Professor John S.

Horvath is presently Professor of Civil

E n g i n e e r i n g at. M a n h a t t a n College in B r o n x , New York, U . S . A .

He received his B . S . a n d M . S . degrees in civil e n g i n e e r i n g from

Columbia University and Ph.D. in civil engineering from

Polytechnic I n s ti t u t e of New York. B e t. w e e n 1 9 7 2 and 1987, h e

worked full-time in i n d u s t r y for The Port Authority of New York

and New Jersey, Dames & Moore, and Woodward-Clyde

Consult.ants. S i n c e 1 9 8 7 , he h a s b e e n a m e m b e r oft.he f u l l - ti m e

faculty at M a n h a tt a n College and is also president of the

c o n s u l t i n g firm Horvath E n g i n e e r i n g , P . C . He h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d

in geofoam research a n d p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c e 1 9 8 8 , a n d is

r e c o g n i z e d as the person w h o coined the term " g e o f o a m . "

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 EPS TOKYO '96 Japan, 29·30 October 1996

The Compressible Inclusion Function of EPS Geofoam: An Overview

John S. Horvath

Professor of Civil Engineering, Manhattan College, U . S . A .

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an overview of using molded-bead expanded polystyrene (EPS) geofoam

where the primary geosynthetic function provided by the geofoam is compressible inclusion. In general, a

compressible inclusion is any material that compresses readily under an applied stress or displacement.

Geotechnicalapplications for a compressible inclusion include behind earth retaining structures; around foundation

elements; and above pipes, culverts, and tunnels. Using a compressible inclusion can result in significant reduction

in earth pressures under static and dynamic loading. A compressible inclusion can also be used to accommodate

ground or structure movement. Using a compressible inclusion can be cost effective for both new construction

as w e l l as rehabilitating or upgrading existing structures. Because of the inherent multi-functional nature of EPS,

there can be additional benefits such as thermal insulation and concomitant cost savings when EPS geofoam is

used as a compressible inclusion.

INTRODUCTION

The last few years have seen significant worldwide growth, both geographically and technologically, in the

awareness and use of geofoam as a geosynthetic product. This has occurred after decades of limited, but

successful, use. A comprehensive documentation of geofoam technology and its evolution is given in Horvath

( 1995).

Among the attractions of geofoam are that, depending on the specific material used, it can be inherently multi­

functional and serve as the key element of a cost-effective design alternative in a wide variety of applications.

Most geofoam applications to date have used the functions of

• lightweight fill for "earthwork" such as road embankments and

• thermal insulation for roads, railways, and buildings.

Less well known, and, consequently, less used to date, are applications where the primary function is

compressible inclusion. However, there is significant potential for using geofoam to provide this function in a

wide variety of applications. This is evidenced by the fact that recent geofoam research and development have

focused on applications and products where compressible inclusion is the primary function. To complement this

activity, this paper presents an overview of the use of geofoam as a compressible inclusion. The goal is to

stimulate greater awareness and use of, and further research into, the numerous applications of this function. A

detailed discussion of analysis and design for the compressible inclusion function, including an extensive

bibliography of publications in this area, can be found in Horvath ( 1 9 9 5 ) with updated information in Horvath

(1996).

OVERVIEW OF THE COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION FUNCTION

In general, a compressible inclusion is any material that is significantly more compressible, at least in one

direction, than other materials that it is in contact with. In geotechnical applications, a compressible inclusion is

typically placed between a below-ground structure and the surrounding ground (soil or rock). Because the

inclusion is the most compressible component of the structure-inclusion-ground system, the inclusion w i l l deform

more readily than the other system components under an applied stress or displacement.

This selective compression of the inclusion can result in a variety of benefits. Most often, this is a load on the

structure that is significantly less than if no inclusion were present. In many cases, use of a compressible i n c l u s i o n

is a more cost effective alternative than designing the structure to withstand the greater load. This is especially

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true in the case of rehabilitating an existing structure that is exhibiting distress or upgrading an existing structure

to resist loads larger than those for which it was designed originally.

