Professional Documents
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Significance
Part 6: Textbooks, tutorials, and reviews
Part 7: Mitigation techniques
Two large installations of photovoltaic (PV) system s located on Mediterranean islands were dam aged
during lightning storm s in 1986-88, even though the m anufacturers and installers had provided protection
hardware in the form of air term inals dispersed am ong the arrays, and surge-protective devices in the
circuits. The two sites were visited and the dam aged equipm ent that was still available on the site was
exam ined for analysis of the suspected lightning-related dam age. The evidence was insufficient to
conclude that all the observed dam age was caused by the direct effect of lightning. A possible scenario
m ay be that lightning-induced overvoltages in the circuits caused insulation breakdown at the edges of the
photovoltaic m odules, with subsequent dam age done by the dc current generated by the array. Other
surge protection considerations were also addressed, and suggestions were presented for further
investigations.
This partial reprint includes all the text and circuit diagram s. An extensive collections of photographs
recorded on the sites is not included. See the last page of this pdf file for inform ation on possible retrieval
of the com plete docum ent from the National Technical Inform ation Service.
Lightning and
Surge Protection
of Photovoltaic
Installations Fran~oisD. Martzloff
Electricity Division
Two Case Histories: Center for Electronics
and Electrical Engineering
Vdmo and Kythnos
Prepared for:
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, NM 87185-5800
June 1989
t Caain cornmerial devices are idcntifi in thin report in order to describe adequately the installation and expected pefiamance of the system.
Such identification does not imply ncornmendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technobgy, nor doer it imply that
these devices are necessarily the best available for the purpose.
1
2. Surge Protection at the field. This history makes that site an interesting
Vulcano Island Installation case study, considering the scarcity of docu-
mented lightning occurrences on photovoltaic
2.1 Background systems.
260 VDC J - I
LINE SELF
BATTERY
CHARGER JL 7C 'OMMUTATED
INVERTER
(4) (5) (31
STATIC
-
61 xx
v
20 kV - LOCAL
USERS
GRID
output circuit of the line-cornmutated inverter. nected from the dc bus according to the charge
A group of 40 local domestic users was origi- state of the battery. For maintenance purposes,
nally supplied at 380 V by an existing substation a dc disconnect is located in terminal boxes
connected to the 20 kV grid. The 380 V bus of next to the respective strings of the array (Pho-
the substation was modified to allow power tograph 2-4). Mechanical interlock is provided
flow from the output of the stand-alone inverter, between the contactor and the cover of the ter-
through the static switch, to the local users. minal box, which prevents accidental opening
With this configuration, the system can operate of the disconnect under load.
in two modes: grid-connected, and stand-alone.
In the grid-connected mode, the tie to the grid 2.3 Grounding Practices
is obtained through the 150/150/20 000 V trans- A major design decision in a photovoltaic sys-
former, absorbing all of the plant output. In tem is whether to ground or not to ground the
that mode, the storage battery is not in the cir- dc side. In contrast to ac power systems, which
cuit, and the local loads are supplied by the ac are grounded in most cases (by generally
grid. In the stand-alone mode, the local loads accepted practice or by mandate, depending on
are supplied at 380 V directly from the self- the country), no general agreement has been
reached on grounding practices for photovoltaic
commutated inverter. In that mode, the storage
systems. Two reasons are generally cited for an
battery is connected to the dc bus and it can ungrounded system:
either absorb power from the array or deliver (1) the possibility to continue operating with
power to the inverter. The local loads can also one ground fault on the system, and
be supplied, if necessary, from the island ac (2) some limitation of single L-G fault currents
grid through a back-up transformer. and hence reduction of damage in case of a
Individual strings from the array can be fault, because two ground faults are then
switched by dc contactors located in the control required to produce a significant dc fault
room, to be connected to the dc bus or discon- current. 3
In the Vulcano system, the dc system is not The significance of a history of corrosion1 insu-
grounded. A ground fault detection system is lation backing is that these insulation problems
provided (Figure 2-2), with alarm indication on may be a clue to a scenario other than that of
the control panel (Photograph 2-3) but no auto- simple direct lightning damage. One may spec-
matic trip nor remote indication of the fault ulate on a scenario involving a double ground
condition (the system is unattended). Experi- fault that could have resulted in panel damage;
ence with this system is described as satisfactory this scenario will be presented in the discussion
after an initial period of reported difficulties of the observations of Section 2.5.
associated with insulation deficiencies in the
panels. (These were eventually corrected by
field or factory rework on the panels.)
