantages such as flexible orientation, sizing
472 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Table 2
Summary of study based on comparative evaluation of different roof pond variants.

Author Location Climatic conditions Research type Roof pond variant Best performed Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
pond or Energy savings (%)

[38] Coquimatlan, Hot Sub humid, hot Experimental Water roof pond, water roof Water roof pond 1.61 °C for Hot Sub humid, 1.03 °C
(Mexico) humid, warm sub and numerical pond with floating fabric and with Wet fabric for Hot humid, 1.33 °C for Hot Sub
humid wet fabric. humid
[39] Stellenbosch, Warm and Numerical Roof pond, roof spraying and Roof spraying 59%
(South Africa) temperate night flushing
[40] Baghdad, (Iraq) Hot and dry Experimental Roof pond, roof pond with roof pond with 6.5 °C
and numerical natural ventilation, roof pond mechanical forced
with mechanical forced ventilation
ventilation.
[33] Seder Boqer, Hot and dry Numerical Roof pond with gunny bags, Roof pond with 2.3 °C
(Israel) roof pond with movable gunny bags
insulation
[41] Sede-Boqer, Hot and dry Experimental Roof pond with towel floated Pond with towel 4 °C
(Israel) on it, shaded pond with floated on its
towel floated on it, pond surface
with movable insulation,
shaded open pond, open
pond and covered pond.
[42] Shiraz, (Iran) Hot and dry Numerical Roof pond, shaded roof pond, Shaded roof pond 79%
shaded roof.
[43] New Delhi, Hot and dry Numerical Roof pond, roof spraying. Roof spraying 35%
(India)

Table 3
Optical and thermal properties of glazing [47,48].

Glazing properties Details

U-value • U-value of a glazing affects the heat transfer rate from externalto interior of the building.
• For cold climate region lower U-value is to be adopted to reduce heating load.
• For warmer region, higher U-value of the glazing is adopted. The U-value around 1.5 is recommended to reduce cooling load.
Solar heat gain • The amount of solar heat which penetrates into the building is dependent on SHGC.
coefficient (SHGC)
• In summer, low SHGC is needed for reducing the solar heat gainin the building whereas in winter glazing with high SHGC is preferable.
• For cold climate region higher SHGC is to be adopted to reduce heating load.
• For warmer region, lower SHGC of the glazing is adopted.
Visible transmittance • Visibletransmittance decides the amount of natural lighting within the building.
• Increase in visibletransmittance is beneficial to daylightning but it reduces thermal energy savings.
• Its value is decided based on optimum energy savings and daylightning.

of the window and available switchable options for seasonal cli-
matic changes. Different types of glazing like dynamic and inno-
vative glazing techniques are reported in the literature. These in-
clude multilayer [48], vacuum glazing [49,50], electrochromic, solar
cell glazing [51,52], aerogel [53,54], low emissivity coatings [55,56],
photovoltaic ventilated [57,58], thermotropic [59,60] etc.
Impact of various types of dynamic and innovative glazing tech-
niques on energy and daylight performance of the building is
reviewed by Hee et al. [47]. Authors have focused on literature re-
lated to the selection of suitable glazing based on optimum day-
light and energy savings as well as recent advances in glazing
technology. It was concluded that the properties of glazing and
climatic background are important factors in the selection of suit-
able glazing. Cuce and Riffat [61] reviewed various glazing tech-
niques based on performance parameters such as U-value, solar
heat gain coefficient, visible transmittance. Several innovative glaz-
ing techniques were also reviewed for a better future prospective.
Different glazing systems, including conventional, advanced and
smart has also been reviewed by Rezei et al. [62]. Details of differ-
ent glass coatings available for window glazing are presented. In
the above-mentioned articles, the selection, performance param-
eters and coating technique for window grazing were discussed.
However, comparative performance evaluation of various glazing
techniques has not been elaborated in the literature. A sum-
mary of the comparative performance evaluation of various glaz-
ing techniques to achieve energy efficiency of a building is shown
in Table 4.
2.2.3. Shading
Shading is one of the passive techniques which protects the
building from solar heat gains, increases the daylight hour [72,73].
It reduces the use of artificial lightening which directly contributes
towards a reduction in heat generated within the building [74].
Thus, the shading technique is considered an important aspect in
designing energy efficient buildings; particularly for reducing the
cooling load in hot climatic zones [75].
Shading can be provided by building elements like overhangs,
horizontal louvers, light shelf, blind system or overhangs with side
fins or experimental shading devices, etc. as shown in Fig. 3.
Al-Masrani et al. [78] classified shading technique as passive,
active and hybrid shading. Passive shading does not require any
energy source and it is further categorized as fixed shading devices
and adjustable shading devices. Active shading usually relies on ac-
tive energy and it is represented by mechanical devices. Hybrid
shading utilizes the natural biological system as well as advanced
smart materials. Valladares-Rendón et al. [79] reviewed the im-
portance of shading techniques to recommend a balanced solution
for increasing energy savings and improving daylight and visibility.
They concluded that strategic placement and optimum design can
further improve the performance of shading techniques like facade
self-shading, shading device. Krimtat et al. [75] reviewed studies
related to simulation modeling for building shading devices. Per-
formance characteristics of different types of shading devices were
reviewed using previous studies. The authors noted that the per-
formance of shading devices depends on parameters like climate,
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 473

Table 4
Summary of comparative study of various glazing techniques.

Author Location Climatic conditions Research Type Type of glazing Compared with Best Performed Energy savings (%)

[63] Kauala Lampur, Hot and humid Simulation Triple glazed Double Glazed Triple glazed 5.5–8.5% based on
(Malaysia) study using BIM window window window floor area ratio
[64] Malaysia Hot and humid Simulation Single clear Triple glazing Triple glazing 6.3%
study using IES glazing
[65] Malaysia Hot and humid Simulation Single low-E Single clear glazing Double low-E pane 6.4%
study using IES pane glazing, glazing
double low-E
pane glazing,
double clear
pane glazing
[66] USA hot, humid, and Simulation Electrochromic ASHRAE 2007 Electrochromic >20%
cold study using glazing Compliant glazing, glazing
eQuest Single Pane glazing
[67] China Hot summers and Simulation Thermotropic Double glazed Thermotropic >2.4%
cold winters study using glazing window, tinted glazing
DeST double glazed
window
[68] Hong Kong, Warm Simulation Non transparent Semi transparent Semi transparent 23–60%
(China) study using c-Si solar cells c-Si solar cells PV c-Si solar cells PV
EnergyPlus PV glazing glazing glazing
[69] Shanghai, Hot summers and Simulation Single PV Double PV glazing Natural ventilated 6.7%
(China) cold winters study using glazing system system, natural PV glazing
EnergyPlus ventilated PV
glazing
[70] Shanghai, Hot summers and Simulation Single PV Double PV glazing, Double PV glazing 12.3% for Harbin,
Shenzhen, cold winters study using glazing natural ventilated for Harbin, natural 10% for Shanghai
Harbin, (China) EnergyPlus PV glazing, Single ventilated PV and Shenzhen
clear glazing, glazing for
double clear Shanghai, Shenzhen
glazing
[71] Perugia, (Italy) – Experimental Low e-double Monolithic aerogel Monolithic aerogel 52%
glazed window glazing, granular glazing
aerogel glazing

Fig. 3. Types of shading devices [76,77].

occupancy, mechanical and electrical systems, design problems, en-
ergy efficiency issues, etc.
Literature depicts that the study related to shading devices
is majorly analyzed in terms of lightning [80–83] and thermal-
lightning [84–88]. However, the shading technique can be effec-
tively analyzed as a passive cooling technique if thermal perfor-
mance evaluation is carried out prior to lightning performance
evaluation. Although the review article like [75] provides the de-
tails of the energy impact of shading devices for different climatic
conditions; the information is limited to simulation-based mod-
eling of shading devices only. An attempt is made here to sum-
marize literature related to the thermal performance evaluation of
474 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Table 5
Summary of studies related to shading technique.

Author Location Building Type Climate Research Type Shading technique Indoor temperature
reduction (°C) or
Energy savings (%)

[89] Rome, (Italy) Office Mediterranean Simulation study using Automatic control <30%
Ener-lux, Midas external shading
[90] Singapore Residential building Hot and humid Field study Horizontal shading 2.62–10.13%
device
[91] Changsha, (Taiwan) Residential building Hot and humid Simulation study using Envelope shading 11.3%
eQuest software
[92] Singapore Residential building Hot and humid Simulation study using Horizontal shading 0.68 and 0.98
LIGHTSCAPE and devices, vertical
PHOENICS CFD software shading device
[93] Kaohsiung, Residential building Hot and humid Field study External shading 25%
(Taiwan)
[94] Abu Dhabi Residential Hot and dry Simulation study using Fixed horizontal and 6%
IES software vertical shading
devices
[95] Assiut City, (Egypt) Residential Hot and dry Simulation study using Fixed vertical louvers 2 °C
TAS software
[96] Baltimore (USA), Residential Hot and humid, Simulation study using Movable blind system 1.6–32%
London, Abu-Dhabi Temperate, Hot BCVTB, EnergyPlus and
and dry Matlab software
[97] Belgium Office Hot and humid Simulation study using Movable roller shade 12%
EnergyPlus

different shading techniques based on location, climate and build-
ing type as shown in Table 5.
2.3. Closure
It is, thus, established from the literature that solar and heat
protection techniques either in the form of microclimate or solar
control method have a positive impact on achieving a reduction in
building cooling load and indoor temperature. However, the per-
formance of microclimate technique is dependent on local weather
conditions. Roof pond technique finds its popularity in hot and dry
climatic condition, but its performance evaluation in humid cli-
matic conditions is not available in the literature. In the case of
solar control technique, performance is dependent on the types of
glazing and shading devices, whereas aperture control is limited
by space constraints. Shading devices need prior consideration of
both lightening and thermal comfort requirements. Hence space,
lightening, innovative shading devices as well as building aesthetic
requirements need more elaboration for solar control.
3. Heat modulation technique
The heat modulation technique is one of the passive cooling
techniques in which heat gain by the building is reduced or min-
imized with the help of enhancement in the properties of the
building materials. This technique is dependent on thermal mass
or a natural heat sink of the building structure in order to store
and remove heat gains from a building. Thus, it is broadly classi-
fied as thermal mass and free cooling.
3.1. Thermal mass
An effective way to reduce cooling load peaks and indoor tem-
perature is to store excess heat in structural materials of the build-
ing which is referred as thermal mass [98]. The high thermal mass
of a building stores more heat and is able to provide high ther-
mal inertia to the building components. Thermal mass provides
thermal stability and smoothens the thermal fluctuations between
indoor and outdoor conditions. Effectiveness of thermal mass de-
pends on many parameters such as climatic conditions, construc-
tion, material properties, building orientation, etc. [99–101]. With-
out the thermal mass of building material, heat enters into the
building space and reradiates back quickly. This effect produces
overly hot conditions during sunlight and cold condition during
night time. General building materials are sensible heat storage
materials having limited heat storage capacity. Latent heat storage
material is an alternative by which thermal mass of building mate-
rial can be increased. Latent heat storage materials which are also
known as phase change materials (PCMs) stores and release heat
during the phase change process at a nearly constant temperature
[102,103]. Phase change materials with solid liquid phase transi-
tion, are classified as shown in Fig. 4.
During the daytime, PCM absorbs the heat in the form of latent
heat from the opaque as well as the glazed surface of the building
and thus gets melted at a constant temperature. With this, there is
stabilization and reduction in the inside temperature of the build-
ing. This absorbed latent heat of PCM is rejected during night time.
In the case of passive cooling, heat rejection from PCM is incurred
through natural means, whereas in the case of active cooling, it is
done by air conditioning units which incur certain energy cost.
Since last two decades, the importance of PCMs in building
application has been noticed by various researchers. There are var-
ious techniques for incorporating PCMs into construction materi-
als [104,105]. These techniques are direct incorporation, immer-
sion, vacuum impregnation, encapsulation, shape stabilization, etc.
Hariri and Ward [106] have presented a first review article on
PCMs integrated building application discussing theoretical aspects
of thermal energy storage in building cooling. A summary of the
literature on the integration of PCM in building applications is re-
ported in Table 6.
Review articles [106–117] covered separately many important
aspects of PCM in building application i.e. PCM integration in wall-
boards, ceiling, roof and PCM based free cooling. However, the de-
tails of the PCM integration in different building elements are not
presented yet. Hence an attempt is made here to summarize the
details of various methods of PCM integration into the building
components i.e. wallboards, ceiling, roof, windows, etc. These are
discussed in detail in the following subsections.
3.1.1. PCM integration in wallboard
Wallboard is generally made of wood pulp, plaster or gypsum
and used popularly in building applications. Relatively low cost
of wallboard makes it very suitable for PCM applications. PCM
is integrated with wallboard and installed in place of ordinary
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 475

Fig. 4. Classification of PCM [132].

Table 6
Reviews on integration of PCM in building applications.

Authors (Year) Review Ref.