Depending on the material used, additional functions and concomitant benefits can be provided by a

compressible inclusion. These additional functions can enhance the cost effectiveness of using an inclusion. A

summary of these additional functions is also given in this paper.

OVERVIEW OF APPLICATIONS

There are three categories of geotechnical application of a compressible inclusion that have been identified and

used to date:

1 . Behind earth retaining structures (Fig. la).

2. Beneath foundation elements such as grade beams or structural (supported) slabs (Fig. lb). A corollary

application is along the sides of grade beams as well.

3 . Above pipes, culverts, and tunnels (Fig. le).

..
I e-,

\_ tensile reinforcement

(optional; see text)

(a)

- grade beam or structural slab

- COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION

-- deep

foundation

(b)

F!l COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION

Q- pipe or culvert

(c)

Fig. l Categories of compressible inclusion applications

In each figure, the large arrow indicates the primary direction of displacement of the ground and compressible

inclusion. The structure may or may not deform or displace depending on its rigidity and rigidity of its support.

Specific examples of each application are given later in this paper.

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SELECTION OF COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION MATERIALS

The use of a compressible inclusion in geotechnical applications is not new. Bales of hay have been used at

least since early in the 20th century to induce vertical arching over pipes as shown in Fig. le. With earth

retaining structures, glass-fiber insulation and cardboard have been used in applications shown in Fig. la.

Cardboard has also been used for applications as shown in Fig. I b. However, there can be significant problems

with these materials. In general, their stress-strain behavior is unpredictable and uncontrollable. This is especially

true of cardboard products if they get wet. In addition, these materials are either too compressible (glass-fiber)

or biodegradable (cardboard, hay). The latter, if it occurs in a confined space, can result in a potential explosion

hazard as a result of the methane gas generation that accompanies anaerobic decomposition of organic material.

Also, decomposition of organic material w i l l leave a void that can lead to ravelling of overlying soil and the

creation of a surface depression.

Geofoam is now preferred for compressible inclusions because it does not suffer any of these shortcomings.

There are several geofoam materials to choose from. Selection of an appropriate geofoam material is based on

consideration of its engineering properties as well as cost and environmental factors. For compressible inclusion

applications, stiffness of the geofoam in the primary displacement direction is the most relevant property.

Stiffness is defined as the stress applied to the surface of the geofoam divided by the surface displacement of the

geofoam in a direction parallel to the direction of stress application. Thus stiffness has dimensions of force per

unit length cubed, better visualized as force per length (an equivalent spring stiffness) per unit surface area.

For compressible inclusions, experience indicates that the geofoam material of clear choice is molded-bead

expanded polystyrene (EPS). Not only is EPS generally the least expensive geofoam material on a cost per unit

volume basis but it can be manufactured to have a stiffness significantly lower than any other geofoam material.

In addition, EPS does not use any fluorocarbon-family gas (CFC, HCFC, HFC), which have been linked to

depletion of the Earth's upper-atmosphere ozone layer, in its manufacture as do some types of geofoam materials

nor does EPS release formaldehyde gas (a potential health and safety hazard) after installation as has occurred

with other types of plastic foam. Because of these clear advantages, the remainder of this paper w i l l focus on the

use of EPS products, specifically those derived from block-molded EPS, as the compressible inclusion.

EPS PRODUCTS FOR COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION APPLICATIONS

Of primary relevance to compressible inclusion applications is that EPS block can be produced within a range

of densities. EPS density can be a useful index property because the geotechnically relevant engineering properties

of EPS block correlate well with its density, provided that certain quality criteria are met. For compressible

inclusion applications, the lowest density EPS is generally desirable as the initial tangent Young's modulus and

"compressive strength" (typically defined as compressive stress at 10% strain) both decrease with decreasing

density. The minimum density EPS block that can be produced depends on several factors related to
3
manufacturing but is 1 0 kg/m or slightly less. One problem with manufacturing low-density EPS is that there

is a danger of producing material that has insufficient fusion between the individual expanded beads. EPS with

inadequate bead fusion w i l l easily break apart and, as a result, have unsatisfactory durability in geotechnical

applications. Therefore, it is generally desirable to use EPS that has a density slightly above the m i n i m u m

achievable but with consistent, acceptable durability in a geotechnical environment. Experience indicates that the

m i n i m u m EPS density that strikes a balance between stiffness and durability is approximately 1 2 kg/rrr'.

