• Partial pressure gradients
o Gradient
• In a mixture of different gases, each gas contributes
to the total pressure of the mixture. The contribution
of each gas, called the partial pressure , is equal to the
pressure that the gas would have if it were alone in
the enclosure
• occurs in the lungs between alveoli and blood plasma
and throughout the body between plasma and
interstitial fluids
• States that the sum of the partial pressures of each
gas in a mixture is equal to the total pressure of the
mixture
• The partial pressure of the gas
o According to Henry’s law, the greater the
partial pressure of a gas, the greater the
diffusion of the gas into the liquid
• The solubility of the gas
o The ability of a gas to dissolve in a liquid
varies with the kind of gas and the liquid
• The temperature of the liquid
o The temperature of the liquid
₂ ₂
• Partial pressures and solubilities
o Poor solubility can be offset by a high partial
pressure (or vice versa)
o Characteristics of O2 and CO2
▪ Oxygen
− Partial pressure of O2 in the lungs
is high (air is 21% O2), but it has
poor solubility properties
▪ Carbon dioxide
− Partial pressure of CO2 in air is
extremely low (air is only 0.04%
CO2), but its solubility in plasma is
about 24 times that of CO2
▪ A change in some quantity from one
region to another
o Diffusion of a gas into a liquid (or the
reverse) occurs down a partial pressure
gradient, that is, from a region of higher
partial pressure to a region of lower partial
pressure
o For example, the strong partial pressure
gradient for O 2 (pO2) from alveoli to
deoxygenated blood (105 mm Hg in alveoli
versus 40 mm Hg in blood) facilities rapid
diffusion
• Surface area for gas exchange
o The expansive surface area of the lungs
promotes extensive diffusion
• Diffusion distance
o Thin alveolar and capillary walls increase the
rate of diffusion
• Small amount of O2 (1.5%) is carried in the plasma as
a dissolved gas
• Most oxygen (98.5%) carried in the blood is bound to
the protein in RBC. A fully saturated oxyhemoglobin
(HbO2) has four O2 molecules attached. Without
oxygen, the molecule is referred to as
deoxyhemoglobin (Hb)
₂
₂
• Increase in temperature
• Increase in partial pressure of CO 2 (pCO2)
• Increase in acidity (decrease in pH)
o The decrease in affinity of Hb for O2, called
the Bohr effect, results when H+ binds to Hb
• Increase in BPG (biphosphoglycerate) in RBC
o BPG is generated in RBC when they produce
energy from glucose
 o These receptors signal the respiratory
center to discontinue stimulation of the
inspiratory muscles, allowing expiration to
• A small amount of CO2 is carried in the plasma as a begin
dissolved gas o This response is called the inflation (Hering-
• Some CO2 binds to Hb in RBC forming Breur) reflex
carbaminohemoglobin. The CO2 binds to the amino
acid portion of hemoglobin instead of to the iron
portion.
• Most CO2 is transported as dissolved bicarbonate
ions (HCO3) in the plasma.

• Respiration is controlled by these areas of the brain

that stimulate the contraction of the diaphragm and
the intercoastal muscles
• These areas, collectively called respiratory centers,
are summarized as follows:
• Medullary inspiratory center - rhythmic nerve
impulses that stimulate contraction of inspiratory
muscle
• Pneumotaxic area - inhibits the inspiratory center,
limits the contraction of IM
• Apneustic area - stimulates the inspiratory center,
prolonging the contractions IM

• Central chemoreceptors
o Nerves of the central nervous system
o Located in the medulla oblongata , monitor
the chemistry of cerebrospinal fluid
o When CO 2 from the plasma enters the
cerebrospinal fluid, it forms HCO 3 - and H +,
and the pH of the fluid drops (becomes
more acidic)
o In response to the decrease in pH, the
central chemoreceptors stimulate the
respiratory center to increase the
inspiratory rate
• Peripheral chemoreceptors
o Nerves of the peripheral nervous system
o Located in the aortic bodies in the wall of
the aortic arch and in carotid bodies in the
walls of the carotid arteries, monitor the
chemistry of the blood
o An increase in pH or pCO2, or a decrease in
pO2, causes these receptors to stimulate
the respiratory center
• Stretch receptors
o Found in the walls of bronchi and
bronchioles are activated when the lungs
expand to their physical limit