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Recovery and Reuse of Anode Graphite from Spent Lithium-Ion

Batteries via Citric Acid Leaching
Jingbo Yang, Ersha Fan, Jiao Lin, Faiza Arshad, Xiaodong Zhang, Hanyong Wang, Feng Wu,
Renjie Chen, and Li Li*

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ABSTRACT: With the rapid growth of retired lithium-ion batteries (LIBs),

Downloaded via UNIV DARMSTADT on November 13, 2022 at 16:27:38 (UTC).

the recycling of electrode materials has become a hot topic in research.

Considering the economic factors, the recovery of cathode electrodes has
always been the focus of research. Until now, the recovery of anode electrode
materials has gained much attention due to their large proportion in batteries.
This research focuses on the recovery and regeneration of anode graphite.
Based on the existing form of lithium in anode graphite carbon powder,
environmentally friendly citric acid is selected as the extraction reagent to
extract lithium and regenerate spent graphite. Through orthogonal experi-
ments and conditional experiments, the optimal conditions for extracting the
lithium element from the spent LIB anodes were a temperature of 90 °C, S/L
ratio of 1:50 g mL−1, CAC of 0.2 mol L−1, and time of 50 min, and the leaching
rate of lithium ions can reach 97.58%. The electrochemical performance tests
showed that the regenerated graphite anode material after the extraction of
lithium had a high discharge capacity of 330 mA h g−1 after 80 cycles at 0.5 C, and the Coulombic efficiency is maintained above
99%. By comparing the regenerated graphite and the pretreated spent graphite, the regenerated leached graphite has obviously
excellent electrochemical performance, and its properties can be comparable to those of artificial graphite. This experimental result
provides a theoretical basis for the subsequent recycling of anode electrode graphite.
KEYWORDS: spent lithium-ion batteries, anode graphite, citric acid, leaching, recovery

1. INTRODUCTION impurities in spent graphite because in the process of charge

With the worldwide increase in the use of electronic products and discharge, the Li element in the cathode electrode will be
and electric vehicles, the consumption of lithium-ion batteries embedded in the anode graphite material, thus causing the
failure of graphite.10,11 There are a variety of metal impurities
(LIBs) has increased dramatically. Global demand for LIBs is
in the spent anode graphite, which provide convenient
expected to increase tenfold by 2030. More than 2 million tons
conditions for the surface modification and functional design
of retired LIBs will be produced each year.1−5 Therefore, the
of materials in the later stage and can also avoid the secondary
recycling of spent LIBs has gradually become the focus of
pollution of harmful metals. In addition, the porous carbon
worldwide attention.
anode electrode materials in the spent batteries have large
However, most of the research is focused on the recycling of
carbon content and are relatively pure. Its huge specific surface
metal materials in the cathode electrode.6−9 There are few
area and excellent structure provide good conditions for the
reports on the recovery and utilization of anode graphite
reapplication of graphite materials in many fields. The
materials in spent LIBs. With the shortage of resources in
recycling and reapplication of graphite as the anode of LIBs
modern society and the increase in production costs, graphite,
can not only reduce the cost of raw materials and bring higher
as a common raw material in the field of production, has a wide
economic benefits for the synthesis of new materials but also
range of application value. Therefore, the recycling and
regeneration of anode graphite in spent batteries cannot be
ignored. At present, a lot of graphite powder byproducts have Received: April 8, 2021
been obtained by leaching manganese, cobalt, zinc, and other Accepted: May 11, 2021
metals from batteries. The content of Ni, Pb, Zn, and other Published: June 4, 2021
harmful metals in the graphite materials is lower than 0.01 wt
% and contains trace amounts of Fe, Al, and Cu (about 0.5 wt
%) and about 4 wt % of Li. There are many lithium metal