'2.4 Surge Protection
While the dc system is not grounded, a ground Overvoltage protection for the Vulcano system
grid has been installed at the site, for safety, is provided at three interfaces, as sketched in
surge protection, and grounding of the ac side. Figure 2-2:
In addition to a grid of ground cables running (1) At the terminal box of each pair of strings
along the dc cables in the array (but outside of (Photograph 2-9), between each of the two dc
the plastic conduits containing the dc cables, lines and ground, by one 32-mm diameter
see Photograph 2-5), ground rods (16 rods, varistor (4 total) rated 560 V dc (GE Cat. No.
each 2 m long) were driven into the earth. V420HE400). No further protective devices are
Considerable care was given to the implernenta- provided at the entrance of the dc cables to the
tion of this ground grid. For instance, the power conditioner house (the capacitor bank at
the input of the inverters can serve as overvolt-
integrity and effectiveness of the grounding sys- age limiter for any impinging surge because the
tem for protection against step voltage and front time is relatively long as a result of the
touch voltage, in case of a ground fault on the cable impedance). The blocking diode for each
20 kV system, were the subject of well-docu- string, located in the field terminal box, is pro-
mented tests. Providing low impedance earth- tected by one 32-rnm diameter varistor (2 total),
ing was made easier by the volcanic nature of rated 560 V dc (GE Cat. No. V420HE400). This
the soil, which resulted in the unusually low varistor has a clamping voltage of 1200 V for a
value of 1.8 Q for the earth resistance. The 300 A peak surge current. The repetitive peak
lower leg of each panel frame is bonded to the voltage rating of the diode (IR Cat. No. SD
ground grid (Photographs 2-6 and 2-7). 7ONl2P) is 1200 V.
Concerns frequently associated with grounding (2) At the 380 V ac interface of the output of
praaices are corrosion of connections and leakage the inverters, by three varistors connected line-
of the insulation from energized parts to ground to-ground (Photographs 2-10 and 2-11). These
At this site, the ground grid was implemented are also 32-mm diameter varistors, with a 420 V
with direct-burial copper cables with welded con- ac rms rating (GE Cat. No. V420HE400). A fuse
nections (Photographs 2-5 and 2-7), an effective rated 8 A, 500 V, 100 kA interrupting capacity is
assurance against corrosion problems. Some cox- provided in series with each varistor (Photo-
rosion. problems occurred in the original metal graph 2-12). About 50 cm of leads are used to
boxes containing the module by-pass diodes connect the varistors to the 380 V terminals at
(Photograph 2-8). The problems were corrected the base of each inverter cabinet. (In this case,
by improving the insulation to ground with a this length is not significant because of the front
4 better sealing of the metallic frames. time limitation discussed above.)
night. The glass and part of the cells were
described as "melted near the metallic frame of
the rnod~le.~No failure of the blocking diode
nor of the varistor of that string was found as a
result of that incident.
\
POINTS OF HIGH
SUCCESSIVE FIELD, I . E .
STRIKING SHARP AND
DISTANCE PROTRUDING 2.5.2 Lightning damage scenarios
JUMPS GROUNDED
OBJECTS The damage to the module is located at the
lower part of the array, as shown in Photograph
2-2. Postulating a scenario of a direct strike to
the array, the point of attachment of the light-
ning would be the point of origin of the rising
streamer that meets the descending stepped
leader (Figure 2-3).
This position at the lower part of the array is
UNLIKELY POINT rather unexpected for the point of initiation of
OF ORIGIN
FOR A the streamer. A more likely point for streamer
STREAMER
initiation - and resulting termination of the
strike - would be the upper edge of the array,
which is 2 m above grade level (Photograph
Figure 2-3. Descending stepped leader 2-15). Thus, there is some doubt on drawing a
and rising streamer in a cloud-taground conclusion that the damage was the result of a
lightning strike direct strike terminating at the array.