Saffari et al. (2017) Application of simulation tools such as Energy plus, TRNSYS, ESP-r for passive cooling of building was reviewed. Feasibility of PCM [107]
passive cooling for different climatic conditions was also presented by the authors. Article notified the need for more sophisticated
numerical methods for analyzing the cooling performance of PCM based night ventilation cooling.
Souyfane et al. Article reported both experimental as well as numerical studies based on effect of PCM on building energy performance. It was [11]
(2016) found that use of PCM for building application becomes beneficial when there is need for shifting peak loads, reducing energy
consumption and decreasing indoor fluctuations. However it was also concluded that certain areas for PCM in building application
such as free cooling, incomplete solidification of PCM during night and low convective heat transfer coefficient etc. needs more
attention in future studies.
Kalnaes and Jelle Commercial available PCM related to building applicationwas reviewed. It is reported that most of commercial PCM based products [108]
(2015) can be easily added to the building as these products require less structural modifications. It was also noted that fire safety of
products, payback period of installation and disadvantages of increasing thermal conductivity by lowering latent heat storage per
unit weight were the certain areas in which more studies are required.
Zhou et al. (2012) Authors reported a comprehensive review of thermal energy storage in building application covering important topics such as [109]
impregnation methods, current building application, thermal performance analysis, numerical simulation of building with PCMs. It
was observed that chemical stability, fire safety, compatibility with construction materials were the important properties considered
while selecting appropriate PCM for building applications.
Cabeza et al. (2011) Article presents a comprehensive review on the PCMs used in energy storage in the buildings, including thermo physical properties, [110]
long term stability, encapsulated technique and fire risk. It was noted technical issues such as segregation, sub cooling, material
compatibility needs more attention in future.
Baetens et al. The PCMs and their building applications such as enhanced gypsum wallboards, enhanced concrete and enhanced insulated [111]
(2010) materials were reported in detail. Manufacturing methods, design methodology and application results of building applications
were discussed briefly.
Zhu et al. (2009) The thermal performance of the both active as well as passive building applications using PCM were reviewed by the authors. [112]
Special attention was given for the PCMs in free cooling and peak load shifting applications. It was concluded that thermal storage
effect of PCM able to enhance indoor thermal comfort.
Sharma et al. Thermal energy storage using PCM for building application, solar water heater, solar air heating system, solar cooking, space [113]
(2009) heating, space cooling was reviewed from both theoretical and numerical aspects.
Pasupathy et al. A detailed review on PCM incorporation in buildings, selection of PCM and encapsulation methods for PCM were presented. Article [114]
(2008) recommended the future studies related to selection of suitable PCM for heating and cooling, active PCM based system for building.
Zhang et al. (2007) Article reviewed PCMs and their thermo physical properties, incorporation methods, thermal analysis of using PCM in wallboards, [115]
walls, ceiling and windows. Authors also noted that long term thermal behavior of PCM, durability of PCM impregnated wallboards,
fire rating and heat transfer enhancement were the certain areas needs more focus for future studies.
Tyagi and Budhhi Authors gave a summary for the previous research on thermal performance of systems such as PCM trombe wall, PCM wallboards, [116]
(2007) PCM shutters, PCM building block, air-based heating systems, floor heating system, ceiling boards. It was concluded that PCM based
system showed good potential for reducing building cooling and heating loads.
Zalba et al. (2003) A brief history of PCMs used in thermal energy storage with three aspects namely materials, heat transfer and applications were [117]
presented by the article.
Hariri and Ward Thermal storage system used in building applications was reviewed including sensible heat storage and latent heat storage, mainly [106]
(1988) from the theoretical aspect.

wallboards during construction or refurbishment. Performance of
PCM wallboards depends on many factors such as melting temper-
ature of PCM, latent heat per unit volume, impregnation method,
climatic conditions, etc. [111]. The idea of improving thermal com-
fort in buildings by integrating PCMs in wallboards of the build-
ing has been investigated by various researchers over a long time.
Xie et al. [118] investigated the thermal performance of five dif-
ferent types of PCM based wallboards for an air-conditioned room
in climatic conditions of the city of Beijing, China. The study was
carried out numerically considering the adverse effects of seasonal
climatic changes in the performance of wallboards. It was found
that the thermal performance of PCM wallboards is dependent
on seasonal climatic changes during the entire year. Singh and
Bhat [119] conducted a comparative study of conventional gypsum
board with gypsum board integrated with dual phase change ma-
terial in order to reduce the room temperature swing of a build-
ing located in a composite climate of India. Optimization of melt-
ing temperature of PCM, thickness and relative positioning of PCM
layers was also carried out by the authors. It was found that in
the month of May, the optimized melting temperature of PCM was
476 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
Fig. 5. PCM panels [173].
40 °C and 16 mm was the thickness of the layer of PCM inside the
gypsum. They also concluded that optimized melting temperature
is unable to provide the required comfort temperature, but it is
able to reduce the cooling load of a conditioned building. Scalat
et al. [120] carried out full scale testing of latent heat storage in
wallboards. It was found that during the cooling mode, charging
period for PCM wallboards was around 16 h, whereas discharging
period for the same was around 7 h. Also, a comparative study be-
tween PCM wallboards and ordinary wallboards had shown that
PCM wallboards can maintain room temperature within the hu-
man comfort zone for a longer period of time. Neeper [121] stud-
ied the performance of gypsum wallboard integrated with paraffin
wax. Variation in room temperature was examined with PCM wall-
boards on the interior and external portion of the room. It was
concluded that when PCM melting temperature is close to aver-
age room temperature, maximum energy storage can be achieved.
Kuznik et al. [122] examined PCM enhanced wallboard in order
to improve the thermal behavior of light weight building the in-
ternal wall under the simulated summer conditions. It was ob-
served that PCM wallboard was able to reduce room temperature
variation for a long time. Kuznik et al. [123] investigated PCM
wallboards in order to examine the effect of external excitation
temperature for heating or cooling. It was observed that PCM wall-
boards were able to cause time lag between external air temper-
ature and room temperature. They concluded that the PCM was
effective in building rooms where solar spots are major concerns.
Kuznik et al. [124] examined new PCM wallboards which were
tested by DuPont de Nemours Society and made by ENERGAIN@ . A
study was carried out in a building located in Lyon, France during
the period of February to December. Paraffin wax was used as PCM.
Results found that if the outside air temperature is varying in melt-
ing temperature range, then PCM wallboards are very useful. Ah-
mad et al. [125] designed two test cells and tested them in climatic
Fig. 6. PCM integrated in ceiling [178].
conditions. Each cell was having one glazed face and five opaque
faces insulated with VIP (Vacuum Insulation Panel). One cell was
equipped with five PCM panel as shown in Fig. 5. PCM panels had
shown a good thermal storage capacity for more than 480 thermal
cycles. Evola et al. [126] carried out a case study on office build-
ing integrated with the PCM wall board. A study was conducted
for two sunny days in a month of July. Paraffin was used as PCM
with 60% encapsulation. It was found that PCM storage efficiency
shows significant improvement up to 35% when accompanied with
a ventilated cavity showing a reduction in room temperature of
0.4 °C. They concluded that for better evaluation of a potential of
latent heat storage, night air flowing into the PCM cavity improves
storage efficiency of PCM. Diaconu [127] studied the potential for
thermal energy savings in case of heating. It was observed that oc-
cupancy pattern and ventilation are important factors in the se-
lection of optimal PCM melting temperature for a given building
application.
Ascione et al. [128] investigated PCM plaster on the inner and
outer side of the building in order to observe its influence on en-
ergy savings and indoor comfort conditions. The investigation was
carried out during typical winter season for five different Mediter-
ranean climatic zones, namely, Ankara (Turkey), Athens (Greece),
Naples (Italy), Marseille (France), Seville (Spain). PCMs used had a
melting range between 26 °C and 29 °C. PCM with 29 °C of melting
point and 3 cm thickness showed the highest energy saving poten-
tial for all climatic zones. Shilei et al. [129] examined the effect of
PCM (82% of capric acid and 18% of lauric acid) integrated gypsum
boards on the thermal performance of the building. They found
that during the summer, PCM wallboard maintains the indoor tem-
perature within the comfort range by absorbing 39.126 kJ/kg of
heat before the complete melting at 24.26 °C.
3.1.2. PCM integration in ceilings
The ceiling is an important part of the building which ex-
changes heat between the roof and interior of the building. The
larger surface area of the ceiling comes in contact with air move-
ment at the interior of the building. The surface area of the ceiling
can be effectively utilized in the heat exchange process if the
thermal mass of ceiling is improved. But the increasing thermal
mass of ceiling has certain constructional disadvantages. Thus,
PCM integration in the ceiling is an effective way to improve the
performance of ceiling heat exchange process and provide thermal
comfort in building without increasing its thermal mass. Some
researchers reported a study on the PCM integrated ceiling to
maintain the thermal comfort conditions at the interior of the
building. Kondo and Iwamoto [130] investigated the performance
of office building having PCM ceiling boards. Ceiling board was
integrated with PCM microcapsules. Schematic of the system is
shown in Fig. 6.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
Fig. 7. Newly suggested system of PCM in ceiling [179].
Performance investigation was based on the peak load and off
load conditions of an active cooling system fitted inside the build-
ing. During off load conditions, electricity tariffs are less and thus,
in this period the air handling unit cooled the PCM. During peak
load, air from room goes to the PCM ceiling chamber and then
goes to the air handling unit. It was found that the PCM ceiling
board reduces the cooling load up to 14.8%. Kosehenz and Lehman
[131] suggested thermally activated ceiling panel with PCM for
passive cooling of the building. A proposed system is shown in
Fig. 7.
A mixture of microencapsulated PCM along with gypsum
poured into a steel tray was used as a ceiling panel. A capillary wa-
ter tube was applied to control the temperature of thermal mass.
It was concluded that to keep office within a comfortable range,
a PCM layer of 5 cm is required. Wang and Niu [132] studied a
combination of cooled ceiling and microencapsulated PCM (MPCM)
slurry storage system in typical weather conditions of City Hong
Kong, China. The combination of the system was utilized by an air
conditioning system. It was concluded that MPCM slurry performs
better compared to ice slurry.
3.1.3. PCM integration in roof
The roof is subjected to complex and dynamic environmental
conditions such as convective, radiative and conductive heat trans-
fer mechanisms. While designing the roof structure, thermal con-
siderations are based on steady-state criteria with some thermal
resistance values given by building standards [133]. These criteria
and dynamic exposed conditions of the roof are contradicting to
each other which results in relatively low thermal performance of
the roof structures reducing the energy efficiency of the building.
Thermal performance of the roof can be improved effectively by
improving the total thermal resistance of the roof with the addi-
tion of more insulation. However, it is not practical and econom-
Fig. 8. Concrete slab, frustum hole and PCM assembly [184].
477
ical to increase roof insulation beyond a certain range. An alter-
native practice to enhance the thermal performance of a roof is to
increase its thermal storage capacity using PCMs. Roof structure in-
tegrated with PCM offers improved building heat transfer control
by offering significant thermal inertia. It reduces transmission of
dynamic heat loads and improves the energy efficiency of a build-
ing.
Thermal performance of the PCM integrated roof was inves-
tigated by many researchers. Pasupathy and Velraj [134] studied
the performance of double layer PCM incorporated into the roof. A
study was carried out in the humid atmosphere of Chennai, India.
Inorganic salt hydrate was used as PCM. Results depicted that in-
door air temperature change becomes lesser when double layered
PCM was integrated into the roof. Kosny et al. [135] developed a
roof panel having a photovoltaic module with PCM. The roof was
naturally ventilated. It was found that a cooling load gets reduced
by 55% in summer. Also, peak daytime heat flux was reduced by
90%. Alhwadi et al. [136] investigated roof PCM system for the city
of Kuwait for the month of June in which electricity consumption
reaches its peak. The system was designed in such a way that con-
crete slab having cone frustum holes was filled with PCM mate-
rial. Schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 8. It was observed
that there is significant reduction up to 39% in heat flux to indoor
of the building space. Roman et al. [137] carried out a simulation
study for PCM based roof in order to mitigate the urban heat is-
land problem in seven different climatic zones of the USA. It was
concluded that PCM has great potential for improving the indoor
conditions, especially in an urban heat island location and almost
54% of heat flux entering into the building environment can be re-
duced using PCM. Pisello et al. [138] investigated the influence of
PCM integration in two types of roofing membranes i.e. cool mem-
brane and bitumen roofing membrane. It was observed that there
are 10.4% and 12.6% energy savings for cool and bitumen roofing
membranes respectively during both seasons of summer and win-
ter.
Pisello et al. [139] observed that thermal stress of polyurethane
liquid waterproof cool membrane roof under given radiation con-
ditions can be reduced when PCM is integrated in it. Results had
shown that PCM acts as a good additive to the membrane. Jayalath
et al. [140] examined the thermal performance of Bio PCM inte-
grated with the roof for the weather conditions of Melbourne and
Sydney. A cooling load saving was observed up to 25% and 39% for
Melbourne and Sydney respectively.
3.1.4. PCM integration in window
Transparent elements of the building like windows are respon-
sible for a significant amount of solar heat gain. Building heat
gain is usually reduced using conventional methods like filling the
478 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
absorbing gas or using insulated glass. But these conventional
methods show limited thermal performance due to low heat ca-
pacity. However, in some cases where visibility is only limited by
translucidity and thermal performance is more important, in such
cases, PCM becomes the best alternative for reducing window heat
gains. A necessary condition for using PCM in windows is that
it should be optically transparent. Certain characteristics of PCM
such as transparent and non-scattering, clear behavior in the liq-
uid phase as well as ability to absorb infrared radiation and al-
low visible radiation into its space makes it a popular candidate in
building fenestration products [141]. Li et al. [142] examined dou-
ble glazed and triple glazed window filled with PCM for summer
and winter climatic conditions of Nanjing, China. It was observed
that triple glazed window filled with PCM is more effective com-
pared to a double glazed window filled with PCM for both win-
ter and summer season. Hu and Heiselburg [143] established the
performance of ventilation window equipped with PCM heat ex-
changer during summer months in Copenhagen. Performance of
newly designed window was tested in two modes i.e. night venti-
lation mode and air precooling mode. It was found that when PCM
plate thickness inside heat exchanger is optimized with a value of
10 mm, it provides a cooling effect up to 6.5 °C with total energy
savings of 3.19 MJ/day. Ismail et al. [144] studied PCM integrated
glass window in a hot climatic conditions of Brazil. Comparison
between window filled with PCM and window filled with absorb-
ing gas was reported. It was observed that PCM filled windows re-
duce heat penetration compared to gas filled windows. Goia et al.
[145] investigated the effect of PCM integrated in glazing on ther-
mal comfort for three seasons. Traditional double glazing was com-
pared with PCM glazing. Results revealed that there is a significant
increase in comfort conditions when PCM glazing is used instead
of traditional glazing.
3.2. Free cooling
Passive cooling in the building can be achieved when a day-
time heat gain of the building is released at night through intake
of outdoor cool air. In other words, colder nocturnal air is circu-
lated in a building during night ventilation which cools the indoor
air and building structure. This cooled structure reduces the rate
of heat gain during the daytime [146,147]. Process of accumulating
the cold energy of the night in specialized energy storage and uti-
lized during the daytime when needed is referred as free cooling.
In the night cooling process, buildings thermal mass is utilized for
storing the coolness of night [148]. Effectiveness night cooling de-
pends on nocturnal air temperature and thermal mass of the build-
ing [148,149]. Also, the heat capacity of the thermal mass of the
building is limited by its size and material properties. Thus, there
Fig. 9. Free cooling system proposed by Turnpenny et al. [203].
exists a need for energy storage by which cold energy of night
can be stored effectively. As latent heat storage shows superior
performance over other thermal energy storage materials [150], it
is effectively utilized in free cooling. Thus, in the present section,
strategies related to only free cooling with PCM are focused.
Raj and Velraj [151] reviewed heat transfer problems and de-
sign considerations for free cooling technique. They concluded that
free cooling performance is site and climate dependent and favor-
ably perform in desert locations. It was also noted that free cooling
system performs better when air velocity is more during the charg-
ing period of PCM and reduced during later stages. It was recom-
mended to select PCM melting temperature in the mid-range of
diurnal temperature variation which depends on the application
season of the free cooling system i.e. either summer or winter.
Waqas and Din [152] elaborated design of PCM based free cooling
system, the geometry of encapsulation and thermo-physical prop-
erties of PCM. They also reviewed the effect of climatic condition
and melting temperature of the PCM on the performance of the
free cooling system. It was concluded that in a free cooling appli-
cation melting temperature of PCM should be close to room tem-
perature and specifically in the range of 20–26 °C. Kamali [153] re-
viewed the parameters affecting the performance of a free cooling
system along with its climatic applicability and economic feasibil-
ity. It was concluded that a free cooling system works efficiently
in the climatic conditions where the diurnal temperature range
is 12–15 °C. Thambidurai et al. [154] reviewed various selection
criteria for the PCM in the free cooling system, economic analy-
sis and promotional policies for effective commercialization of the
free cooling system. It was noted that parameters like PCM, en-
capsulation material, air ducts, packaging, etc. are important for an
economic free cooling system. It was also recommended that mass
implementation and commercialization in the residential sector
will definitely reduce air conditioning working hours. Alizadeh and
Sadrameli [10] presented a detailed review on free cooling tech-
nique along with the application of PCMs. The performance param-
eters, enhancement techniques, numerical modeling, economic and
geographic parameters were also well described.
Application of free cooling techniques for building applications
has been investigated over many years along with the development
of numerous systems. But first significant work on free cooling
technique incorporating PCM was carried out by Turnpenny et al.
[155]. In their work, authors reported a system having heat pipes
embedded in a PCM unit. A low power fan is fitted just below the
PCM unit which was used to draw the heat from the room over
the PCM unit. Schematic of the system used is shown in Fig. 9.
Salt hydrate having a melting temperature of 21 ̊C was used as
PCMIt was found that about 40 W of heat transfer rate between the
PCM unit and the air was possible for 19 h of melting time of PCM.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 479