The basic, non-proprietary EPS product that can be used for a compressible inclusion is a full-size block or,

more c o m m o n l y , a panel cut from a block. EPS block is available worldwide. The dimensions of a full-size block

vary somewhat depending on the mold size used and local practice. Panels of smaller, arbitrary dimensions can

easily be factory cut from blocks. Rectangular panels of uniform thickness are most common although other

shapes to meet specific project requirements can also be factory or field cut.

In some countries, panels cut from otherwise generic low-density EPS block are now marketed specifically as

a compressible inclusion, typically for application as shown in Fig. I b. Examples include GeoSpan™ in Canada

and YR Claymaster® in the United Kingdom (U.K.). To emphasize the intended special application, these

products are colored for product identification and marketing purposes (EPS is inherently white). For example,

GeoSpan is brown and YR Claymaster is pink. An application of this type of product is illustrated in Fig. 2 .

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 Fig. 2 Use of Y R Claymaster beneath the invert of the new E n g l i s h

Channel rail tunnel ("Chunnel")

In recent years, several proprietary products derived from low-density EPS block have been developed

specifically for use as a compressible inclusion in applications beneath foundations as shown in Fig. I b..

Availability of these products is limited geographically at present, although this is expected to change in the

future. Examples of such proprietary products include:

• Panels of EPS block with slots cut into one face to increase compressibility (see Fig. 3). This product is

available in the U.K. and called Castellated Claymaster®. This product is also colored pink for product

identification purposes.

Fig. 3 Use of Castellated Claymaster beneath the floor slab of a

building in the U . K .

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• Pieces of EPS block that are factory cut and field assembled to form a honeycomb structure. Similar products

are called GeoVoid™ (formerly PlastiVoid Spacer™) in Canada and Cellcore® in the U.K. This product is

illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Use of PlastiVoid Spacer (now called Geo Void) beneath the

slab of a wastewater treatment plant in Canada

Another recently developed product is a geocomposite based on geofoam. This is the Geoinclusion™ and is

available in Canada and the U . S . A . It consists of a geosynthetic drainage composite (sheet drain or geonet) that

is laminated to one face of a panel cut from EPS block (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 5 Geoinclusion with a sheet drain as the

drainage component

The primary attraction of the Geoinclusion is that in most applications where a compressible inclusion is used

( e . g . , Fig. l a and 1 b), fluid (ground water and/or gas) drainage is desired as well. The Geoinclusion functions

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as both a compressible inclusion and drainage layer (plus provides other functions as well). Another unique

feature of the Geoinclusion is the optional use of "elasticized" EPS for the geofoam component. Elasticized EPS

is block-molded EPS that has been subjected to an additional manufacturing step to modify the stress-strain

behavior of the EPS. The primary benefit of this is to significantly increase the compressibility of the EPS under

relatively low stress (<40 kPa) conditions.

There is an additional panel-shaped proprietary product that is available in several countries ( e . g . , Germany,

Japan, U.S.A.) under various tradenames (e.g., GeoTech Drainage Board® in the U.S.A.) that is worth

mentioning. It consists of expanded beads of polystyrene ("pre-puff") that are glued or fused together into an

open, porous matrix. This type of product is now referred to generically as glued or molded (depending on the

manufacturing process used) polystyrene porous block. It was developed originally to provide the functions of

drainage and thermal insulation, so is now generally sold as a sheet-drain geocomposite with a geotextile that is

factory laminated to one face of the panel (e.g., GeoTech Drainage Panel® in the U . S . A . ) . An example of a sheet

drain made with glued polystyrene porous block is shown in Fig. 5. However, because of the inherent low

stiffness of glued polystyrene porous block it was used as a compressible inclusion on what is believed to have

been the first project to use a geofoam product as a compressible inclusion (in the U . S . A . in the 1980s).