© 2021 American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.1c01029

6261 ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2021, 4, 6261−6268
ACS Applied Energy Materials
realize the recycling and utilization of spent battery materials
and achieve the goal of sustainable development.12
Due to the rapid increase in the number of spent LIBs, the
recycling of anode electrode materials after effective regener-
ation and reuse have formed a completely closed cycle, which
can also bring considerable economic benefits and realize the
sustainable development of the lithium-ion power battery
industry. At present, the recovery and reuse of anode graphite
mainly have the following application ways. (1) Used as
materials for supercapacitors: reduced graphene oxide (rGO)
was synthesized from spent LIBs and applied to super-
capacitors.13−16 (2) As an adsorbent: after being pretreated
and activated with oxidizing acid and then treated by chemical
deposition or impregnation, the recovered carbon materials
can be an excellent material for removing phosphorus,
magnesium, and other heavy metals.17−22 (3) Preparation of
graphene and GO: since graphene and GO are prepared to
break chemical bonds and separate graphene layers, the battery
cycle can be seen as a prefabrication step, which can
dramatically increase the productivity of graphene and its
derivatives.23−25 (4) As the new anode materials: considering
the potential benefits of recycling anode materials for new
lithium batteries, it can be used as a source of graphite
materials that have been pretreated with additives, which not
only reduces the search for new sources but also avoids the
pretreatment of the original graphite materials.26,27
In this paper, the spent anode graphite materials of a mobile
phone LIB are used as new raw materials for the LIB anode.
First, anode graphite is regenerated by thermal treatment and
environmentally friendly organic acid leaching, which is the
important step to recycle spent LIBs for a green closed loop.
Green organic acid is used to remove impurity and recover the
lithium element, and the optimal conditions of organic acid
leaching are explored. Then, coin cells were assembled based
on the graphite materials before and after regeneration as the
anode materials, and the electrochemical performance was
tested. The reasons why the regenerated graphite has higher
specific capacity, better stability, and rate performance than
spent graphite were deeply explored.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Pretreatment of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries. Spent LIBs
were supplied by the Beijing Zhuangshi Technology Co., Ltd. In order
to meet the safety requirements of the laboratory, spent LIBs must be
pretreated with NaCl solution. After full discharge, the batteries can
be disassembled manually to obtain the anode material.28 The
obtained spent anode is calcined at 450 °C in a tube furnace for 1.5 h
to remove the binder and electrolyte, thus completely separating the
copper foil and the anode active material and recovering the copper
foil 100%. Then, the thoroughly separated anode powder is calcined
at 500 °C for 1 h in a muff furnace to expect the oxidation of trace
copper and aluminum in the anode material.29−31 In this experiment,
the solid powder obtained by this step is called as spent battery anode
graphite (SG).
2.2. Recovery of Lithium and Regeneration of Graphite. The
lithium in SG was recovered by acid leaching, and the regenerated
leached graphite (LG) could be obtained at the same time. All
leaching reactions take place in a three-necked round-bottom flask
equipped with an impeller agitator and a condenser. The reaction
temperature was controlled by a constant-temperature water bath
method. The impeller agitator is used to control stirring speed, while
the reflux condenser is used to reduce the evaporation of water.
Precisely weighed spent anode powder and a known concentration of
citric acid solution were successively added to the reactor. In the citric
acid leaching, the following operational variables were explored, that
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is, S/L ratio (1:40−70 g mL−1), CAC (0.1−0.3 mol L−1), reaction time
(20−60 min), and temperature (60−90 °C). In actual operation, the