Fig. 10. Mechanical ventilation with LHTES [204].

Authors have suggested an alternate design having fins attached to
heat pipes inside PCM unit in order to increase heat transfer rate
which can reduce the number of PCM units. Arkar et al. [156] ana-
lyzed the performance of mechanical ventilation system with two
latent heat storage units. One latent heat thermal energy storage
(LHTES) used for cooling of fresh air and another was used for re-
circulation of indoor air. Spherical encapsulated PCM i.e. paraffin
R20 was used. Free cooling operation during the day and night is
shown in Fig. 10.
It was noted that with the help of LHTES, size of the mechani-
cal ventilation system could be reduced considerably and the cool-
ing effect gets increased. Waqas et al. [157] investigated the PCM
storage unit for building ventilation system in order to study its
thermal performance. The study was carried out in hot and dry
climatic conditions. PCM unit stored the coolness of the night and
returned this coolness during the daytime when the ambient tem-
perature was high. It was observed that PCM in the suitable melt-
ing range can be utilized to keep coolness during daytimes. So-
lidification of PCM is affected by charging air inlet temperature.
Darzi et al. [158] investigated the free cooling system with plate
type PCM storage system. It was found that the thickness of PCM
plates plays an important role in the thermal performance of the
unit. It was observed that for the same mass flow rate and Ste-
fan number, when the thickness of PCM plates was increased from
1 cm to 2 cm, the melting rate of PCM was almost double. Thus, it
was concluded that the thickness of the PCM plates has a linear
relationship with the melting rate of PCM. Mosaffa et al. [159] car-
ried out a numerical study on performance enhancement of the
free cooling system using multiple PCM based LHTES unit. Perfor-
mance optimization study was carried out based on energy storage
effectiveness and coefficient of performance. It was revealed that
performance optimization method is not suitable for a PCM based
free cooling system.
3.3. Closure
An attempt is made here to summarize the preferred PCM mod-
ulation technique for different climatic conditions which is listed in
Table 7. From Table 7, it is observed that PCM based passive cool-
ing technique is preferable for all climatic conditions except humid
and temperate climate. In case of hot and dry climatic conditions,
for single or multistorey building, PCM integration in the roof, ceil-
ing, walls, free cooling and PCM integration in the window is pre-
ferred. For hot and humid climatic conditions, PCM integration in
the roof, ceiling, walls, windows assisted with night ventilation and
free cooling are suitable for single as well as multistorey build-
ing. Hence it can be concluded that the PCM modulation technique
has considerable potential towards achieving passive cooling of the
buildings for changing environmental conditions. However, in con-
text to thermal mass, certain areas such as material property en-
hancement, PCM leakage, adaptability with changing environmen-
tal condition needs more investigation. For free cooling technique,

Table 7
Summary of suitable application of PCM based passive cooling.

Building type Working conditions Climatic conditions Preferred PCM modulation technique

Single storey Roof and walls are directly exposed to solar Hot and dry PCM integration in roof or ceiling and walls along with free
building radiation and ambient cooling with PCM
Hot and humid PCM integration in roof and walls with night ventilation
Humid and temperate Not preferred
Only side walls are exposed to ambient Hot and dry PCM integration in walls along with free cooling with PCM
Hot and humid PCM integration in walls with night ventilation
Humid and temperate Not preferred
Side walls with transparent elements Hot and dry PCM integration in window
Hot and humid PCM integration in window with night ventilation
Humid and temperate Not preferred
Multi storey Only side walls are exposed to direct solar Hot and dry PCM integration in walls along with free cooling with PCM
building radiation and ambient
Hot and humid PCM integration in walls with night ventilation
Humid and temperate Not preferred
Roof and walls are not directly exposed to solar Hot and dry Free cooling with PCM
radiation and ambient
Hot and humid Free cooling with PCM
Humid and temperate Not preferred
Side walls with transparent elements Hot and dry PCM integration in window
Hot and humid PCM integration in window with night ventilation
Humid and temperate Not preferred
480 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
Table 8
Summary of literature related to wind driven ventilation.
Author Location Climatic conditions
[168] Ras Al Khaimah, (UAE) Hot and dry
[169] – Hot and dry
[170] Hong Kong, (China) Hot and humid
[171] Nagapattinam, (India) Hot and humid
[172] Yazd, (Iran) Hot and dry
[173] Beijing, (China) Hot and humid
the influence of performance parameters including PCM thermo-
physical properties, innovative PCM encapsulation geometries, inlet
flow rate and properties of heat transfer fluid and innovative con-
figuration of heat transfer surface on building heat control require
further investigations.
4. Heat dissipation
In this passive cooling technique, excess heat of the building is
rejected to the suitable environmental heat sink at a lower temper-
ature. Available environmental heat sinks are ambient air, water,
and sky. Based on the available environmental heat sink, this tech-
nique is further classified as convective cooling, evaporative cool-
ing, and radiative cooling.
4.1. Convective cooling
In convective cooling, the air is used as a heat sink. Heat dissi-
pation is completed by rejecting the excess heat of the building to
atmospheric air through various modes of natural ventilation. Nat-
ural ventilation is an effective passive cooling technique to miti-
gate the challenges arising from air conditioning [160]. The driving
force for cooling action in natural ventilation is either in the form
of natural wind speed or buoyancy effect which is due to the air
temperature difference between inside and outside of the building.
In some of the applications, the buoyancy effect of air is utilized
for passive cooling in a specialized building structure such as a so-
lar wall or solar chimney. Thus, based on methods of natural venti-
lation adopted, convective cooling can be further classified as wind
driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven stack ventilation, trombe wall
and a solar chimney.
4.1.1. Wind driven ventilation
Wind-driven ventilation commences due to the pressure dif-
ference created around the building structure. The wind strikes
building a structure and produces positive pressure on the wind-
ward side and suction pressure on the leeward side [161]. This dif-
ference in pressure drives the air flow from high-pressure open-
ings to low pressure opening on the leeward side. Performance
of wind-driven ventilation is dependent mainly on pressure pa-
rameters such as mean pressure field at ventilation openings and
fluctuating, unsteady flow around the building [162]. These pres-
sure parameters are influenced by climatic and building parame-
ters. Climatic parameters include wind velocity and its incident an-
gle, whereas building parameters include plan area density of the
building, frontal aspect ratio, relative positions of facades [44]. In
order to improve the performance of wind-driven ventilation, vari-
ous devices like Wing walls [163], exhaust cowls [164,165], wind
tower or wind catcher wind floor inlets [166] are used. A sys-
tematic review on wind driven ventilation devices is reported by
Wind driven Research Type Indoor temperature
ventilation type reduction (°C) or
Energy savings (%)
Wind catcher with Numerical and 12 °C
cool sink Field study
Wind tower with Numerical and 9–12 °C
heat transfer device wind tunnel testing
Wing wall Numerical study 20%
Single sided wind Experimental study 5 °C
catcher
Square plan wind Numerical study 4 °C
catcher
Wind catcher Numerical study 2 °C
Khan et al. [167]. The details of distinct types, flow rates, fea-
tures of wind ventilation devices were reported. Jomehazadeh et al.
[17] presented a detailed review of previous studies on natural
ventilation using a wind catcher device mainly focusing on in-
door air quality and thermal comfort aspects. It was concluded
that satisfactory indoor air quality and thermal comfort can be
achieved using a wind catcher. However, the article has not dis-
cussed the energy impact of wind-driven ventilation devices based
on climatic conditions. Summary of literature showing the effect
of wind-driven ventilation on energy savings and reduction in the
indoor temperature of the building is shown in Table 8.
4.1.2. Buoyancy driven ventilation
Buoyancy-driven ventilation is also known as stack ventilation.
It commences when there is vertical movement of air through
the building. It is carried out by buoyancy forces arising due
to density differences between warm air and cool air. Discrep-
ancies between indoor air and outdoor air are also responsi-
ble for the generation of buoyancy force [174]. Temperature and
height difference between indoor and outdoor are the key fac-
tors which affect the performance of buoyancy driven ventilation
[175]. Other factors such as building internal layout and division
[176], building material [177], the shape of a building structure
[178] are also important in controlling the flow of buoyancy driven
ventilation.
Aflaki et al. [179] reviewed the details of buoyancy-driven ven-
tilation considering the importance of ventilation opening with
size, location of apertures and components of the building fa-
cades. It was concluded that building orientation, ventilation shafts
should be adopted for effective ventilation in tropical climatic con-
ditions. Some of the researchers have also investigated the per-
formance improvement of buoyancy-driven ventilation through the
different application of architecture elements such as wooden bal-
conies and terrace, size and location of stacks, ventilation shafts
[180–183]. Literature also shows that performance evaluation of
buoyancy driven ventilation is mainly carried out on the basis
of indoor air quality, comfort requirements and energy savings.
Prajongsan and Sharples [182] carried out numerical investigation
buoyancy driven ventilation using ventilation shafts for the hot and
humid climatic conditions of Bangkok. It was found that average
velocities in a room without ventilation shaft were low and in-
sufficient to produce cooling effect compared to a room with the
ventilation shaft. It was observed that approximately 2700 kWh of
air conditioning energy saving can be achieved with the use of a
ventilation shaft. Gratia and De Herde [183] investigated numeri-
cally the effect of double skin facade designed for stack effect on a
multistorey building located at Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium having
hot and dry climatic conditions. It was concluded that around 40%
of energy savings could be possible with the use of double skin
facade.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 481

Fig. 11. Cooling based trombe wall.

4.1.3. Trombe wall
A trombe wall is an important architecture element which
helps in achieving heating, ventilation, and cooling of the buildings
[184]. Heating energy consumption of the building can be reduced
up to 30% with the use of trombe walls [185,186]. The trombe walls
are generally employed for the passive heating purpose and uti-
lized for cold climatic conditions. However, some types of trombe
walls are also useful for cooling purpose. Based on the type of ap-
plication either heating or cooling, trombe walls are classified as
heating based trombe wall and cooling based trombe wall [187].
Cooling based trombe wall includes a ceramic evaporative cool-
ing wall or hybrid wall [188], classic trombe wall [14], photovoltaic
trombe wall [189–191] as shown in Fig. 11.
Performance of cooling based trombe wall depends on many
factors such as type of glazing and its properties [192], type of
shading device [193], massive wall properties [189,194], construc-
tion materials [195], radiation and orientation of trombe wall [196].
Hu et al. [187] presented a detailed review of research and de-
velopment in cooling based trombe wall technology over the last
15 years. Emphasis was given on design parameters which affects
the performance of trombe wall. It was concluded that a suitable
indicator should be chosen in order to evaluate the performance
of trombe wall. Saddatian et al. [197] reviewed concepts, signifi-
cance and applications in solar wall technique for energy saving
in buildings. Effect of different trombe wall accessories like a fan,
insulation, size of trombe wall, wall material, glazing specification
was elaborated against the efficiency of trombe wall. It was recom-
mended to use a fan for vented type trombe wall and a suitable
insulation, which improves the efficiency by 8% and 56%. Optimal
size and thickness of the wall of trombe wall was found to be 37%
and 30–40 cm for its optimal performance. It was noted that the
glazing specification is dependent on the longitude and latitude of
the project. However, review articles [187,197] does not provide in-
formation on the energy impacts of the trombe wall in achieving
the passive cooling effect for different climatic conditions. Litera-
ture on cooling based trombe walls, achieving energy efficiency in
buildings are summarized in Table 9.
4.1.4. Solar chimney
The solar chimney is mainly utilized for enhancing daytime
ventilation as a passive cooling or passive heating in a building.
It is usually installed at the rooftop or attached to walls. Air move-
ment inside the solar chimney is generated by buoyancy forces
which draw cooler air inside the building and pushes hot air to-
wards top of the chimney cavity [200]. Solar chimney operates in
three different modes, i.e. passive heating mode, natural ventilation
mode and thermal insulation mode [201] as shown in Fig. 12. The
passive heating mode is operative when the heating load is dom-
inant whereas solar chimney works as a natural ventilation mode
when the cooling load is dominant. If the outdoor temperature is
higher than room temperature, solar chimney operates in a ther-
mal insulation mode.
Performance of solar chimney depends on various factors like
chimney configuration, installation conditions, material usages, en-
vironment. These factors were reported by Shi et al. [202] in their
review article and the details of the optimum design of solar chim-
ney based on performance parameters and past experiences were
highlighted. Monghasemi et al. [203] reviewed recent progress in
solar chimney application in building cooling. It provides the de-
tails of potential and effectiveness of various integrated system
such as earth-air heat exchanger, PCM, water consuming system,
a hybrid photovoltaic thermal system based on the solar chimney.