(3) At the 20 kV interface with the island sys- In view of the reported insulation problems that
tem, by "conventional" surge arresters installed occurred during the initial period of operation,
at the potheads of the underground connection, one might ask whether the damage to that
and connected line to ground (Photograph panel might be the result of a leakage of dc cur-
2-13). The 20 kV overhead line stops about rent to the frame, rather than the simple direct
200 m from the control room, with the final effect of a lightning strike. This dc leakage
connection to the plant made by underground might be the consequence of a lightning
cable (Photograph 2-14). induced overvoltage stress that created a double
fault in one single event, or that created the sec-
2.5 Discussion ond fault after the first had previously occurred
2.5.1 Lightning damage report but remained uncorrected. The scenario could
The damage caused to the PV panel by the pre- unfold as follows:
sumed lightning strike is shown in Photograph Assume that two independent ground faults, (A)
2-2. (The photograph was supplied by Previ as and (B) have occurred on the system (Figure
part of the background history; the damaged 2-4). When the first, say (A), occurs, the fault
module was not available for examination.) detection system indicates that event but no
This damage occurred during the commission- immediate action is taken because of the unat-
ing period of the plant in the autumn of 1984; tended status of the system, and there is no
it was found early in the morning by the ENEL ground fault current resulting from that first
staff after a thunderstorm occurred during the 5
fault (except the insignificant current passing
PV PANEL
through the detection circuit). A ground fault I
current can exist only after the second fault
occurs, establishing the path through (A)
FAULT (A1
and (B). WITH MODERATE
RESISTANCE
Assume now that one of the two faults, say (B), BETWEEN
-- --
DC CIRCUIT
7
involves a very low resistance. Then, even for AND FRAME
substantial fault currents, little heat is generated
at fault (B). Assume further that (A) has a low
enough resistance to produce a "sufficientncur-
rent in the fault path, where "sufficient" is
defined as a level which, combined with the
GROUNDED
FRAME DC CABLE 1-
I
low but finite resistance of fault (A), will create I
heat dissipation in (A), in contrast with the FAULT (0) WITH
LOW RESISTANCE
negligible heat dissipation in (B). SOMEWHERE I N SYSTEM
-
The modules are grouped in arrays formed by a
series string of 20 modules, each producing a
dc bus voltage of 160 V. Each of these 43
STORAGE
CONVERTERS BATTERY arrays is terminated in a junction box in the
field, where two or three strings are connected
in parallel to bring the dc power to the power
VDC
conversion cabin (Photograph 3-2).
In the power conversion circuitry, the variable
160 V dc is raised and regulated to 250 V by a
COMMUTATED dddc converter to match the battery voltage for
INVERTER
optimum charging conditions and operation of
the solar cells. The dc/dc conversion is per-
formed by four units, each rated 25 kW.
380 VAC
Depending on the instantaneous power trans-
fer, one to four converters are in service.
Conversion to ac power is performed by three
inverters, each rated 50 kW. The output voltage
of 380 V is stepped up to 15 kV for connection
15 k V to the island power grid. Although the arrays
GRID
and conversion equipment are located adjacent
to the Diesel generating plant of the island,
Figure 31. Block diagram of the Kythnos
photovoltaic system
operation of the photovoltaic system can be 9
Figure 3-2. Location of ground cables, air terminals, and modules
presumed damaged by lightning
Source: Kythnos records (Appendix 0 )
automatic, and does not require daily supervi- nized steel, buried directly at the bottom of a
sory. Extensive monitoring and control of oper- trench, with the dc cables above the ground
ating parameters is provided by a "Logistronic" conductors. There are no driven ground rods
control system and other controls incorporated added to this grid. The choice of galvanized
in the design. steel probably reflects the German practice,
where concerns over corrosion effects by
3.3 Grounding Practices buried copper seem to deprecate the use of
copper.