APPLICATIONS INVOLVING EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES

Use of a compressible inclusion with earth retaining structures can offer benefits in a wide variety of ways:

I . Reduction of lateral earth pressure by shear-strength mobilization. This can occur as a result of:

a. Controlled Yielding in Unreinforced Soil. By proper design of a compressible inclusion as

shown in Fig. I a, a condition called "controlled yielding" can be created within the retained

s o i l . This means that even if the retaining structure is rigid and non-yielding, the compression

of the compressible inclusion is sufficient to allow the retained soil to deform and mobilize its

strength to achieve the active state. Consequently, this use of a compressible inclusion has been

termed the "Reduced Earth Pressure (REP) Wall" concept.

b. Controlled Yielding in Reinforced Soil. The concept of controlled yielding can be carried

a step further by considering the case where layers of tensile reinforcement(geotextile, geogrid,

or metallic elements) are included in the retained soil in addition to the compressible i n c l u s i o n .

This is also shown conceptually in Fig. 1 a. It is well known that there is no benefit to placing

reinforced soil adjacent to a rigid, non-yielding structure. This is because a laterally restrained

mass of reinforced soil cannot deform to strain the reinforcement and allow the overall

mechanism of mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) to develop. However, a properly designed

compressible inclusion can allow sufficient movement so that a largely self-supporting MSE

mass develops and lateral earth pressures on the retaining structure are reduced well below the

active level. By using appropriate combinations of stiffness of the compressible inclusion and

reinforcement, the lateral earth pressures can approach zero if desired, even if the retaining

structure is rigid and non-yielding. Consequently, the use of a compressible i n c l u s i o n plus

reinforced soil has been termed the "Zero Earth Pressure (ZEP) Wall" concept.

c. Compaction Stresses. Traditionally, analysis and design of earth retaining structures focuses

on the earth pressure state (active versus at rest) used. However, this neglects the fact that

fi l l i n g or backfilling behind such structures generally utilizes compaction of the soil in l i ft s . It

is now appreciated that compaction, especially against rigid, non-yielding structures, can

significantly increase the lateral earth pressures acting on the structure, especially in the upper

five metres. If these additional pressures are neglected, the structure may suffer distress. If the

pressures are considered, the cost of the structure increases. A potentially more cost-effective

solution is to use a compressible inclusion as relatively little lateral displacement is required

to reduce compaction-induced stresses. If a compressible inclusion is already being used for a

reason discussed previously or subsequently, then reduction of compaction stresses is simply

- 7 7 -
 an additional benefit.

d. Surcharge Stresses. In the analysis or design of many earth retaining structures, there w i l l

be a surcharge stress, usually assumed to be acting vertically on the surface of the retained soil,

that simulates live loads. Such a stress w i l l produce a component that acts horizontally on the

retaining structure. Use of a compressible inclusion, either alone (REP-Wall) or with tensile

reinforcement (ZEP-Wall}, can reduce the increment of surcharge stress on the retaining

structure to less than that when no compressible inclusion is used. Use of a compressible

inclusion may be particularly cost-effective for upgrading an existing structure to withstand

greater live-load stresses than it may have been designed for originally.

e. Seismic Stresses. The acceleration associated with the shaking from an earthquake will cause

an increase in lateral earth pressure on a retaining structure. The relative increase in earth

pressure depends significantly on whether or not the structure can yield or deform. For rigid,

non-yielding structures, the seismic increment of lateral earth pressure can be 200% to 300%

greater than that for a yielding structure. This relative increase in lateral earth pressure for a

non-yielding versus yielding structure is significantly greater than the approximately 50% for

static loads. Therefore, there may be a significant benefit to using a compressible inclusion to

allow the retained soil to move under seismic shaking, even if the retaining structure is rigid

and non-yielding. This is likely to be more cost effective than designing or upgrading a rigid,

non-yielding structure to resist seismic loads.

2. Accommodating volume change of earth materials. There are several situations where volume changes of earth

materials (soil and rock) are caused by physical changes within the material and not the direct result of

deformation and shear-strength mobilization. Examples include:

• swelling and freezing soils, and

• rocks that swell due to water absorption, mineral changes, or release of tectonic stresses.