Table 9
Summary of literature related to cooling based trombe wall.

Author Location Climatic conditions Cooling based trombe wall Research type Indoor temperature reduction
(°C) or Energy savings (% or
kWh)

[198] Hong Kong, Shanghai and Hot and humid, PV trombe wall Numerical 30–50%
Beijing, (China) Hot and humid,
Hot and dry
[199] Yazd, (Iran) Hot and dry Classic trombe wall with water Experimental 8 °C
spraying system
[189] Hefei, (China) Composite PV trombe wall with insulation Numerical 2.47 °C for insulation and 2 °C
and shading curtain for shading curtains
[193] Ancona, (Italy) Medeterian climate Trombe wall with roller shutters, Experimental 63–72.9%
overhangs and Numerical
[195] Ancona, (Italy) Mediterranean PV trombe wall with roller Experimental 42% for single glazing 48% for
climate shutters having single and double glazing
double glazing
[191] Hong Kong, (China) Hot and humid PV trombe wall with multilayer Experimental 51%
facade and numerical
482 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 12. Operative modes of solar chimney [253].

Table 10
Summary of literature related to cooling performance of solar chimney.

Author Location Climatic conditions Solar chimney Research type Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[204] Bangkok, (Thailand) Hot and Humid Solar chimney with modified Experimental 30%
trombe wall
[205] Pathumthai, Hot and Humid Solar chimney with water Experimental 2–6.2 °C
(Thailand) spraying
[206] Bangkok, (Thailand) Hot and Humid Multi storey solar chimney Experimental and 4–5 °C
numerical
[207] Mexico city, Cd. Hot and humid, Solar chimney with earth air Numerical 3.2–6.6 °C
Juarez, Mérida, Cold and dry, Hot heat exchanger
(Mexico) and dry
[208] Yazd, (Iran) Hot and dry Solar chimney with water Experimental 9–14 °C
spraying system
[209] Menofiya, (Egypt) Hot and dry Solar chimney with attached Experimental 8.5 °C
fins
[201] Tokyo, (Japan) Hot and humid Classic Solar chimney Numerical 12%

It was notified that there is a need for an integrating system, as
the solar chimney is not suitable for climatic conditions like hot
arid, humid, regions with low insolation. Summary of literature ad-
dressing the cooling performance of the solar chimney is reported
in Table 10.
4.2. Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling has gained popularity in the field of air
conditioning over the past decade due to its simplicity in struc-
ture, low cost and use of natural resources [210,121]. Also, it is
highly efficient and available at low cost which makes it an attrac-
tive alternative compared with conventional air conditioning sys-
tems like vapor compression, absorption or thermoelectric refriger-
ation systems for both hot and dry climate and temperate climates
[210–212]. Evaporative cooling commences when non saturated air
comes in contact with water droplets. In this technique, large en-
thalpy of evaporation of water is used to absorb a high amount of
heat from the surrounding air, which results in a reduction of air
temperature along with an increase in humidity of air [44]. Evap-
oration of water is carried out using two methods, either through
direct contact between air and water droplets or there is indirect
contact between air and water [213,214]. Based on this, the evap-
orative cooling technique is classified as direct and indirect evapo-
rative cooling.
4.2.1. Direct evaporative cooling (DEC)
In direct contact between air stream and water, the sensible
heat of air is utilized to raise the latent heat of water which results
in evaporation of water. In this process, there is a reduction in the
temperature of air and increase in humidity of the air. Maximum
reduction in air temperature can be possible when there is the
maximum difference between dry bulb temperature and wet bulb
temperature of intake air [215]. If intake air is saturated, air can
be cooled to wet bulb temperature and this process becomes most
effective. Thus, the cooling efficiency of direct evaporative cooling
depends on the moisture content of intake air. The moisture con-
tent of intake air is reduced by forcing it through the desiccant
membrane [216,217]. Performance of direct evaporative cooling is
evaluated based on outlet air temperature, humidity saturation ef-
ficiency [218–221]. Cuce et al. [213] carried out a detailed review of
evaporative cooling technique along with thermal performance as-
sessment and thermo economic evaluation. It was concluded that
this technique has potential towards achieving energy savings in
hot and arid climatic conditions. Chan et al. [14] presented an in-
troduction to direct evaporative cooling along with principles of
operation. However, these articles did not deliberate on the energy
impact of directive evaporative cooling for different climatic con-
ditions. The reduction in indoor temperature due to direct evapo-
rative cooling for different climatic conditions are summarized in
Table 11.
4.2.2. Indirect evaporative cooling (IEC)
In this evaporative cooling method, dry air stream and wa-
ter stream are separated by a heat exchanging wall. In this pro-
cess, working secondary air is passed through a wet channel while
product air is passed through the dry channel. Wet channel ab-
sorbs sensible heat from the dry channel, resulting in the reduced
temperature of product air. Thus, there is no extra moisture addi-
tion to the product air. Thus, the humidity content of product air
remains the same while that of the secondary air humidity content
increases.
Duan et al. [15] reviewed indirect evaporative cooling tech-
niques, providing the details of the current state of art, advantages,
disadvantages, performance parameters, barriers in technology. It
was concluded that factors like cooling effectiveness, smaller tem-
perature reduction, larger geometrical size and dependency on
climatic conditions limit the performance of indirect evaporative
cooling. It was recommended to use indirect evaporative cooling
in combination with a cooling system such as desiccant cooling,
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490 483

Table 11
Summary of literature related to direct evaporative cooling.

Author Location Climatic conditions Direct evaporative cooling Research type Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[218] – Laboratory testing Cross flow direct evaporative Numerical 9 °C

cooler
[219] Taubate, (Brazil) Humid subtropical Cross flow direct evaporative Experimental and 3.5 °C
cooler numerical
[222] Nottingham, Temperate oceanic Porous ceramic direct Experimental 6–8 °C
(England) evaporator
[221] Urumqi, (China) Hot and dry Cross flow direct evaporative Numerical 9–14 °C
cooler
[221] Lanzhou, (China) Semi arid Cross flow direct evaporative Numerical 8 °C
cooler
[223] Bhopal, (India) Hot and dry Direct evaporative cooler Experimental 8 °C
with Honeycomb cooling pad
[223] Bhopal, (India) Hot and dry Direct evaporative cooler Experimental 5 °C
with Aspen swamp cooling
pad

Table 12
Summary of literature related to direct evaporative cooling.

Author Location Climatic conditions Research type Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[225] Kuwait Hot and humid Analytical 12,418–6320 kWh

[226] Khuzestan, (Iran) Hot and dry Experimental 16%
[227] India Composite, hot and dry, Analytical 55%
moderate
[228] Iran Hot and dry, hot and semi Experimental >60%
humid, temperate and dry,
humid
[229] Tehran, Iran Lab testing Experimental 75%

chilled water system, heat pipe, etc. Performance of indirect evapo-
rative cooling technique depends on wet bulb efficiency, dew point
efficiency, cooling power, power consumption and coefficient of
performance [224]. Performance assessment of indirect evaporative
cooling technique is carried by various researchers for different cli-
matic conditions, applications. An attempt is made to summaries,
literature analyzing the performance of indirect evaporative cool-
ing in terms of energy savings or indoor temperature reduction of
a building in Table 12.
4.3. Radiative cooling
The earth’s atmosphere is a semitransparent medium which
absorbs, scatter and emit the radiation. It shows the dynamic
behavior by allowing infrared radiation in a certain wavelength
range passes through it without being absorbed. Thus, if appro-
priate thermal properties of a structure present on the earth are
met under suitable ambient conditions, it is possible to dissipate
the heat from the structure to the sky. Hence, passive radiative
cooling is possible with the sky as a heat sink. Radiative cooling
for buildings during clear sky nights has been utilized since cen-
turies in the past [230,231]. During ancient time radiative cool-
ing was employed for ice making and storing of ice in India and
Iran [232,233].
Potential and applications of radiative cooling as passive cooling
of the buildings is studied by various authors. Lu et al. [13] pre-
sented a comprehensive review on radiative cooling in buildings
providing the details of system configurations, cooling potentials,
material constraints, climatic restrictions and cost issues. It was
concluded that performance of radiative cooling can be enhanced
with emitting surface optimization, adoption of the angular surface
to avoid heat gains and favorable climatic conditions such as tem-
perate and Mediterranean climate. Vall and Castell [234] reviewed
the radiative cooling from theoretical and numerical approaches
present in literature and different prototypes. It was noted that
the use of heat storage for high cooling power density, water as
a heat carrier fluid beneficial for effective cooling. Zeyghami et al.
[235] elaborated radiative cooling technique with details in terms
of performance indicators and evaluation, empirical correlations
for numerical analysis and emitter surface designs in their review.
Based on the application of radiative cooling during nighttime and
daytime, it is classified as nocturnal radiative cooling and radiant
cooling system [9,235].
4.3.1. Nocturnal radiative cooling
In this method, indirect heat loss is created by exposing the
heat surface directly to the heat sink of clear cool night sky [9].
The performance of nocturnal radiative cooling depends on the
material properties of the radiative panel like heat surface emis-
sivity, reflectivity [236,237]. It is also dependent on surface area
exposure of sky and humidity levels. Solar flat plate collectors are
generally used as radiative panels as shown in Fig. 13.
Nwaigweet al. [238] presented a comprehensive review on per-
formance, uses and applications of nocturnal radiative cooling.
Night sky radiation measurement for different locations, field test-
ing and problems associated with this technique were also elab-
orated in details. It was concluded that nocturnal radiative cool-
ing shows potential for 14–48% reduction in energy demands of a
building. Studies related to performance evaluation of nocturnal ra-
diative cooling in terms of indoor temperature reduction or energy
savings are summarized in Table 13.
4.3.2. Radiant cooling
In this method, the heated surface is indirectly exposed to the
heat sink of the night sky through the medium of cold water. Cold
water circulates inside the pipes embedded in the walls or slab of
a building and removes heat from the interior of a building. Ra-
diant cooling shows smaller vertical temperature gradient, less air
movement and less local discomfort for building occupants when
compared with conventional air conditioning system [244]. The
484 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490

Fig. 13. Nocturnal radiative panel [9].

Table 13
Summary of literature related to radiative cooling.

Author Location Climatic conditions Nocturnal radiative Research type Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
cooling or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[239] Bangkok, (Thailand) Hot and humid Roof radiators Experimental 1–6 ̊C
[240] Ioannina, (Greece) Warm and Roof radiators with Experimental 2.5–4 ̊C
temperate white paint
[241] Malaysia Hot and humid Flat plate roof Numerical 11%
radiator
[242] Oslo, (Norway) Hot and humid Polymer based Experimental 1–4 °C
radiator
[243] Toronto, Canada Hot and humid Unglazed Experimental 6–20 °C
perforated roof
radiator

Table 14
Summary of literature related to radiant cooling.

Author Location Climatic conditions Radiant cooling Research type Indoor temperature reduction (°C)
or Energy savings (% or kWh)

[248] New Delhi, (India) Composite, Conventional radiant cooling Experimental and 24–27%
numerical
[248] Ahmadabad, (India) Hot and dry, Conventional radiant cooling Experimental and 21–27%
numerical
[248] Bengarulu, (India) Temperate Conventional radiant cooling Experimental and 24–27%
numerical
[248] Chennai, (India) Warm and humid Conventional radiant cooling Experimental and 11–19%
numerical
[249] Hyderabad, (India) Composite Conventional radiant cooling Numerical 25–30%
[250] Bodegraven, Temperate Thermal activated system (TABS) Experimental <50%
(Netherlands)
[251] Jamshoro, Hot and dry Conventional radiant cooling Numerical <80%
(Pakistan)
[252] Beijing, (China) Hot and humid Capillary tube embedded surface Experimental and 25%
cooling system numerical
[252] Beijing, (China) Hot and humid Thermal activated system (TABS) Experimental and 32%
numerical
[253] Hong Kong, (China) Hot and humid Chilled ceiling with desiccant cooling Numerical 44%
[254] Beijing, (China) Hot and humid Chilled ceiling with displacement Numerical 8.2%
ventilation, desiccant dehumidification
[255] USA Dry, moist and Conventional radiant cooling Numerical 30%
humid