This site is located in the center part of the
island next to the Diesel power plant, but with All the metal structures of the system, including
its ground grid isolated from that of the Diesel the array supporting beams, junction boxes,
plant. This grid consists of several loops encir- lightning rods, and housings for the power con-
ditioners and battery, are bonded to the ground
cling each of the four groups of arrays. Part of
grid. Connections are made using bolted con-
the each loop follows the routing of the dc nectors above ground (Photographs 3-3, 3-4,
cables between the array junction boxes and and 3 - 9 , as well as under ground, with protec-
the power conditioning cabin (Figure 3-2). tion against corrosion being provided in accor-
dance with the normal practices of the various
The perimeter of the field is defined by stone manufacturers and contractors (these were not
walls, in keeping with the prevailing island discussed during the visit).
practice for marking boundaries between pas- The dc system is not grounded, but includes a
tures and cultivated fields. Consequently, there ground fault detection circuit with fault indica-
is no metal fence around the photovoltaic field, tion available only in the control cubicle of the
and thus no perimeter grounding cable. The system. The separation of the photovoltaic
10 conductors are made of 10-mm diameter galva- ground grid from the Diesel plant ground grid
PV
MODULE8
UNKROROUND
OC CABLES
1Ml V
I
I
I
L----------A
---------------------
Figure 33. Overvoltage protection at system interfaces
raises the question of a possible difference of not have surge arresters at their ac power input.
ground potential between these two systems After arresters were added to this ac input, no
during a lightning mike. If instrumentation or further damage events occurred but some
telemetering equipment spans across the two upsets did still occur in the control system.
systems, the difference in ground potentials
might become a problem. However, no such 3.4.1 Air terminals
problem was identified at that site. Air terminals (lightning rods) have been
installed between rows of the array as shown
3.4 Surge Protection on Photograph 3-6. The height of these air ter-
This installation presents an interesting case his- minals is 10.5 m above grade level; the upper
tory because it includes both lightning rods edge of the panels is 2 m above grade level,
(air terminals) in the array and surge arresters in thus leaving a net elevation of the air terminals
the circuits. Damage to several panels, presum- 8.5 m above the upper edges of the panels.
ably as a result of lightning over a period Considering a 45' cone of protection, one of
involving three separate occurrences, raises the classical criteria, the panel upper edges
questions on the effectiveness of the protection would then be "protectedn within a radius of
against direct strikes. Damage to the surge 8.5 m from each air terminal. Those panels
arresters also occurred in one of the field junc- located beyond that radius would be left unpro-
tion boxes, but no damage occurred on the tected. Reviewing the location of panels
power conversion units. Some damage involved in the damage (Figure 3-2) shows the
occurred in the control circuits of the battery following horizontal distance from the nearest
11
charger during the initial period, when they did air terminal:
- Module E2/B4/1 - Location 10m (1) At the junction boxes in field - There are
- Module E2/B6/5 - Location I1 lorn several slightly different types of junction boxes
- Module E3/B4/13 - Location 111 10m in the field. Some include termination for two
- Module E3/B4/19 - Location IV 12m or for three strings, while some also contain
- Module E3/B5/18 - Location V 8m additional circuitry for the data collection sys-
- Module E4/B3/20 - Location VI 10m tem. Photograph 3-7 shows a typical three-
circuit box (undamaged). One surge arrester is
Thus, five of the six damaged modules were connected between each of the floating dc lines
beyond the 45' cone, and the sixth was on the (+)and (-) and a ground bus inside the box. In
fringe of the cone. Some panels in the array, turn, this bus is bonded to the footing by a cop-
not impacted by lightning, are further away per cable (in parallel with the inherent bonding
from an air terminal, the greatest distance in the between the metallic junction box and the
field being 15 meters. Another interesting statis- I beam of the footing).
tic is the distribution of the panels with respect These arresters appear similar to those for
to being within a protected area of 8.5 meters which the voltage response had been docu-
radius (approximately 75%) or outside the mented in a paper presented at the 1981 EMC
protected area (25%). Zii rich Symposium (Appendix C). From the
Another protection criterion has been devel- voltage response characteristic reported in that
oped, that of the 'Yolling ball" [51, as discussed paper, it appears that the surge arrester con-
in section 3.5. According to that criterion, the sisted of a silicon-carbide varistor with a series
protection radius would extend to 12 m so that gap. The presence of a series gap is significant
all panels would have been expected to be in in discussing the upset events cited for the
the protected zone. control circuits at this site.