stirring speed was set at 300 rpm, which is because the leaching
efficiency shows no obvious variety when increasing the stirring speed
to above 300 rpm.32 Transparent leachate and black solid can be
obtained by multiple pumping. Then, the leachate was detected by
ICP. The metal ions contained in the leachate are mainly lithium ions,
so the lithium in the anode of SG is recovered in the form of lithium
citrate. The resulting black powder was dried at 60 °C for 24 h and
marked as regenerated LG.
2.3. Analytical Methods. The spent anode powders after
calcination were completely dissolved in the mixture solution of
HNO3, HF, and H2O2, and then, ICP test was conducted. After
digestion, ICP can measure the concentration of lithium ions in the
solid powder before leaching (C0). The concentration of lithium ions
in the leaching solution after acid leaching can also be measured (C).
Thus, the leaching rate of lithium ions can be obtained by the
following calculation (μ). The leaching rate was calculated according
to formula 133
R0 − R C V − CV
μ= = 0 0 × 100%
R0 C0V0 (1)
X-ray diffraction (XRD; Brucker D8 Advance), scanning electron
microscopy (SEM; HitachiS-4800), and Raman spectroscopy
(Raman; Renishaw inVia) were employed for the characterization
of the SG and LG powders.
2.4. Electrochemical Measurements. The graphite electrodes
were made of the active material (80 wt %), acetylene black (10 wt
%), and PVDF binder (10 wt %) dissolved in NMP. The obtained
uniform slurry was coated onto a Cu foil with a doctor blade, then
dried at 60 °C for 24 h in an oven to remove the residual NMP,
pressed using a punch machine, cut, and weighted. In a glove box with
an argon atmosphere (H2O < 0.01 PPM, O2 < 0.01 ppm), the
CR2025-type battery shell was used to assemble the button-type
battery, the polypropylene porous membrane was used as the
diaphragm, the LIPF6-EC/DEC/EMC organic mixture liquid of
1:1:1 1.0 mol L−1 volume ratio was used as the electrolyte, and the
prepared graphite material electrode sheet was placed in the cathode
electrode shell. The high-purity lithium sheet (≥99.9 wt %) was
placed in the anode electrode shell as the counter electrode. As a final
step, the assembled batteries should be sealed with a battery-sealing
machine. After resting for 24 h, the electrochemical properties of
different kinds of graphite were tested at different ratios.34,35 The
cycle performance of coin cells was tested by galvanostatic charge/
discharge cycling tests with a multichannel battery tester (LANHE
CT2001A) in a voltage range of 0.01−2.0 V at selected rates from 0.1
to 2 C (1 C = 372 mA h g−1). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) tests were performed
on a CHI604D workstation. The CV test voltage range is 0.01−2.0 V.
Furthermore, EIS tests were performed in the frequency range from
100 KHz to 0.01 Hz.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Recovery of Lithium and Regeneration of
Graphite by Acid Leaching. First, ICP test was carried
out on the anode materials of spent LIBs to detect the main
metal impurities in the pretreated SG. The test results are
presented in Table 1. The anode material of lithium batteries
involved in this experiment contains 35.63 g kg−1 Li, 5.21 g
kg−1 Cu, and a small amount of Na, Al, Co, and Mn metals.
However, in subsequent experiments, it was found that when
the leaching solution was tested by ICP, the content of metal
ions such as Cu, Na, and Al in the solution was below the test
limit (0.1 ppm), and the accurate value could not be measured.
Therefore, the leaching and recovery of lithium metal are
mainly discussed in the following paper. Figure 1 presents the
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Table 1. ICP Test of Spent Lithium Battery Anode Materials Table 2. Depth Analysis Results of Orthogonal Experiments
(Error Limits: ±5%)
effect factor temperature S/L time acid
metal element content (g kg−1) K1 0.699 0.705 0.733 0.703
Li 35.6330 K2 0.709 0.791 0.738 0.772
Cu 5.2134 K3 0.726 0.783 0.737 0.782
Na 1.3221 K4 0.855 0.710 0.783 0.741
Al 0.2400 extreme deviation 0.156 0.086 0.050 0.079
Co 0.2156 priority order temperature > S/L > citric acid
Mn 0.2113 concentration > time
optimum theoretical condition temperature 90 °C, S/L 50 g mL−1,
time 50 min, CAC 0.2 mol L−1