recently radiant cooling system has been utilized as a commercial

Fig. 14. Radiant cooling system at Infosys, India [245].
cooling system for Indian multinational company, Infosys [245].
Fig. 14 shows a radiant cooling system at Infosys. It was seen that
installed radiant cooling system works 40% more efficiently com-
pared to conventional buildings providing healthier indoor quality.
Zhao et al. [246] reviewed recent applications and achievements
in radiant cooling technique along with feasibility study consider-
ing parameters such as thermal comfort, thermal efficiency, cooling
capacity. Authors also outlined the key issues associated with the
performance of this technique and discussed the details of recent
projects based on this cooling technique which includes Bangkok
airport of Thailand, Xi’an airport of China. It was noted that ra-
diant cooling shows excellent performance with increase in cool-
ing capacity for large space buildings which features high internal
wall temperatures and higher exposure to the solar radiation. Rhee
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
and Kim [247] presented a review on radiant cooling, providing the
details of thermal analysis and thermal comfort including cooling
capacity, heat transfer models, energy simulation, CFD study, con-
trol strategies, and system configurations. It was concluded that ar-
eas such as system design and control, advanced control strategies,
optimization and practical approaches needed to be addressed for
better applicability of the radiant cooling system. These review ar-
ticles focused on evaluating the performance of radiant cooling as
well as heating technique in terms of cooling capacity, system en-
ergy efficiency, thermal comfort, etc. However, in order to evaluate
radiant cooling as an effective passive cooling technique, it is nec-
essary to monitor the reduction in cooling load or indoor tempera-
ture for different climatic conditions. Summary of literature related
to radiant cooling is reported in Table 14.
4.4. Closure
It is seen from the literature that heat dissipation technique
can be an effective passive cooling technique to achieve thermal
comfort and better building energy efficiency. Convective cooling
techniques like wind-driven ventilation, buoyancy-driven venti-
lation finds its applicability in both hot and humid as well as
temperate climatic conditions, whereas other technique like the
trombe wall and solar trombe wall shows the applicability in hot
and dry, hot and humid climatic conditions. These techniques
need more discussion on areas such as a combination of natural
ventilation and advance mechanical devices, innovative ventilation
for complex buildings, intelligent system and controls for effective
ventilation. For heat dissipation cooling, the applicability of both
evaporative and radiative cooling is limited in hot and dry climatic
conditions. This cooling technique needs more research on hybrid
cooling with air conditioning, innovative heat exchanging media
for effective cooling. In the case of radiative cooling, more empha-
sis is needed in areas such as working life, economic consideration,
and innovative hybrid cooling methods.
6. Conclusion and future work
The present review provides a detailed description, classifica-
tion and thorough literature related to passive cooling techniques
for building application. Major conclusions drawn from the present
review are as follows:
1. Solar and heat control technique
• This technique is helpful when it is possible to avoid direct
heat gain by the building. It has been favorably used in a cli-
matic region when there are no space constraints for build-
ing and elemental changes can be accommodated into the
building structure.
• This technique is more dependent on aesthetics and build-
ing structural requirements. Thus, literature related to solar
and heat control technique needs more attention in terms
of aesthetic, structural and economical aspects. For exam-
ple, in the case of vegetative roofs, the additional mass of
soil and water retention causes a structural imbalance of the
roof membrane. This structural imbalance leads to adverse
effects such as water pounding, leaks or debris. Thus, there
is a need to study the design and installation of vegetative
roofs for passive cooling of the building considering struc-
tural peripherals like walls, vents, etc. for maintaining the
structural integrity of roof membrane.
• In terms of economics, it is necessary to study the perfor-
mance of vegetative roofs against the capital investment of
the irrigation system during the plant establishment period,
especially for dry climatic conditions. Evaluating capital ex-
penditure in the installation of an economical irrigation sys-
485
tem such as drip irrigation against the passive cooling ben-
efits of vegetative roofs is a potential area of research for
future studies.
2. Heat modulation technique
• The findings related to heat modulation technique revealed
that it is helpful if the heat gain of the building is to be
neutralized by enhancing the properties of the building ma-
terial.
• This technique finds importance in areas where the intensity
of solar heat gain is unavoidable.
• The key points required to be emphasized in future research
for this technique are methods of preparing a combination
of PCM with building materials, the stability of PCM inside
the building structure and sustainable methods to avoid the
leakage of liquid PCM into the building structure.
3. Heat dissipation technique
• Studies related to heat dissipation technique find its appli-
cations in areas where there is a possibility to reduce the
induced heat gain with the help of suitable exchanging me-
dia. This method is preferred when it is not possible to
enhance building material properties or when there is re-
stricted space available for building the structure.
• Both evaporative and radiative cooling techniques find their
importance in the technical as well as commercial applica-
tions and needs to be evaluated innovatively in future stud-
ies. For example, while designing heat exchanger for the in-
direct evaporative cooling system, innovative shapes of heat
exchanging plates can be useful in improving the effective-
ness of the cooling system.
• However material properties such as durability, hardness
and water permeability need to be evaluated prior to in-
novative designs. Water permeability of material or water
leakage becomes a crucial factor when integrating indirect
evaporative cooling with air handling units and hence needs
to be considered for future research.
• Other potential areas related to this technique would be
◦ Compatibility of heat exchanging media with the build-
ing structure.
◦ Economic feasibility and working life of this technique.
The present review is intended to serve as a guide for the build-
ing designer, architect and researchers working on energy efficient
green buildings.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
References
[1] Agencia Internacional de la Energía. World Energy Outlook 2017. Int EN-
ERGY AGENCY Together Secur Sustain 2017; Executive: 13. doi:10.1016/
0301- 4215(73)90024- 4.
[2] Energy US. 237218984-Morfologia-Vegetal-Goncalves-E-G-Lorenzi-2007-pdf
.pdf 2017. www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/pdf/0484(2016).pdf.
[3] IEA Online Data Services. Available at, http://data.iea.org/ieastore/statslisting.
asp.
[4] https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/oct/26/cold-economy-
cop21- global- warming- carbon- emissions.
[5] Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association (JRAIA), World
Air Conditioner Demand by Region, 2017.
[6] M. Santamouris, D. Kolokotsa, Passive cooling dissipation techniques for
buildings and other structures: the state of the art, Energy Build. 57 (2013)
74–94, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.11.002.
[7] N.B. Geetha, R. Velraj, Passive cooling methods for energy efficient buildings
with and without thermal energy storage – a review 2012;29:913–46.
[8] A. Prieto, U. Knaack, T. Klein, T. Auer, 25 Years of cooling research in office
buildings: review for the integration of cooling strategies into the building
façade (1990 – 2014), Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 71 (2017) 89–102, doi:10.
1016/j.rser.2017.01.012.
486 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
[9] K. Panchabikesan, K. Vellaisamy, V. Ramalingam, Passive cooling potential in
buildings under various climatic conditions in India, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 78 (2017) 1236–1252, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.030.
[10] M. Alizadeh, S.M. Sadrameli, Development of free cooling based ventilation
technology for buildings: thermal energy storage (TES) unit, performance en-
hancement techniques and design considerations – a review, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 58 (2016) 619–645, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.168.
[11] F. Souayfane, F. Fardoun, P.H. Biwole, Phase change materials (PCM) for cool-
ing applications in buildings: a review, Energy Build. 129 (2016) 396–431,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.04.006.
[12] H. Akeiber, P. Nejat, M.Z.A. Majid, M.A. Wahid, F. Jomehzadeh, I. Zeynali
Famileh, et al., A review on phase change material (PCM) for sustainable
passive cooling in building envelopes, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016)
1470–1497, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.03.036.
[13] X. Lu, P. Xu, H. Wang, T. Yang, J. Hou, Cooling potential and applications
prospects of passive radiative cooling in buildings: the current state-of-the-
art, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 65 (2016) 1079–1097, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.
07.058.
[14] H.Y. Chan, S.B. Riffat, J. Zhu, Review of passive solar heating and cooling tech-
nologies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (2010) 781–789, doi:10.1016/j.rser.
2009.10.030.
[15] Z. Duan, C. Zhan, X. Zhang, M. Mustafa, X. Zhao, B. Alimohammadisagvand,
et al., Indirect evaporative cooling: past, present and future potentials, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (2012) 6823–6850, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.07.007.
[16] I. Oropeza-perez, P.A. Østergaard, Active and passive cooling methods for
dwellings: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 531–544, doi:10.
1016/j.rser.2017.09.059.
[17] F. Jomehzadeh, P. Nejat, J.K. Calautit, M.B.M. Yusof, S.A. Zaki, B.R. Hughes,
et al., A review on windcatcher for passive cooling and natural ventilation in
buildings, Part 1: indoor air quality and thermal comfort assessment, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 70 (2017) 736–756, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.254.
[18] H. Goudarzi, A. Mostafaeipour, Energy saving evaluation of passive systems
for residential buildings in hot and dry regions, Renew Sustain Energy Rev
68 (2017) 432–446, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.002.
[19] B.R. Hughes, H.N. Chaudhry, S.A. Ghani, A review of sustainable cooling
technologies in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 3112–3120,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.03.032.
[20] M. Konstantoglou, A. Tsangrassoulis, Dynamic operation of daylighting and
shading systems: a literature review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016)
268–283, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.246.
[21] A. Tejero-González, M. Andrés-Chicote, P. García-Ibáñez, E. Velasco-Gómez,
F.J. Rey-Martínez, Assessing the applicability of passive cooling and heating
techniques through climate factors: an overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
65 (2016) 727–742, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.077.
[22] B. Raji, M.J. Tenpierik, van den A. Dobbelsteen, The impact of greening sys-
tems on building energy performance: a literature review n.d.:1–25.
[23] J. Gandemer, Integration of the wind phenomenon in the design of the built
environment. Ministry of the quality of life 1976.
[24] A.K. Meier, Strategic landscaping and air-conditioning savings: a
literature review, Energy Build. 15 (1990) 479–486, doi:10.1016/
0378- 7788(90)90024- D.
[25] C.M. Hsieh, J.J. Li, L. Zhang, B. Schwegler, Effects of tree shading and tran-
spiration on building cooling energy use, Energy Build. 159 (2018) 382–397,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.10.045.
[26] T. Lee, T. Asawa, H. Kawai, T. Nemoto, R. Sato, Y. Hirayama, et al., Passive
cooling techniques in an outdoor space and its effects on the indoor climate,
in: PLEA 2014 - 30th Int PLEA Conf, 2014, pp. 1–7.
[27] R. Berry, S.J. Livesley, L. Aye, Tree canopy shade impacts on solar irradiance
received by building walls and their surface temperature, Build. Environ. 69
(2013) 91–100, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.07.009.
[28] M. Fairuz, P.J. Jones, J. Gwilliam, E. Salleh, An evaluation of outdoor and build-
ing environment cooling achieved through combination modification of trees
with ground materials 2012;58.
[29] R. Pandit, D.N. Laband, Energy savings from tree shade, Ecol. Econ. 69 (2010)
1324–1329, doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.01.009.
[30] J.R. Simpson, Improved estimates of tree-shade effects on residential energy
use 2002;34.
[31] H. Akbari, M. Pomerantz, H. Taha, Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce
energy use and improve air quality in urban areas 2001;70:295–310.
[32] D. Holm, Thermal improvement by means of leaf cover on external walls - a
simulation model 1989;14:19–30.
[33] N.M. Nahar, P. Sharma, M.M. Puurohit, Studies on solar passive cooling tech-
niques for arid areas., Energy Convers. Manag. 40 (1999) 89–95, doi:10.1016/
j.renene.20 04.10.0 08.
[34] G.N. Tiwari, A. Kumar, M.S. Sodha, A review-Cooling by water evapora-
tion over roof, Energy Convers. Manag. 22 (1982) 143–153, doi:10.1016/
0196- 8904(82)90036- X.
[35] J. Cook, Passive Cooling, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 1985.
[36] A. Sharifi, Y. Yamagata, Roof ponds as passive heating and cooling systems: a
systematic review, Appl. Energy 160 (2015) 336–357, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.
2015.09.061.
[37] A. Spanaki, T. Tsoutsos, D. Kolokotsa, On the selection and design of the
proper roof pond variant for passive cooling purposes, Renew. Sustain. En-
ergy Rev. 15 (2011) 3523–3533, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.05.007.
[38] L.C.J. Esparza, C. Escobar del Pozo, A.A. Gómez, A.G. Gómez, C.E. Gonza-
lez, Potential of a wet fabric device as a roof evaporative cooling solution:
mathematical and experimental analysis, J. Build. Eng. 19 (2018) 366–375,
doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.05.021.
[39] J. Vorster, R. Dobson, Sustainable cooling alternatives for buildings, J. Energy
S. Afr. 22 (2011) 48–66.
[40] S.N. Kharrufa, Y. Adil, Roof pond cooling of the buildings in hot arid climates,
Build. Environ. 43 (2008) 82–89, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.11.034.
[41] T. Runsheng, Y. Etzion, E. Erell, Experimental studies on a novel roof pond
configuration for the cooling of the buildings, Renew. Energy 28 (2003) 1513–
1522, doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(03)0 0 0 02-8.
[42] S. Raeissi, M. Taheri, Cooling load reduction of the buildings using passive