According to yet another definition of the cone The string blocking diodes are mounted in the
of protection, sometimes cited by less conserva- junction box and are protected by a metal-
tive designers, a 2:l instead of a 1:l ratio of oxide varistor connected in parallel with each
radius to height may be considered. In such a .diode (Photograph 3-8). Photograph 3-9 shows
case, one would expect all of the panels to be another junction box with the additional data
protected" as the distance from the mast would collection circuitry installed in the box cover.
increase to 17 m. This particular box is the one where the
It is not known whether such a 2:l cone, or the lightning-suspected damage occurred, as shown
1:l (45') cone, or the rolling ball with a 30-m in the close-up views of Photographs 3-10 and
radius was used in the initial layout of the air 3-11.
terminals. The design has been described as (2) At the power conversion units - The dc
Ynstalled according to VDE standardsn lines from the array are brought to the cabinets
(VDE is the acronym for Verein Deutscher of the dc-dc converters where each of the four
Electrotechniker) (see Appendix B). converter inputs is protected by two surge
3.4.2 Overvoltage protection arresters (2a) (Photograph 3-12) connected
Overvoltage protection at the Kythnos installa- between the (+)and (-) lines, and ground. This
tion is provided at four interfaces, numbered (1) arrester is of the same type as that described for
through (4) in Figure 3-3: the array junction boxes.
Similarily, the ac outputs of the inverters are This type of arrester is perfectly adequate for
protected against surges from the ac grid by protecting transformers against surges, but
four arresters (2b); one is connected between might not be sufficient for the electronic com-
each line (a,b,c) and ground, and one between ponents on the 220/380 V side. For that rea-
neutral and ground (N) (Photograph 3-13). son, the secondary arresters described above
While the grounding connection of the are a good idea. However, gapless secondary
220/380 V system was not reviewed, presum- arresters are now available that can offer a
ably it follows the European practice of bonding more comprehensive protection, including
to earth only at the secondary transformer, in some degree of upset protection.
this case the step-up transformer of the grid
interface. This practice, different from that used 3.4.3 Examination of the damaged modules
in the United States, motivates and justifies the 3.4.3.1 Summary
provision of the arrester between neutral and At the date of the visit, the three modules dam-
ground. aged in 1986 had been replaced in the array.
(3) At the Logbtronk circuit power supply - These modules were still kept in storage at the
The Ugistronicn circuit controlling the battery site, so that it was possible to examine them
charger is powered from the 220 V ac line in closely. The two modules damaged in 1987
the battery cabin. Thus, its power supply is and the one module damaged in 1988, how-
exposed to surges that may occur on that sup- ever, were still in position in the array, as no
ply. Initially, there was no protection on this ac spares were available. Detailed photographs
supply; perhaps as a consequence, damage and observations for each panel are given in
occurred three times in the early years of the the following paragraphs, in chronological
system (Appendix B). Subsequently, two order.
arresters were installed on the ac supply line At this site, the arrays are only one module
ahead of the Logistronic input terminals (Photo- high, so that the long edge of the module
graph 3-14). After these ac arresters were reaches from the highest to the lowest edge of
installed, only upsets were recorded (four the array. In all six failed modules, there is
occurrences). This behavior is consistent with damage evident at one or both upper corners,
the voltage-limiting effect of the arresters but at along one or both long edges, and at the bot-
the price of a steep voltage collapse when the tom of the module. The panel is completely
gaps fire (Appendix C). This electromagnetic separated from the frame in some cases, while
disturbance is a likely source of interference in in other cases, only partial separation occurred.
nearby digital circuits. One of the modules has severe bums marks on
the top corner of the frame, while on the other
(4) At the ac grid interface - Protection modules the damage ranges from none to some
against surges coming from the island ac power readily visible burn marks.
grid is provided by the three distribution-type
arresters mounted on a cross-arm above the 3.4.3.2 Detailed examinations
transformer (Photograph 3-15). No 'information MODULE - 307 0423 This module was in stor-
was available on these arresters; they are likely age and had been at location E2 B4 1 ("I" on
to be of the conventional design using a silicon Figure 3-2), 10 m from the nearest air terminal.
carbide varistor with a series gap. There are burn marks along both long edges, 13
but not the complete length (Photograph 3-16). 10 m from the nearest air terminal, and was
On the right side, the burns are mostly at the found damaged on February 5, 1987. The
lower part of the edge, away from the most bypass diode in the string allows the array to
damaged corner (Photograph 3-17). On the left remain operational. The right edge shows
side, the burns are mostly in the upper part, burns (Photograph 3-28). Both right side cor-
with intriguing spots over some of the cells ners show extensive destruction of panel mate-
(Photograph 3-18). The top right comer shows rial (Photographs 3-29 and 3-30), but the upper
some marks on the frame, with the most corner has no burn marks on the frame
extensive damage at that corner (Photograph (Photograph 3-29).