schematic diagram of the relationship between the leaching

rate and four influencing factors.
After that, the range of experimental results of each factor is
calculated to determine the impact of each factor in Table 2.
The greater the value of extreme deviation, the more obvious
the influence effect is. From the table, we can draw the
conclusion that temperature has the most obvious influence on
the experimental results, the second is the S/L ratio, the third
is CAC, and time has the least effect among all the factors.36−38
According to the preliminary results of the orthogonal
experiment, the optimal theoretical conditions can be
determined as a temperature of 90 °C, S/L ratio of 1:50 g
mL−1, time of 50 min, and CAC of 0.2 mol L−1.
In order to determine the more accurate, economical, and
efficient leaching conditions, it is necessary to carry out
conditional tests on the basis of orthogonal tests. According to
the initial optimal conditions obtained from the orthogonal
experiment, the conditional experiment needs to further
expand the value range of the influencing factors and further
subdivide the gradient. Experiments should be carried out in
the order of effects; the first variable to be tested is
temperature, and the last is time. The relationship between
the leaching rate and the four influencing factors is shown in
Figure 2.
Through orthogonal test and condition test, the optimal
leaching conditions are as follows: temperature 90 °C, S/L
ratio 1:50 g mL−1, CAC 0.2 mol L−1, and time 50 min. Under
these conditions, lithium metal can be recovered in the form of
lithium citrate to the maximum extent, and the LG with the
highest purity can be obtained.
3.2. Composition and Characterization of Anode
Graphite Materials. Figure 3 shows XRD, SEM, and Raman
images of SG and LG samples. As presented in Figure 3a, the
XRD figure shows that the intensity of all diffraction peaks of
the LG increases compared with that of the spent graphite.
This result is attributed to the removal of metal ions and
residual non-conductive impurities by acid leaching, which
leads to the increase in the graphite-phase content on the
surface of the LG. On the other hand, compared with the spent
graphite, the (002) diffraction peak of the impregnation
graphite shifts to the left. This is because after acid leaching,
the LG becomes fluffy and the spacing between carbon layers
becomes larger.
As can be seen in Figure 3b, it is obvious that there are three
distinct characteristic peaks in the Raman spectra of SG and
LG samples, which are the D-band (1350 cm−1), G-band
(1580 cm−1), and 2D band (2720 cm−1) respectively. In
general, the D-band represents the defect of the graphite
crystal, while the G-band represents the in-plane stretching
vibration of carbon SP2 hybridization. ID/IG represents the
defect degree of the graphite structure. The higher the ratio is,
the more defects there are on the surface of the graphite
material. By calculation, the ratio of LG is 0.398 and scrap
graphite is 0.198. This indicates that the graphite after acid
leaching forms a loose structure and the layer spacing
increases. The surface defects increase, and more active sites
are exposed. More active sites can provide more storage space
and transport channels for lithium ions, which is beneficial to
improve the electrochemical performance of electrode
materials.39,40
The micromorphology of SG and LG samples was observed
by SEM, as shown in Figure 3c−h. Figure 3c−e shows the
overall, cross-sectional, and local images of SG, where the
agglomeration phenomenon and a large number of light-
colored non-conductive impurities can be observed with the
electron microscope. Figure 3f−h shows the overall, cross-
sectional, and local images of LG respectively. It can be
observed that there is almost no non-conductive part in the
material, indicating that all impurities have been removed after

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the relationship between the leaching rate and four influencing factors in the orthogonal experiment.

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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the relationship between the leaching rate and four influencing factors in the condition experiment.

Figure 3. (a) XRD image of LG and SG. (b) Raman spectra image of LG and SG. (c−e) Overall, cross-sectional, and local SEM images of SG and
(f−h) LG.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of pretreatment and acid leaching process of spent graphite anode materials.