roof options, Renew. Energy 7 (1996) 301–313, doi:10.1016/0960-1481(95)
00123-9.
[43] M.S. Sodha, A. Kumar, U. Singh, G.N. Tiwari, Periodic theory of an open roof
pond, Appl. Energy 7 (1980) 305–319, doi:10.1016/0306-2619(80)90 0 05-7.
[44] M. Santamouris, D. Asimakopoulos, Passive cooling of the buildings, Science
(1996).
[45] J.W. Lee, H.J. Jung, J.Y. Park, J.B. Lee, Y. Yoon, Optimization of the building
window system in Asian regions by analyzing solar heat gain and daylight-
ing elements, Renew. Energy 50 (2013) 522–531, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2012.07.
029.
[46] A. Gustavsen, B.P. Jelle, D. Arasteh, C. Kohler, State-of-the-Art Highly In-
sulating Window Frames—Research and Market Review, 2007 ProjectRe-
port6,SINTEFBuilding and Infrastructure.
[47] W.J. Hee, M.A. Alghoul, B. Bakhtyar, O. Elayeb, M.A. Shameri, M.S. Alrubaih,
et al., The role of window glazing on daylighting and energy saving in build-
ings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 42 (2015) 323–343, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.
09.020.
[48] H. Manz, On minimizing heat transport in architectural glazing, Renew. En-
ergy 33 (2008) 119–128, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.01.007.
[49] P.C. Eames, Vacuum glazing: current performance and future prospects, Vac-
uum 82 (2008) 717–722, doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2007.10.017.
[50] Y. Fang, P.C. Eames, B. Norton, T.J. Hyde, J. Zhao, J. Wang, et al., Low emit-
tance coatings and the thermal performance of vacuum glazing, Sol. Energy
81 (2007) 8–12, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2006.06.011.
[51] M.G. Kang, N.G. Park, Y.J. Park, K.S. Ryu, S.H. Chang, Manufacturing method
for transparent electric windows using dye-sensitized TiO2 solar cells, Sol.
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 75 (2003) 475–479, doi:10.1016/S0927-0248(02)
00202-7.
[52] N.T.R.N. Kumara, A. Lim, C.M. Lim, M.I. Petra, P. Ekanayake, Recent progress
and utilization of natural pigments in dye sensitized solar cells: a review,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 78 (2017) 301–317, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.075.
[53] R. Baetens, B.P. Jelle, A. Gustavsen, Aerogel insulation for building applica-
tions: a state-of-the-art review, Energy Build. 43 (2011) 761–769, doi:10.1016/
j.enbuild.2010.12.012.
[54] J.M. Schultz, K.I. Jensen, Evacuated aerogel glazings, Vacuum 82 (2008) 723–
729, doi:10.1016/j.vacuum.2007.10.019.
[55] K. Chiba, T. Takahashi, T. Kageyama, H. Oda, Low-emissivity coating of amor-
phous diamond-like carbon/Ag-alloy multilayer on glass, Appl. Surf. Sci. 246
(2005) 48–51, doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2004.10.046.
[56] M. Reidinger, M. Rydzek, C. Scherdel, M. Arduini-Schuster, J. Manara, Low-
emitting transparent coatings based on tin doped indiumoxide applied via a
sol-gel routine, Thin Solid Films 517 (2009) 3096–3099, doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2008.
11.078.
[57] E. Cuce, Toward multi-functional PV glazing technologies in low/zero car-
bon buildings: heat insulation solar glass - latest developments and future
prospects, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 60 (2016) 1286–1301, doi:10.1016/j.
rser.2016.03.009.
[58] P.K. Ng, N. Mithraratne, Lifetime performance of semi-transparent building-
integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) glazing systems in the tropics, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 31 (2014) 736–745, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.044.
[59] A. Weber, K. Resch, Thermotropic glazings for overheating protection, Energy
Procedia 30 (2012) 471–477, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.11.056.
[60] P. Nitz, H. Hartwig, Solar control with thermotropic layers, Sol. Energy 79
(2005) 573–582, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2004.12.009.
[61] E. Cuce, S.B. Riffat, A state-of-the-art review on innovative glazing technolo-
gies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 (2015) 695–714, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.
08.084.
[62] S.D. Rezaei, S. Shannigrahi, S. Ramakrishna, A review of conventional, ad-
vanced, and smart glazing technologies and materials for improving indoor
environment, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 159 (2017) 26–51, doi:10.1016/j.
solmat.2016.08.026.
[63] M.M. Tahmasebi, S. Banihashemi, M.S. Hassanabadi, Assessment of the varia-
tion impacts of window on energy consumption and carbon footprint, Proce-
dia Eng. 21 (2011) 820–828, doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.2083.
[64] S. Sadrzadehrafiei, K. Sopian, S. Mat, C.H. Lim, H.S. Hashim, A. Zaharim, Po-
tential Energy and Emission Reduction through Application of Triple Glazing,
2012, pp. 138–142.
[65] S. Sadrzadehrafiei, K. Sopian, S. Mat, C. Lim, Application of advanced glazing
to mid-rise office buildings in Malaysia, in: Proc 9th WSEAS Int Conf Environ
Ecosyst Dev, 2011, pp. 197–201.
[66] N.L. Sbar, L. Podbelski, H.M. Yang, B. Pease, Electrochromic dynamic windows
for office buildings, Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 1 (2012) 125–139, doi:10.
1016/j.ijsbe.2012.09.001.
[67] J. Yao, N. Zhu, Evaluation of indoor thermal environmental, energy and day-
lighting performance of thermotropic windows, Build. Environ. 49 (2012)
283–290, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.06.004.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
[68] T.T. Chow, K.F. Fong, W. He, Z. Lin, A.L.S. Chan, Performance evaluation of a
PV ventilated window applying to office building of Hong Kong, Energy Build.
39 (2007) 643–650, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.09.014.
[69] W. Guo, Z. Qiu, P. Li, J. He, Y. Zhang, Q. Li, Application of PV window foroffice
building in hot summer and cold winter zone of China, Adv. Mater. Res. 347
(2012) 81–88.
[70] P. Li, W. Guo, Z. Qiu, Energy performance of PV windows used in dif-
ferentcities of China, in: ASME 2011 power conference collocated with
JSME ICOPE2011, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2011, pp. 575–
579.
[71] C. Buratti, E. Moretti, Experimental performance evaluation of aerogel glazing
systems, Appl. Energy 97 (2012) 430–437, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.12.055.
[72] R.M. Aı̌nbinder, Klinicheskoe techenie pnevmokonizoa u invalidov-shakhterov
kuzbassa (po materialam BTEK), Meditsina Tr I Promyshlennaya Ekol 9 (1965)
43–47, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.07.034.
[73] U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Passive Solar Home Design, U.S. Depart-
ment of Energy (DOE). http://energy.gov/energysaver/passive- solar- home-
design.
[74] P. Littlefair, Daylight, sunlight and solar gain in the urban environment, Sol.
Energy 70 (2001) 177–185, doi:10.1016/S0 038-092X(0 0)0 0 099-2.
[75] A. Kirimtat, B.K. Koyunbaba, I. Chatzikonstantinou, S. Sariyildiz, Review of
simulation modeling for shading devices in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 53 (2016) 23–49, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.08.020.
[76] G. Kim, H.S. Lim, T.S. Lim, L. Schaefer, J.T. Kim, Comparative advantage of an
exterior shading device in thermal performance for residential buildings, En-
ergy Build. 46 (2012) 105–111, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.10.040.
[77] N. Gupta, G.N. Tiwari, Review of passive heating/cooling systems of the build-
ings, Energy Sci. Eng. 4 (2016) 305–333, doi:10.1002/ese3.129.
[78] S.M. Al-Masrani, K.M. Al-Obaidi, N.A. Zalin, M.I. Aida Isma, Design optimi-
sation of solar shading systems for tropical office buildings: challenges and
future trends, Sol. Energy 170 (2018) 849–872, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2018.04.
047.
[79] L.G. Valladares-Rendón, G. Schmid, S.L. Lo, Review on energy savings by
solar control techniques and optimal building orientation for the strategic
placement of façade shading systems, Energy Build. 140 (2017) 458–479,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.12.073.
[80] S.T. Claros, A. Soler, Indoor daylight climate-comparison between light
shelves and overhang performances in Madrid for hours with unit sunshine
fraction and realistic values of model reflectance, Sol. Energy 71 (2001) 233–
239, doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(01)00046-9.
[81] A. Meresi, Evaluating daylight performance of light shelves combined with
external blinds in south-facing classrooms in Athens, Greece, Energy Build.
116 (2016) 190–205, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.009.
[82] U. Berardi, H.K. Anaraki, Analysis of the impacts of light shelves on the useful
daylight illuminance in office buildings in Toronto, Energy Procedia 78 (2015)
1793–1798, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.310.
[83] R.A. Mangkuto, F. Feradi, R.E. Putra, R.T. Atmodipoero, F. Favero, Optimisation
of daylight admission based on modifications of light shelf design parame-
ters, J. Build. Eng. 18 (2018) 195–209, doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.03.007.
[84] M. David, M. Donn, F. Garde, A. Lenoir, Assessment of the thermal and visual
efficiency of solar shades, Build. Environ. 46 (2011) 1489–1496, doi:10.1016/j.
buildenv.2011.01.022.
[85] F. Stazi, S. Marinelli, C. Di Perna, P. Munafò, Comparison on solar shadings:
monitoring of the thermo-physical behaviour, assessment of the energy sav-
ing, thermal comfort, natural lighting and environmental impact, Sol. Energy
105 (2014) 512–528, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2014.04.005.
[86] J. Xiong, A. Tzempelikos, Model-based shading and lighting controls con-
sidering visual comfort and energy use, Sol. Energy 134 (2016) 416–428,
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2016.04.026.
[87] G. Yun, K.C. Yoon, K.S. Kim, The influence of shading control strategies on
the visual comfort and energy demand of office buildings, Energy Build. 84
(2014) 70–85, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.07.040.
[88] F. Sicurella, G. Evola, E. Wurtz, A statistical approach for the evaluation of
thermal and visual comfort in free-running buildings, Energy Build. 47 (2012)
402–410, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.12.013.
[89] S. Cho, K.-S. Shin, M. Zaheer-Uddin, the Effect of Slat Angle of Windows With
Venetian, Energy 20 (1995) 1225–1236.
[90] N.H. Wong, S. Li, A study of the effectiveness of passive climate control
in naturally ventilated residential buildings in Singapore, Build. Environ. 42
(2007) 1395–1405, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.11.032.
[91] J. Yu, C. Yang, L. Tian, Low-energy envelope design of residential building in
hot summer and cold winter zone in China, Energy Build. 40 (2008) 1536–
1546, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.020.
[92] N.H. Wong, A.D. Istiadji, Effects of external shading devices on daylighting
and natural ventilation, in: Eighth Int IBPSA Conf Eindhoven, 2003, Nether-
lands, 2003, pp. 475–482. August 11-14.
[93] K.H. Yang, R.L. Hwang, Energy conservation of the buildings in Taiwan, Pat-
tern Recognit. 28 (1995) 1483–1491, doi:10.1016/0 031-3203(94)0 0153-D.
[94] O. Awadh, P.B. Abuhijleh, The Impact of external shading and windows’ glaz-
ing and frame on thermal performance of residential house in Abu-Dhabi
2013:3–10.
[95] A.A.E.M.M. Ali Ahmed, Using simulation for studying the influence of vertical
shading devices on the thermal performance of residential buildings (Case
study: New Assiut City), Ain Shams Eng. J. 3 (2012) 163–174, doi:10.1016/j.
asej.2012.02.001.
487
[96] E. Shen, J. Hu, M. Patel, Energy and visual comfort analysis of lighting and
daylight control strategies, Build. Environ. 78 (2014) 155–170, doi:10.1016/j.
buildenv.2014.04.028.
[97] A. Tzempelikos, A.K. Athienitis, The impact of shading design and control on
building cooling and lighting demand, Sol. Energy 81 (2007) 369–382, doi:10.
1016/j.solener.2006.06.015.
[98] Yogi. Goswami, Advances in Solar Energy: Volume 16- An Annual Review
of Research and Development in Renewable Energy Technologies, 1996,
pp. 306–309.
[99] R. Krishnan, Introduction to. Control 2014:2014. doi:10.1016/
B978- 0- 240- 81203- 8.0 0 0 02-7.
[100] L. Navarro, A. de Gracia, D. Niall, A. Castell, M. Browne, S.J. McCormack, et al.,
Thermal energy storage in building integrated thermal systems: a review. Part
2. Integration as passive system, Renew. Energy 85 (2016) 1334–1356, doi:10.
1016/j.renene.2015.06.064.
[101] J. Kosny, T. Petrie, D. Gawin, P. Childs, A. Desjarlais, J. Christian, Thermal mass
- energy savings potential in residential buildings, ORNL (2001) 25.
[102] S. Verbeke, A. Audenaert, Thermal inertia in buildings: a review of impacts
across climate and building use, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018) 2300–
2318, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.083.
[103] M.K. Rathod, J. Banerjee, Thermal stability of phase change materials used in
latent heat energy storage systems: a review, Renew Sustain Energy Rev 18
(2013) 246–258, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.022.
[104] D.W. Hawes, Latent heat storage in building materials, Energy Build. 20
(1993) 77–86 20 77-86, doi:10.1016/0378- 7788(93)90040- 2.
[105] S.A. Memon, Phase change materials integrated in building walls: a state of
the art review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 31 (2014) 870–906, doi:10.1016/j.
rser.2013.12.042.
[106] A.S. Hariri, I.C. Ward, A review of thermal storage systems used in build-
ing applications, Build. Environ. 23 (1988) 1–10, doi:10.1016/0360-1323(88)
90011-X.
[107] M. Saffari, A. de Gracia, S. Ushak, L.F. Cabeza, Passive cooling of the buildings
with phase change materials using whole-building energy simulation tools: a
review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 (2017) 1239–1255, doi:10.1016/j.rser.
2017.05.139.
[108] S.E. Kalnæs, B.P. Jelle, Phase change materials and products for building ap-
plications: a state-of-the-art review and future research opportunities, Energy
Build. 94 (2015) 150–176, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.02.023.
[109] D. Zhou, C.Y. Zhao, Y. Tian, Review on thermal energy storage with phase
change materials (PCMs) in building applications, Appl. Energy 92 (2012)
593–605, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2011.08.025.
[110] L.F. Cabeza, A. Castell, C. Barreneche, A. De Gracia, A.I. Fernández, Materials
used as PCM in thermal energy storage in buildings: a review, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 1675–1695, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.018.
[111] R. Baetens, B.P. Jelle, A. Gustavsen, Phase change materials for building appli-
cations: a state-of-the-art review, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 1361–1368, doi:10.
1016/j.enbuild.2010.03.026.
[112] N. Zhu, Z. Ma, S. Wang, Dynamic characteristics and energy performance of
the buildings using phase change materials: a review, Energy Convers. Manag.
50 (2009) 3169–3181, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2009.08.019.
[113] A. Sharma, V. Tyagi V, C.R. Chen, D. Buddhi, Review on thermal energy stor-
age with phase change materials and applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 13 (2009) 318–345, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2007.10.005.
[114] A. Pasupathy, R. Velraj, V. Seeniraj R, Phase change material-based building