3- 19). MODULE - 304 0300 This module is still in the
MODULE - 303 0267 This module was in stor- array at location E3 B4 13 C'III" on Figure 3-2),
age and had been at location E3 B5 18 ("V" on 10 m from the nearest air terminal, and was
Figure 3-2), 8 m from the nearest air terminal. found damaged on February 5, 1987. The
There are burn marks along both vertical edges, bypass diode in the string allows the array to
but not over the complete length (Photograph remain operational. %ere is damage on three
3-20). On the right side, the burns are mostly at of the corners and some of the edges (Photo-
the upper part of the module, with damage at graphs 3-31, 3-32, and 3-33), but the heaviest
both corners (Photographs 3-21 and 3-22). The damage is on the lower left corner (Photograph
top right corner (Photograph 3-21) shows heavy 3-34). The two upper corners shows surface
burn marks on the frame, while the top left cor- degradation on the frame, but these do not
ner (Photograph 3-23) shows light marks on the appear to be burn marks (Photographs 3-32 and
frame. It should be noted that this module, 3-33).
which has the heaviest burn marks on its frame
among the six modules, is the only module that MODULE - 310 0592 This module is still in the
was located within the "cone of protection" of array at location E4 B3 20 ("VI" on Figure 3-2),
an air terminal. This remark will be discussed 10 m from the nearest air terminal, and was
further in the next section. found damaged on February 25, 1988. The
bypass diode in the string allows the array to
MODULE - 304 0294 This module was in stor-
remain operational. The damage is concen-
age and had been at location E3 B5 19 ("IV" on
trated on the left edge of the module
Figure 3-2), 12 m from the nearest air terminal.
(Photographs 3-35 and 3-37). The panel is sep-
There are burn marks along all of the right side,
arated from the frame (Photograph 3-38). The
and part of the left side (Photograph 3-24).
apparent discoloration of the frame at the top
Both top corners show damage (Photographs
left corner does not seem attributable to burns
3-25 and 3-26). The top right corner (Photo-
(Photograph 3-36).
graph 3-25 shows light burn marks on the
frame, while the top left corner (Photograph 3-
26) hardly shows any burn marks on the frame. 3.5 Discussion
There is extensive separation of the panel from 3.5.1 Effectiveness of air terminals
the frame along the right side (Photograph Lightning protection of solar arrays by air termi-
3-27) nals is still a subject of debate (effectiveness,
MODULE - 306 0417 This module is still in the shadow effects, cost, appearance). The obser-
14 array at location E2 B6 5 ("11" on Figure 3-2)) vations made at the Kythnos site do not bring
closest to an air terminal, and within the zone
of protection as detailed in paragraph 3.4.1.
Thus, a brief review of the uncertainties of the
zone-of-protection concepts will provide the
necessary perspective on the issue.
Indiscriminate application of the 45' cone of
protection criterion to tall structures has led to
contradictions. An example is occurrence of
1 I I 1 I I 1 I 1 lightning strikes terminating on the side of tall
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
current. kA
buildings, within the cone of "protection", The
original concept of a cone of protection is now
Figure 3 4 . Relationship between potential generally replaced by the rolling ball criterion,
current level of return stroke and striking based on the striking distance theory. Accord-
distance ing to this striking distance theory 161, the strik-
(Source: Reference 161)
ing distance at the tip of the descending
stepped leader increases with the amount of
charge in the leader. Thus, the leaders having
the highest potential current level have the
longest striking distance (Figure 3-4).
Conversely, leaders having the lowest potential
current level have the shortest striking distance.