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Figure 5. Electrochemical performances of SG and LG samples: (a) cycling performances at 0.1 C (RT) and (b) 0.5 C (30 °C), (c) rate
performances at different currents, and (d) charge−discharge curves of the first cycle at different rates.
acid leaching. On the other hand, the agglomeration degree of
the LG sample is significantly reduced, and the particle surface
is smoother.
3.3. Regeneration Mechanism of Spent Graphite. The
mechanism diagram of the pretreatment and regeneration
process of spent graphite anode materials are shown in Figure
4. The untreated spent graphite anode material was pretreated
and calcined in two steps to obtain directly recyclable copper
foil and SG containing a small number of impurities. Then, the
SG was leached with citric acid. Citric acid (C6H8O7) is a
tricarboxylic acid compound with three H+ ionizations. It is a
kind of green organic acid that widely exists in nature, and it is
highly acidic. This is the reason why it was chosen as the
leaching acid in this experiment. In fact, some forms of lithium
in anode active materials are water-soluble, such as RoCo2Li,
CH3OLI, and Li2O,while others are embedded in the anode’s
active material and are almost insoluble in water, such as
ROCO2Li and LiF, which will decompose in citric acid
solution.41−43
3.4. Electrochemical Properties of Anode Graphite
Materials. The cycle performances of LG and SG at 0.1 C
(room temperature) and 0.5 C (30 °C) are shown in Figure
5a−b. Under room temperature, the reversible discharge
capacity of SG is 332.8 mA h g−1 in the first cycle at 0.1 C and
stabilized at about 300 mA h g−1 after 40 cycles; LG achieves
468.3 mA h g−1 in the first cycle and is stabilized at about 320
mA h g−1 after 40 cycles. Under a constant temperature of 30
°C, the reversible discharge capacity of SG stabilized at about
300 mA h g−1 after 80 cycles at 0.5 C (initially activated by
three cycles at 0.1 C); LG stabilized at about 330 mA h g−1
after 80 cycles. The LG obtained by acid leaching obviously
has higher discharge capacity and cycle stability under the
same conditions.
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It is worth noting that the first cycle coulombic efficiency of
LG is lower than that of SG, and the discharge specific capacity
of the first cycle (468.3 mA h g−1) is higher than that of SG
(332.8 mA h g−1). It is reasonably speculated that the leaching
graphite material consumes more electrolyte and lithium ions
in the process of charge and discharge in the first cycle to form
a good SEI film, which may be one of the reasons why the
cycling performance of LG is much better than that of SG in
subsequent cycles.44 In addition, the reason for the difference
in the recycling performance of the two materials may be that
the residual electrolyte and residual binder in the SG make the
stability and conductivity of the materials deteriorate during
the recycling process. However, the LG after acid leaching
removes most of the impurities with poor electrical
conductivity and provides more channels for the deintercala-
tion of lithium ions.
The rate performance of the sample was investigated by
discharging at different currents (0.1−2 C), as presented in
Figure 5c. The discharge capacities of LG are 351.2, 332,
301.2, 260.4, and 174.2 mA h g−1 at 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 2 C,
respectively. After cycling at 2 C, the discharge capacity
recovers to the initial value, 353.8 mA h g−1, which proves that
reversible capacity attenuation has occurred in the battery.
Overall, whether in a high-current cycle or a low-current cycle,
LG has a higher specific capacity than SG.
Figure 5d reveals the charge−discharge curves of the first
cycle at different rates. It can be seen from the 0.1 C discharge
curve of the SG anode that its initial voltage is 0.8 V. The
initial voltage of the LG anode is 2.0 V. The reason for this
situation can be speculated that there is a certain amount of
lithium ions in the spent graphite anode material without acid
leaching to remove impurity, which leads to a low initial
potential. The LG contains almost no lithium ions, so the
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ACS Applied Energy Materials
Figure 6. Nyquist plots in the frequency range of 100 kHz to 0.01 Hz (a) before the charge and discharge cycle and (b) after three cycles of
charging and discharging cycles. The CV curve for the first three cycles of (c) LG and (d) SG.
voltage is higher. The plateaus of the charge/discharge curves
occur at around 0.1 V, and they are more stable at lower
current cycle.
Figure 6a−b shows CV curves of SG and LG. In the CV
curve of first cycles, there is an irreversible reduction peak near
0.65 V for both kinds of graphite, which is mainly attributed to
the irreversible process caused by the reaction of the
electrolyte on the material surface to form a SEI film.45 After
the first charge−discharge process, the CV curves in the
second and third cycles have a higher coincidence degree,
indicating that the electrochemical behavior of the sample
tends to be stable. On the whole, the coincidence rate of the
LG cubic cycle curve is higher, which indicates that the battery
has small polarization, good reversibility, and better electro-
chemical performance. On the other hand, it is also obvious
that the CV curves of LG are smoother, indicating that it