architecture for thermal management in residential and commercial estab-
lishments, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 12 (2008) 39–64, doi:10.1016/j.rser.
2006.05.010.
[115] Y. Zhang, G. Zhou, K. Lin, Q. Zhang, H. Di, Application of latent heat thermal
energy storage in buildings: State-of-the-art and outlook, II, Build. Environ.
42;6 (2007) 2197–2209.
[116] V.V. Tyagi, D. Buddhi, PCM thermal storage in buildings: a state of art, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 11 (2007) 1146–1166, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2005.10.002.
[117] B. Zalba, J. Marıń, L. Cabeza, H. Mehling, Review on thermal energy storage
with phase change: materials, heat transfer analysis and applications, Appl.
Therm. Eng. 23 (2003) 251–283.
[118] J. Xie, W. Wang, J. Liu, S. Pan, Thermal performance analysis of PCM wall-
boards for building application based on numerical simulation, Sol. Energy
162 (2018) 533–540, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2018.01.069.
[119] S.P. Singh, V. Bhat, Performance evaluation of dual phase change material
gypsum board for the reduction of temperature swings in a building pro-
totype in composite climate, Energy Build. 159 (2018) 191–200, doi:10.1016/j.
enbuild.2017.10.097.
[120] S. Scalat, D. Banu, D. Hawes, J. Paris, F. Haghighata, D. Feldman, Full scale
thermal testing of latent heat storage in wallboard, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol.
Cells 44 (1996) 49–61, doi:10.1016/0927-0248(96)0 0 017-7.
[121] D.A. Neeper, Thermal dynamics of wallboard with latent heat storage, Sol.
Energy 68 (20 0 0) 393–403, doi:10.1016/S0 038-092X(0 0)0 0 012-8.
[122] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, J.J. Roux, Energetic efficiency of room wall contain-
ing PCM wallboard: a full-scale experimental investigation, Energy Build. 40
(2008) 148–156, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.01.022.
[123] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, Experimental investigation of wallboard containing
phase change material: data for validation of numerical modeling, Energy
Build. 41 (2009) 561–570, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.11.022.
[124] F. Kuznik, J. Virgone, K. Johannes, In-situ study of thermal comfort enhance-
ment in a renovated building equipped with phase change material wall-
board, Renew. Energy 36 (2011) 1458–1462, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2010.11.008.
488 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
[125] M. Ahmad, A. Bontemps, H. Sallée, D. Quenard, Thermal testing and numer-
ical simulation of a prototype cell using light wallboards coupling vacuum
isolation panels and phase change material, Energy Build. 38 (2006) 673–681,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 05.11.0 02.
[126] G. Evola, L. Marletta, F. Sicurella, Simulation of a ventilated cavity to enhance
the effectiveness of PCM wallboards for summer thermal comfort in build-
ings, Energy Build. 70 (2014) 480–489, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.11.089.
[127] B.M. Diaconu, Thermal energy savings in buildings with PCM-enhanced enve-
lope: influence of occupancy pattern and ventilation, Energy Build. 43 (2011)
101–107, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.08.019.
[128] F. Ascione, N. Bianco, R.F. De Masi, F. de’ Rossi, G.P. Vanoli, Energy refurbish-
ment of existing buildings through the use of phase change materials: energy
savings and indoor comfort in the cooling season, Appl. Energy 113 (2014)
990–1007, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.045.
[129] L. Shilei, G. Feng, N. Zhu, L. Dongyan, Experimental study and evaluation of
latent heat storagein phase change materials wallboards, Energy Build. 39
(2007) 1088–1091, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.10.006.
[130] T. Kondo, T. Iwamoto, Research on Using the PCM for Ceiling Board, IEA ECE-
SIA, Tokyo, Japan, 2002 Annex 17, 3rd workshop.
[131] M. Koschenz, B. Lehmann, Development of a thermally activated ceiling panel
with PCM for application in lightweight and retrofitted buildings, Energy
Build. 36 (2004) 567–578, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.01.029.
[132] X. Wang, J. Niu, Performance of cooled-ceiling operating with MPCM slurry,
Energy Convers. Manag. 50 (2009) 583–591, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.10.
021.
[133] Bureau of Energy Efficiency. Energy Conservation Building Code for residen-
tial buildings (Part I: building envelope design). Ecbc 2017:35.
[134] A. Pasupathy, R. Velraj, Effect of double layer phase change material in build-
ing roof for year round thermal management 2008;40:193–203. doi:10.1016/
j.enbuild.2007.02.016.
[135] J. Kosny, K. Biswas, W. Miller, S. Kriner, Field thermal performance of nat-
urally ventilated solar roof with PCM heat sink, Sol. Energy 86 (2012)
2504–2514.
[136] E.M. Alawadhi, H.J. Alqallaf, Building roof with conical holes containing PCM
to reduce the cooling load: numerical study, Energy Convers. Manag. 52
(2011) 2958–2964, doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2011.04.004.
[137] K.K. Roman, T. O’Brien, J.B. Alvey, O.J. Woo, Simulating the effects of cool roof
and PCM (phase change materials) based roof to mitigate UHI (urban heat is-
land) in prominent US cities, Energy 96 (2016) 103–117, doi:10.1016/j.energy.
2015.11.082.
[138] A. Laura, V. Lucia, F. Cotana, Dynamic thermal-energy performance analysis
of a prototype building with integrated phase change materials 2015;81:82–
8. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.062.
[139] A.L. Pisello, E. Fortunati, C. Fabiani, S. Mattioli, F. Dominici, L. Torre, et al.,
PCM for improving polyurethane-based cool roof membranes durability, Sol.
Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 160 (2017) 34–42, doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.09.036.
[140] A. Jayalath, L. Aye, P. Mendis, T. Ngo, Effects of phase change material roof
layers on thermal performance of a residential building in Melbourne and
Sydney, Energy Build. 121 (2016) 152–158, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.04.007.
[141] H. Weinläder, A. Beck, J. Fricke, PCM-facade-panel for daylighting and room
heating, Sol. Energy 78 (2005) 177–186, doi:10.1016/j.solener.2004.04.013.
[142] S. Li, K. Zou, G. Sun, X. Zhang, Simulation research on the dynamic thermal
performance of a novel triple- glazed window filled with PCM, Sustain. Cities
Soc. 40 (2018) 266–273, doi:10.1016/j.scs.2018.01.020.
[143] Y. Hu, P.K. Heiselberg, Energy & buildings a new ventilated window with
PCM heat exchanger — performance analysis and design optimization, Energy
Build. 169 (2018) 185–194, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.03.060.
[144] K.A.R. Ismail, C.T. Salinas, J.R. Henriquez, Comparison between PCM filled
glass windows and absorbing gas filled windows, Energy Build. 40 (2008)
710–719, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 07.05.0 05.
[145] F. Goia, M. Perino, V. Serra, Improving thermal comfort conditions by means
of PCM glazing systems, Energy Build. 60 (2013) 442–452, doi:10.1016/j.
enbuild.2013.01.029.
[146] M. Kolokotroni, B.C. Webb, S.D. Hayes, Summer cooling with night ventilation
for office buildings in moderate climates, Energy Build. 27 (1998) 231–237,
doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(97)0 0 048-0.
[147] B. Givoni, Effectiveness of mass and night ventilation in lowering the indoor
daytime temperatures. Part I: 1993 experimental periods, Energy Build. 28
(1998) 25–32.
[148] R. Zeinelabdein, S. Omer, G. Gan, Critical review of latent heat storage sys-
tems for free cooling in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 82 (2018)
2843–2868, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.046.
[149] G. Carrilho da Graça, Q. Chen, L.R. Glicksman, L.K. Norford, Simulation of
wind-driven ventilative cooling systems for an apartment building in Bei-
jing and Shanghai, Energy Build. 34 (2002) 1–11, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(01)
0 0 083-4.
[150] D. Fang, Z. Sun, Y. Li, X. Cheng, Preparation, microstructure and thermal prop-
erties of Mg-Bi alloys as phase change materials for thermal energy storage,
Appl. Therm. Eng. 92 (2016) 187–193, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.09.
090.
[151] V.A.A. Raj, R. Velraj, Review on free cooling of the buildings using phase
change materials, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (2010) 2819–2829, doi:10.
1016/j.rser.2010.07.004.
[152] A. Waqas, Z. Ud Din, Phase change material (PCM) storage for free cooling
of the buildings - a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 18 (2013) 607–625,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.034.
[153] S. Kamali, Review of free cooling system using phase change material for
building, Energy Build. 80 (2014) 131–136, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.05.021.
[154] M. Thambidurai, K. Panchabikesan, N. Krishna Mohan, V. Ramalingam, Review
on phase change material based free cooling of the buildings-the way toward
sustainability, J. Energy Storage 4 (2015) 74–88, doi:10.1016/j.est.2015.09.003.
[155] J.R. Turnpenny, D.W. Etheridge, D.A. Reay, Novel ventilation cooling sys-
tem for reducing air conditioning in buildings.: part I: testing and the-
oretical modelling, Appl. Therm. Eng. 20 (20 0 0) 1019–1037, doi:10.1016/
s1359-4311(99)0 0 068-x.
[156] C. Arkar, B. Vidrih, S. Medved, Efficiency of free cooling using latent heat stor-
age integrated into the ventilation system of a low energy building, Int. J.
Refrig. 30 (2007) 134–143, doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2006.03.009.
[157] A. Waqas, S. Kumar, Thermal performance of latent heat storage for free cool-
ing of the buildings in a dry and hot climate: an experimental study, Energy
Build. 43 (2011) 2621–2630, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.06.015.
[158] A.A.R. Darzi, S.M. Moosania, F.L. Tan, M. Farhadi, Numerical investigation of
free-cooling system using plate type PCM storage, Int. Commun. Heat Mass
Transf. 48 (2013) 155–163, doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2013.08.025.
[159] A.H. Mosaffa, C.A. Infante Ferreira, M.A. Rosen, F. Talati, Thermal performance
optimization of free cooling systems using enhanced latent heat thermal stor-
age unit, Appl. Therm. Eng. 59 (2013) 473–479, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.
2013.06.011.
[160] R. Daghigh, Assessing the thermal comfort and ventilation in Malaysia and
the surrounding regions, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 48 (2015) 682–691,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.017.
[161] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, New York, USA, 2009.
[162] M.P. Straw, C.J. Baker, A.P. Robertson, Experimental measurements and com-
putations of the wind-induced ventilation of a cubic structure, J. Wind Eng.
Ind. Aerodyn. 88 (20 0 0) 213–230, doi:10.1016/S0167-6105(0 0)0 0 050-7.
[163] C.M. Mak, J.L. Niu, C.T. Lee, K.F. Chan, A numerical simulation of wing
walls using computational fluid dynamics, Energy Build. 39 (2007) 995–1002,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2006.10.012.
[164] J.I. Montero, G.R. Hunt, R. Kamaruddin, A. Antón, B.J. Bailey, Effect of ventila-
tor configuration on wind-driven ventilation in a crop protection structure for
the tropics, J. Agric. Eng. Res. 80 (2001) 99–107, doi:10.10 06/jaer.20 0 0.0694.
[165] A. Pfeiffer, V. Dorer, A. Weber, Modelling of cowl performance in building
simulation tools using experimental data and computational fluid dynamics,
Build. Environ. 43 (2008) 1361–1372, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.038.
[166] Mhshermanlblgov MHS, Building Airtightness: Research and Practice, 2016.
[167] N. Khan, Y. Su, S.B. Riffat, A review on wind driven ventilation techniques,
Energy Build. 40 (2008) 1586–1604, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.02.015.
[168] J.K. Calautit, B.R. Hughes, A passive cooling wind catcher with heat pipe tech-
nology: CFD, wind tunnel and field-test analysis, Appl. Energy 162 (2016)
460–471, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.045.
[169] J.K. Calautit, B.R. Hughes, Integration and application of passive cooling
within a wind tower for hot climates, HVAC R Res. 20 (2014) 722–730,
doi:10.1080/10789669.2014.936795.
[170] F.W.H. Yik, Y.F. Lun, Energy saving by utilizing natural ventilation in public
housing in Hong Kong, Indoor Built Environ. 19 (2010) 73–87, doi:10.1177/
1420326X09358021.
[171] R. Shanthi Priya, M.C. Sundarraja, S. Radhakrishnan, Experimental study on
the thermal performance of a traditional house with one-sided wind catcher
during summer and winter, Energy Effic. 5 (2012) 483–496, doi:10.1007/
s12053-012-9155-9.
[172] M.H. Ghadiri, N.L.N. Ibrahim, M. Dehnavi, The effect of tower height in square
plan wind catcher on its thermal behavior, Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 5 (2011)
381–385.
[173] Z. Ji, Y. Su, N. Khan, Performance evaluation and energy saving potential of
windcatcher natural ventilation systems in China 2012;1:84–95. doi:10.7492/
IJAEC.2012.010.
[174] M. Evans, Housing, Climate, and Comfort, Architectural Press, London, 1980.
[175] M. Ismail, A.M. Abdul Rahman, Comparison of different hybrid turbine venti-
lator (HTV) application strategies to improve the indoor thermal comfort, Int.
J. Environ. Res. 4 (2010) 297–308.
[176] C.F. Gao, W.L. Lee, Evaluating the influence of openings configuration on natu-
ral ventilation performance of residential units in Hong Kong, Build. Environ.
46 (2011) 961–969, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.10.029.
[177] H. Shetabivash, Investigation of opening position and shape on the natural
cross ventilation, Energy Build. 93 (2015) 1–15, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.12.
053.
[178] G. Evola, V. Popov, Computational analysis of wind driven natural ventilation
in buildings, Energy Build. 38 (2006) 491–501, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2005.08.
008.
[179] A. Aflaki, N. Mahyuddin, Z. Al-Cheikh Mahmoud, M.R. Baharum, A review
on natural ventilation applications through building façade components and
ventilation openings in tropical climates, Energy Build. 101 (2015) 153–162,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.04.033.
[180] M.S. Hatamipour, A. Abedi, Passive cooling systems in buildings: some use-
ful experiences from ancient architecture for natural cooling in a hot and
humid region, Energy Convers. Manag. 49 (2008) 2317–2323, doi:10.1016/j.
enconman.2008.01.018.
[181] R. Priyadarsini, K.W. Cheong, N.H. Wong, Enhancement of natural ventilation
in high-rise residential buildings using stack system, Energy Build. 36 (2004)
61–71, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(03)0 0 076-8.
 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
[182] P. Prajongsan, S. Sharples, Enhancing natural ventilation, thermal comfort
and energy savings in high-rise residential buildings in Bangkok through the
use of ventilation shafts, Build. Environ. 50 (2012) 104–113, doi:10.1016/j.
buildenv.2011.10.020.
[183] E. Gratia, A. De Herde, Guidelines for improving natural daytime ventilation
in an office building with a double-skin facade, Sol. Energy 81 (2007) 435–
448, doi:10.1016/j.solener.20 06.08.0 06.
[184] O. Saadatian, K. Sopian, C.H. Lim, N. Asim, M.Y. Sulaiman, Trombe walls: a