When such materials are adjacent to earth retaining structures, especially rigid, non-yielding ones, the lateral

pressure generated by the expanding soil or rock can be significant. The use of a compressible inclusion between

the structure and ground can allow the soil or rock to deform laterally while transmitting only a fraction of the

stress to the structure. The use of a compressible inclusion to reduce lateral pressures due to swelling soils is

particularly attractive due the extensive occurrence of such soils worldwide. Designing to eliminate, or at least

minimize, the effects of such soils, or remediating structural damage they cause, represents a significant cost in

many areas.

3. Accommodating structure movement. There are situations where lateral displacement of an earth retaining

structure is caused by external factors other than lateral earth pressures. This occurs primarily in rigid,

indeterminate structures subjected to temperature-induced strain. Examples include bridges, especially those with

integral abutments; navigation locks; and water/wastewatertreatment facilities. In some cases, this movement can

result in lateral earth pressures on the retaining structure in excess of at rest and approaching the passive state.

It is interesting to note that mobilization of the s o i l ' s shear strength is involved in this type of problem, but with

a generally non-beneficial result because the soil can resist the structure movement, thus increasing, not

decreasing, lateral earth pressures. The traditional approach is to design the structure for these earth pressures.

In some cases, it is necessary to repair structures that are distressed because of inadequate design. A more cost­

effective alternative for both new and remedial construction may be to use a compressible inclusion to allow the

structure to move yet transmit a reduced magnitude of displacement to the retained s o i l .

4. Settlement reduction. Applications discussed so far have focused on the benefits occurring in the horizontal

direction when a compressible inclusion is used. Recent research suggests that the use of a compressible inclusion

plus tensile reinforcement (ZEP-Wall concept) as shown in Fig. l a can reduce settlement of the backfill/fill

behind an earth retaining structure, e . g . , a bridge abutment, in addition to the previously discussed benefit of

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reducing lateral earth pressures. This offers a possible way to minimize the very common "bump at the end of

the bridge" problem that occurs with highway bridges. A similar problem occurs with railway bridges, in this case

related to the abrupt transition in vertical stiffness of the railway track system which is called the "track

modulus." Use of a compressible inclusion plus tensile reinforcement offers a potential solution to this problem

as w e l l . For both the road and rail applications, reduced maintenance costs and improved vehicle ride quality

would be achieved.

It should be noted that in many cases, there can be multiple benefits that result from using a compressible

inclusion, especially if tensile reinforcement (ZEP-Wall concept) is used. For example, if a reinforced soil mass

and compressible inclusion were used behind a bridge with integral abutments, lateral earth pressures under a

variety of loading conditions could be reduced, abutment displacement could be accommodated, and settlement

of the approach fill might be reduced. This does not consider the additional benefits that come from the other

functions provided by a geofoam compressible inclusion as discussed later in this paper.

APPLICATIONS INVOLVING FOUNDATION ELEMENTS

Swelling ground (soil or rock) also influences foundation design. It is common in areas with swelling ground

to use either a structural (supported) slab or structural slab plus grade beam supported on deep foundations

(generally drilled shafts). Ideally, there should be a gap between the ground surface and underside of the grade

beam and/or slab to allow for ground-surface heave without affecting the structure. However, to facilitate

construction of poured-in-place reinforced concrete slabs or grade beams, it is common to use a compressible

inclusion as shown in Fig. I b and the case histories in Figs. 2-4. This simplifies the concrete form work at the

price of having to design for some post-construction stress from anticipated ground heave. The magnitude of

stress from the heaving ground depends on the stress-displacement properties of the ground and stiffness of the

compressible i n c l u s i o n . Thus by varying the stiffness of the compressible inclusion, the designer can l i m i t the

stress on the underside of the foundation element from ground heave (the stress can never be eliminated entirely).

However, the compressible inclusion must be sufficiently stiff so that it does not compress excessively during

foundation construction (foot traffic, formwork, fluid concrete, etc.).