The point of termination of a lightning strike
can be anywhere within the striking distance
from the last point of advance of the descend-
ing stepped leader. This fact can be repre-
sented by imagining a sphere with a radius
equal to the striking distance, which is deter-
mined by the charge in the lower part of the
leader. Any point at ground potential penetrat-
ing that sphere is a candidate for emitting a
Figure 35. Rolling ball criterion upward streamer that will complete the path for
(Same: Reference 151)
the return stroke. Thus, points at ground
conclusive evidence for or against the effective- potential outside of the sphere are still "pro-
ness of correctly designed air terminals, tectedn while the points inside the sphere are
although they tend to weaken the case for pro- not.
viding air terminals. Considering now the configuration of a vertical
The Kythnos experience involves points of mast on the ground plane (Figure 3-5), rolling a
(presumed) lightning termination that are at the ball on the ground until it touches the tip of the
edges of the zone of protection of several crite- mast defines the limiting condition when the
ria, where this protection becomes more uncer- descending leader will terminate at the tip of
tain. Ironically, the most severe burn mark is the mast, thus leaving other points below the
found on the frame of the module that was sphere uninvolved. Figure 3-6 shows 15
graphically the configuration for the 10.5 m ciate that the 30 m radius is only a pragmatic
masts used in Kythnos, with the upper edge of choice, not an absolute criterion. Therefore,
the panels at 2 m above the ground plane. observing points of presumed lightning termina-
Figure 3-6 shows the zone of protection as tion at distances of 8.5 m to 12 m from the base
defined by the traditional 45" cone of protec- of an air terminal is not startling, especially for
tion, as well as that defined by a rolling ball of low-current strokes. This observation shows
30 m radius, as specified in the Lightning Pro- how precarious the assurance of protection can
tection Code I51. Simple geometry shows a dis- be when only sparsely distributed air terminals
tance of 8.5 m from the mast for the 45' cone, are provided. In other words, increasing the
while the graphical solution for the rolling ball degree of confidence that sufficient protection
shows a distance of 12 m from the mast. It zones are established might require such a
should be emphasized that the selection of a density of masts (or overhead wires) that the
30 m radius for the ball is somewhat arbitrary, cost, appearance, and shadow effects would
in view of the data shown in Figure 3-4. From loom large in the overall trade-off.
Figure 3-6, it is apparent that a pessimistic
assumption would be a smaller radius for the 3.5.2 Lightning current path
The resulting return stroke would then draw
rolling ball: such a smaller ball would roll closer
charges from the earth via the grounded struc-
to the mast and thus would reduce the
ture, that is, the return current would come out
"protected" distance from the mast.
of the grounding cable at the base of the col-
This observation needs to be combined with the umn, and proceed by the shortest route toward
statistical distribution of lightning current ampli- the upper edge of the panel. This shortest path
tudes as stated by Cianos & Pierce [21 to appre- does not include the lower half of the panel
2 4 6 8 10 12
METERS
[I] Previ, A., "The Vulcano Project," Int. J. [51 NFPA 78 "Lightning Protection Code,,"National
Solar Energy, 1985, Vol3, pp 124-141. Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA, 1986.
[21 Cianos, N. and Pierce, E.T. 'Aground- [6lGolde, R.H., 'Lightning Protection," Chemical
lightning environmentfor engineering Publishing Company, New York, NY, 1975.
usage." Stanford Research Institute, Menlo
Park, Ca, 1972. [71 Collier, D.E., and Key, T.S., "Electrical Fault
Protection for a Large Photovoltaic Plant
[31Martdoff, ED., "Matching Surge Protective Inverter," Proceedings, 20th IEEE Photovoltaic
Devices to their Environment, " IEEE Specialist Conference, September 1988.
Transactions, Vol IA-21, No.1, January1
February 1985. 181 Stolte, W.J., "PhotovoltaicSystem Grounding
and Fault Protection Guidelines,' Contractor
[41 Shirakawa, S., E Endo, H. Kitajima, Report SAND83-7025, National Technical
S. Kobayashi, and K. Kurita, Maintenance of Information Servcie, 1985.
Surge Arrester by a Portable Arrester Leakage
Current Detector," IEEE Transactions, Vol
PD-3, No. 3, July 1988.
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