review of opportunities and challenges in research and development, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (2012) 6340–6351, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.06.032.
[185] B. Zamora, A.S. Kaiser, Thermal and dynamic optimization of the con-
vective flow in trombe wall shaped channels by numerical investigation,
Heat Mass Transf. 45 (2009) 1393–1407 Und Stoffuebertragung, doi:10.1007/
s0 0231- 0 09-0509-6.
[186] M. Hordeski, Dictionary of Energy Efficiency Technologies, Fairmont Press,
West Virginia, United States, 2004.
[187] Z. Hu, W. He, J. Ji, S. Zhang, A review on the application of Trombe wall sys-
tem in buildings, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 70 (2017) 976–987, doi:10.1016/
j.rser.2016.12.003.
[188] M. Bodart, A. Evrard, Architecture & sustainable development, 27th Interna-
tional Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Vol. 2, Presses
Univ. de Louvain, 2011.
[189] J. Ji, H. Yi, W. He, G. Pei, PV-Trombe wall design for buildings in composite
climates, J. Sol. Energy Eng. 129 (2007) 431, doi:10.1115/1.2770751.
[190] J. Peng, L. Lu, H. Yang, J. Han, Investigation on the annual thermal perfor-
mance of a photovoltaic wall mounted on a multi-layer façade, Appl. Energy
112 (2013) 646–656, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.12.026.
[191] S.G. Abasova, A.I. Leshcheva, E.A. Mushina, V.S. Fel’dblyum, B.A. Krentsel’,
Oligomerization of ethylene under the influence of bis-(π -allylnickel bro-
mide) in conjunction with lewis acids, Bull. Acad Sci. USSR Div. Chem. Sci.
21 (1972) 608–609, doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.06.002.
[192] K. Irshad, K. Habib, N. Thirumalaiswamy, Energy and cost analysis of photo
voltaic trombe wall system in tropical climate, Energy Procedia 50 (2014) 71–
78, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.06.009.
[193] F. Stazi, A. Mastrucci, C. di Perna, Trombe wall management in summer con-
ditions: an experimental study, Sol. Energy 86 (2012) 2839–2851, doi:10.1016/
j.solener.2012.06.025.
[194] J. Ji, C. Luo, W. Sun, H. Yu, W. He, G. Pei, An improved approach for the
application of Trombe wall system to building construction with selective
thermo-insulation façades, Chin. Sci. Bull. 54 (2009) 1949–1956, doi:10.1007/
s11434- 009- 0353- 6.
[195] F. Stazi, A. Mastrucci, C. Di Perna, The behaviour of solar walls in residen-
tial buildings with different insulation levels: an experimental and numerical
study, Energy Build. 47 (2012) 217–229, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.11.039.
[196] Y. Li, S. Liu, Experimental study on thermal performance of a solar chim-
ney combined with PCM, Appl. Energy 114 (2014) 172–178, doi:10.1016/j.
apenergy.2013.09.022.
[197] O. Saadatian, C.H. Lim, K. Sopian, E. Salleh, A state of the art review of solar
walls: concepts and applications, J. Build. Phys. 37 (2013) 55–79, doi:10.1177/
1744259113479336.
[198] H. Yang, J. Burnett, J. Ji, Simple approach to cooling load component cal-
culation through PV walls, Energy Build. 31 (20 0 0) 285–290, doi:10.1016/
S0378-7788(99)0 0 041-9.
[199] M. Rabani, V. Kalantar, A.A. Dehghan, A.K. Faghih, Empirical investigation of
the cooling performance of a new designed Trombe wall in combination with
solar chimney and water spraying system, Energy Build. 102 (2015) 45–57,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.05.010.
[200] E. Bacharoudis, M.G. Vrachopoulos, M.K. Koukou, D. Margaris, A.E. Fil-
ios, S.A. Mavrommatis, Study of the natural convection phenomena inside
a wall solar chimney with one wall adiabatic and one wall under a heat flux,
Appl. Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 2266–2275, doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2007.
01.021.
[201] T. Miyazaki, A. Akisawa, T. Kashiwagi, The effects of solar chimneys on ther-
mal load mitigation of office buildings under the Japanese climate, Renew.
Energy 31 (2006) 987–1010, doi:10.1016/j.renene.20 05.05.0 03.
[202] L. Shi, G. Zhang, W. Yang, D. Huang, X. Cheng, S. Setunge, Determining the
influencing factors on the performance of solar chimney in buildings, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 88 (2018) 223–238, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.033.
[203] N. Monghasemi, A. Vadiee, A review of solar chimney integrated systems for
space heating and cooling application, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81 (2018)
2714–2730, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.078.
[204] J. Khedari, N. Rachapradit, J. Hirunlabh, Field study performance of solar
chimney with air-conditioned building, Energy 28 (2003) 1099–1114, doi:10.
1016/S0360-5442(03)0 0 092-6.
[205] S. Chungloo, B. Limmeechokchai, Application of passive cooling systems in
the hot and humid climate: the case study of solar chimney and wetted roof
in Thailand, Build. Environ. 42 (2007) 3341–3351, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.
08.030.
[206] S. Punyasompun, J. Hirunlabh, J. Khedari, B. Zeghmati, Investigation on the
application of solar chimney for multi-storey buildings, Renew. Energy 34
(2009) 2545–2561, doi:10.1016/j.renene.2009.03.032.
[207] L. Ramírez-Dávila, J. Xamán, J. Arce, G. Álvarez, I. Hernández-Pérez, Numeri-
cal study of earth-to-air heat exchanger for three different climates, Energy
Build. 76 (2014) 238–248, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.02.073.
[208] R. Rabani, A.K. Faghih, M. Rabani, M. Rabani, Numerical simulation of an in-
novated building cooling system with combination of solar chimney and wa-
489
ter spraying system, Heat Mass Transf. 50 (2014) 1609–1625 Und Stoffueber-
tragung, doi:10.10 07/s0 0231- 014- 1366- 5.
[209] E.H. Amer, Passive options for solar cooling of the buildings in arid areas,
Energy 31 (2006) 1332–1344, doi:10.1016/j.energy.20 05.06.0 02.
[210] J. Watt, Evaporative Air Conditioning Handbook, Springer, US, 1986.
[211] K. Al-Jamal, Greenhouse cooling in hot countries, Energy (1994) 1187–1192.
[212] B. Costelloe, D. Finn, Indirect evaporative cooling potential in air-water sys-
tems in temperate climates, Energy Build. 35 (2003) 573–591, doi:10.1016/
S0378-7788(02)00161-5.
[213] P.M. Cuce, S. Riffat, A state of the art review of evaporative cooling systems
for building applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 54 (2016) 1240–1249,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.066.
[214] B. Riangvilaikul, S. Kumar, An experimental study of a novel dew point evapo-
rative cooling system, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 637–644, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.
2009.10.034.
[215] ASHRAE, ASHARE Handbook–Fundamentals (SI), American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1997.
[216] K. Daou, R.Z. Wang, Z.Z. Xia, Desiccant cooling air conditioning:
a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 10 (2006) 55–77, doi:10.1016/j.
rser.2004.09.010.
[217] Y. Fan, L. Luo, B. Souyri, Review of solar sorption refrigeration technologies:
development and applications, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 11 (2007) 1758–
1775, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2006.01.007.
[218] Y.J. Dai, K. Sumathy, Theoretical study on a cross-flow direct evaporative
cooler using honeycomb paper as packing material, Appl. Therm. Eng. 22
(2002) 1417–1430, doi:10.1016/S1359-4311(02)0 0 069-8.
[219] J.R. Camargo, C.D. Ebinuma, J.L. Silveira, Experimental performance of a direct
evaporative cooler operating during summer in a Brazilian city, Int. J. Refrig.
28 (2005) 1124–1132, doi:10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2004.12.011.
[220] J.M. Wu, X. Huang, H. Zhang, Theoretical analysis on heat and mass transfer
in a direct evaporative cooler, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 980–984, doi:10.
1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.05.016.
[221] J.M. Wu, X. Huang, H. Zhang, Numerical investigation on the heat and mass
transfer in a direct evaporative cooler, Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (2009) 195–201,
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.02.018.
[222] E. Ibrahim, L. Shao, S.B. Riffat, Performance of porous ceramic evaporators for
building cooling application, Energy Build. 35 (2003) 941–949, doi:10.1016/
S0378-7788(03)0 0 019-7.
[223] D. Bishoyi, K. Sudhakar, Experimental performance of a direct evaporative
cooler in composite climate of India, Energy Build. 153 (2017) 190–200,
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.08.014.
[224] B. Porumb, P. Ungureşan, L.F. Tutunaru, A. Şerban, M. BǍlan, A review of indi-
rect evaporative cooling operating conditions and performances, Energy Pro-
cedia 85 (2016) 452–460, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.12.226.
[225] G.P. Maheshwari, F. Al-Ragom, R.K. Suri, Energy-saving potential of an
indirect evaporative cooler, Appl. Energy 69 (2001) 69–76, doi:10.1016/
S0306-2619(0 0)0 0 066-0.
[226] E. Hajidavalloo, Application of evaporative cooling on the condenser of
window-air-conditioner, Appl. Therm. Eng. 27 (2007) 1937–1943, doi:10.1016/
j.applthermaleng.2006.12.014.
[227] J.K. Jain, D.A. Hindoliya, Energy saving potential of indirect evaporative cooler
under Indian climates, Int. J. Low-Carbon Technol. 11 (2016) 193–198, doi:10.
1093/ijlct/ctt076.
[228] G. Heidarinejad, M. Bozorgmehr, S. Delfani, J. Esmaeelian, Experimental inves-
tigation of two-stage indirect/direct evaporative cooling system in various cli-
matic conditions, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 2073–2079, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.
2009.02.017.
[229] S. Delfani, J. Esmaeelian, H. Pasdarshahri, M. Karami, Energy saving potential
of an indirect evaporative cooler as a pre-cooling unit for mechanical cool-
ing systems in Iran, Energy Build. 42 (2010) 2169–2176, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.
2010.07.009.
[230] C.G. Granqvist, Radiative heating and cooling with spectrally selective sur-
faces, Appl. Opt. 20 (1981) 2606, doi:10.1364/AO.20.002606.
[231] T.S. Eriksson, C.G. Granqvist, Radiative cooling computed for model atmo-
spheres, Appl. Opt. 21 (1982) 4381, doi:10.1364/AO.21.004381.
[232] D.A. Bainbridge, K.L. Haggard, Passive Solar Architecture: Heating, Cooling,
Ventilation, Daylighting, and More Using Natural Flows, Chelsea Green Pub,
Burlington, 2011.
[233] M. Mahdavinejad, K. Javanrudi, Assessment of ancient fridges: a sustainable
method to storage ice in hot-arid climates, Asian Cult. Hist. 4 (2012) 133–139,
doi:10.5539/ach.v4n2p133.
[234] S. Vall, A. Castell, Radiative cooling as low-grade energy source: a litera-
ture review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 77 (2017) 803–820, doi:10.1016/j.
rser.2017.04.010.
[235] M. Zeyghami, D.Y. Goswami, E. Stefanakos, A review of clear sky radia-
tive cooling developments and applications in renewable power systems and
passive building cooling, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 178 (2018) 115–128,
doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2018.01.015.
[236] A.P. Raman, M.A. Anoma, L. Zhu, E. Rephaeli, S. Fan, Passive radiative cooling
below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight, Nature 515 (2014) 540–
544, doi:10.1038/nature13883.
[237] R. Family, M.P. Mengüç, Materials for radiative cooling: a review, Procedia En-
viron. Sci. 38 (2017) 752–759, doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.158.
[238] K.N. Nwaigwe, C.A. Okoronkwo, N.V. Ogueke, E.E. Anyanwu, Review of noctur-
nal cooling systems, Int. J. Energy Clean Environ. 11 (2010) 117–143, doi:10.
1615/InterJEnerCleanEnv.2011003225.
490 D.K. Bhamare, M.K. Rathod and J. Banerjee / Energy & Buildings 198 (2019) 467–490
[239] J. Khedari, J. Waewsak, S. Thepa, J. Hirunlabh, Field investigation of night
radiation cooling under tropical climate, Renew. Energy 20 (20 0 0) 183–193,
doi:10.1016/S0960-1481(99)00104-4.
[240] H.S. Bagiorgas, G. Mihalakakou, Experimental and theoretical investigation of
a nocturnal radiator for space cooling, Renew. Energy 33 (2008) 1220–1227,
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2007.04.015.
[241] M. Hanif, T.M.I. Mahlia, A. Zare, T.J. Saksahdan, H.S.C. Metselaar, Potential en-
ergy savings by radiative cooling system for a building in tropical climate, Re-
new. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32 (2014) 642–650, doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.01.053.
[242] M.G. Meir, J.B. Rekstad, O.M. LØvvik, A study of a polymer-based radiative
cooling system, Sol. Energy 73 (2002) 403–417, doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(03)
0 0 019-7.
[243] J. Hollick, Nocturnal radiation cooling tests, Energy Procedia 30 (2012) 930–
936, doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.11.105.
[244] T. Catalina, J. Virgone, F. Kuznik, Evaluation of thermal comfort using com-
bined CFD and experimentation study in a test room equipped with a cool-
ing ceiling, Build. Environ. 44 (2009) 1740–1750, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.
11.015.
[245] G. Sastry, First radiant cooled commercial building in India – critical analysis
of energy, comfort and cost n.d.:6.
[246] K. Zhao, X.H. Liu, Y. Jiang, Application of radiant floor cooling in large space
buildings - a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 55 (2016) 1083–1096,
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.028.
[247] K.N. Rhee, K.W. Kim, A 50 year review of basic and applied research in radi-
ant heating and cooling systems for the built environment, Build. Environ. 91
(2015) 166–190, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.03.040.
[248] Y. Khan, M. Bhandari, J. Mathur, Energy-saving potential of a radiant cool-
ing system in different climate zones of India, Sci. Technol. Built Environ. 24
(2018) 356–370, doi:10.1080/23744731.2017.1348140.
[249] Y. Khan, V.R. Khare, J. Mathur, M. Bhandari, Performance evaluation of radiant
cooling system integrated with air system under different operational strate-
gies, Energy Build. 97 (2015) 118–128, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.03.030.
[250] D.O. Rijksen, C.J. Wisse, A.W.M. van Schijndel, Reducing peak requirements
for cooling by using thermally activated building systems, Energy Build. 42
(2010) 298–304, doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.20 09.09.0 07.
[251] R.A. Memon, S. Chirarattananon, P. Vangtook, Thermal comfort assessment
and application of radiant cooling: a case study, Build. Environ. 43 (2008)
1185–1196, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.04.025.
[252] R. Hu, J.L. Niu, Operation dynamics of the building with radiant cooling sys-
tem based on Beijing weather, Energy Build. 151 (2017) 344–357, doi:10.1016/
j.enbuild.2017.06.068.
[253] J.L. Niu, L.Z. Zhang, H.G. Zuo, Energy savings potential of chilled-ceiling com-
bined with desiccant cooling in hot and humid climates, Energy Build. 34
(2002) 487–495, doi:10.1016/S0378-7788(01)00132-3.
[254] X. Hao, G. Zhang, Y. Chen, S. Zou, D.J. Moschandreas, A combined system
of chilled ceiling, displacement ventilation and desiccant dehumidification,
Build. Environ. 42 (2007) 3298–3308, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2006.08.020.
[255] C. Stetiu, Energy and peak power savings potential of radiant cooling systems
in US commercial buildings, Energy Build. 30 (1999) 127–138, doi:10.1016/
S0378-7788(98)0 0 080-2.