In a corollary application, where grade beams are used to support the structural slab it is common to place a

compressible inclusion along the sides of the grade beam as well. The primary purpose of this is to reduce any

differential lateral stress on the grade beam from differential lateral swelling of the surrounding ground. Note that

the compressible inclusion can also serve as the concrete formwork for the sides of the grade beam during

construction.

APPLICATIONS INVOLVING PIPES, CULVERTS, AND TUNNELS

As noted previously, reducing the vertical stress acting on pipes, culverts, and tunnels by inducing vertical

arching above the structure is well known and appears to be the first use of the concept of a compressible

i n c l u s i o n . Using geofoam as shown in Fig. l e offers a more-modem approach to this well-proven application.

ANALYSIS FOR COMPRESSIBLE INCLUSION APPLICATIONS

Applications using a compressible inclusion represent an indeterminate system that should be analyzed as a soil­

structure interaction problem in which both stresses and displacements are considered. This is because each

component of the system (structure, inclusion, and ground) has unique stress-displacement behavior (although

in many cases the structure can be assumed to be rigid and non-yielding, or at least rigid). Therefore, the problem

solution consists of finding the unique system of displacements of the compressible inclusion, ground, and

structure (ifnecessary)that satisfies both force equilibrium and material continuity. This is illustrated qualitatively

in Fig. 6. However, some simplified analysis methods have been used where the stress from the ground is

assumed to be independent of displacement. Such simplified methods have been particularly popular for

applications involving vertically expansive ground beneath foundations (Fig. I b).

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 ground

compressible inclusion

Displacement

Fig. 6 Concept of compressible inclusion analysis

The most useful general analytical tool for analyzing problems involving a compressible inclusion is computer

software that solves a continuum using the finite-element method. Such software is now readily available, at least

for static analyses, and can be used with the current generation of microcomputers. Finite-element software for

s e i s m i c conditions and swelling ground, while developed, is not as readily available at the present time. However,

it is expected that as the use of geofoam as a compressible inclusion becomes more widely known engineers w i l l

develop s i m p l i fi e d solutions for use in routine practice. Such simplified solutions might be charts based on

parametric finite-element analyses or simple mathematical models amenable to either manual or computer

solution. Such simplified solutions have already been developed for some applications such as the RE P - W a l l

concept.

Regardless of whether a rigorous or s i m p l i fi e d analysis is used in the design process, stiffness of the geofoam

compressible inclusion is the common, most-important element . Determination of the compressible i n c l u s i o n

stiffness (modulus) must consider:

• The stress level. In general, EPS exhibits nonlinear stress-strain behavior, especially over the relatively large

strain range typical of compressible inclusion applications.

• The duration of loading. For example, applications involving seismic loading would require a modulus

consistent with rapid, cyclic loading while swelling ground applications typically occur over a time frame of

months or years.

ADDITIONAL GEOFOAM FUNCTIONS

In most applications of EPS geofoam as a compressible inclusion, it is possible to utilize the benefits of other

functions that EPS can provide:

• thermal insulation and

• noise and vibration damping.

However, these additional functions are proven only for generic EPS block and proprietary products using EPS

block, and are not necessarily applicable to all proprietary products.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The information in this paper was developed by the writer during the course of a largely unfunded research

project that began in 1 9 8 8 . The author is grateful to the many people and organizations who generously provided

information concerning EPS. Particular gratitude is due (listed alphabetically): BASF AG in Germany, Cordek

Ltd. in the U.K., Delft University of Technology in The Netherlands, Expanded Polystyrol Development

Organization in Japan, GeoTech Systems Corporation in the U . S . A . , Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, and

Plasti-Fab Ltd. in Canada.

The use of tradenames as well as identification of manufacturers and suppliers in this paper is for product­

identification purposes only and does not imply an endorsement of that product, manufacturer, or supplier by the

writer.

REFERENCES

Horvath, J . S. ( I 995). Geofoam Geosynthetic. Horvath Engineering, P . C . , Scarsdale, N . Y . , U . S . A .

Horvath, J. S. ( I 996). The Compressible Inclusion Function of EPS Geofoam, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,

in press.

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