contains fewer impurities and side reactions.
Figure 6c−d shows the AC impedance profiles of SG and
LG before and after three cycles of activation. The semicircle
part and the oblique part of the curve in the EIS figure
represent the charge and mass transfer impedance Rct and the
diffusion impedance ZW, respectively.46 It can be clearly
observed from the impedance diagram that the Rct of LG is
much smaller than that of SG before and after activation. The
reason for this is that after calcination and acid leaching, most
of the impurities, mainly including the binder, electrolyte, and
metal ions, are removed, thus reducing the overall impedance
of the material. On the other hand, it can be seen that after
three cycles of activation, the Rct of the two kinds of graphite is
significantly reduced. It is reasonable to speculate that after
activation, both kinds of graphite form a good SEI film and
reduce electrode polarization. In the slope part of the figure,
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the difference between the two materials is not large, indicating
that the ZW of each sample is similar because the same
electrolyte is used in the battery assembly and the test
environment is the same. In general, the LG has lower
resistance as the anode material for LIBs and higher electron
and lithium-ion transfer rates.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Adopting the green and simple thermal treatment and acid
leaching, high-purity and excellent-performance regenerated
graphite was obtained as new anode materials, and a high
recovery rate of lithium ions was achieved from spent LIBs.
The results of the orthogonal experiment and conditional
experiment showed that the leaching rate of lithium ions was
over 97% under the optimal conditions, namely, a temperature
of 90 °C, S/L ratio of 1:50 g mL−1, CAC of 0.2 mol L−1, and
time of 50 min. The electrochemical performance experiments
show that regenerated LG has a good electrochemical
performance compared with SG, which indicates that through
calcination and acid leaching, the specific capacity and stability
of graphite as anode materials can be improved without
changing the graphite structure. This provides a theoretical
basis and data support for the idea that LG can be used as
anodes of batteries again. It is beneficial to realize the goal of
the green full closed-loop cycle of the battery..
■
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Li Li − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science and
Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China;
https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.1c01029
ACS Appl. Energy Mater. 2021, 4, 6261−6268
ACS Applied Energy Materials
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Battery Safety, Guangzhou
Institute of Energy Testing, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511447,
China; Institute of Advanced Technology, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Jinan 250300, China; Collaborative Innovation
Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China;
orcid.org/0000-0001-8859-076X; Email: lily863@
bit.edu.cn
Authors
Jingbo Yang − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental
Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China
Ersha Fan − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science
and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China;
Institute of Advanced Technology, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Jinan 250300, China
Jiao Lin − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science
and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Faiza Arshad − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental
Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China; orcid.org/0000-0002-3662-5702
Xiaodong Zhang − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental
Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China
Hanyong Wang − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental
Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China
Feng Wu − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Science
and Engineering, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China;
Guangdong Key Laboratory of Battery Safety, Guangzhou
Institute of Energy Testing, Guangzhou, Guangdong 511447,
China; Institute of Advanced Technology, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Jinan 250300, China; Collaborative Innovation
Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China
Renjie Chen − Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental
Science and Engineering, School of Materials Science and
Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,
China; Institute of Advanced Technology, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Jinan 250300, China; Collaborative Innovation
Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Beijing 100081, China;
orcid.org/0000-0002-7001-2926
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsaem.1c01029
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51972030), the S&T Major Project of
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in China (2020ZD0018),
Beijing Outstanding Young Scientists Program
(BJJWZYJH01201910007023), and the Guangdong Key
Laboratory of Battery Safety (2019B121203008).
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■
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