Erosion and

Sedimentation

Definitions
Erosion The process by which soil particles become detached by
water, wind, or gravity and are transported from their
original location

Erosion types:
ü Splash erosion
ü Sheet erosion
ü Rill erosion
ü Channel erosion

Scour The erosive effects of the energy of the water destroying

the soil surfaces of the channel as it is diverted around
obstacles.

Aggradation Gradual rise of the channel bottom

Sedimentation Increase and advancement of the deposited sediment load

1
 Splash Erosion

The force of a falling water drop can loosen and puck-up soil
particles, starting the erosion process.

Sheet Erosion
Definition: Relatively even erosion of a layer of soil without channel
formation, generally takes place on sloping land.

2
 Rill Erosion
Definition: Occurs when accumulated runoff begins to form small
channels which concentrate the water and increases
the velocity of the runoff.

Gully Erosion
Definition: Rills become concentrated and combine to form gullies

• Several rills may form

throughout a slope and
eventually join to form gullies

• The rate of gully erosion can

be 100-times greater than rill
erosion

3
 Channel Erosion
Definition: Major waterways caused by erosion

Aggradation (silting)
Definition: Gradual rise in the channel bottom over the
entire extent of the channel.

4
 Scouring
Definition: Erosive deformation of the channel bottom and walls

Design of Natural Channels

(Channel Stability)

5
 Open Flow Channel Design
• Channel design is always a function of the flow rate (Q) required
• Natural material channels may need protection from erosion
• Channel protection design methods:
ü Permissible Velocity Method
ü Regime Theory Method

Protected Channels Natural Channels

Design of Natural Channels

(Permissible Velocity Method)

6
 Open Flow Channel Design

Permissible-Velocity Method
• Design limits the maximum velocity permitted in the channel to protect
bottom and sides from erosion

• Based on the “unit tractive force” that the flow is anticipated to generate

• Typically uses Manning equation to calculate the hydraulic radius (R), given
the limiting velocities (V) and channel roughness (n)

%.$
𝑉𝑛
𝑅! =
1.49𝑆 ".$
Where:
Rh = hydraulic radius
V = velocity at required flow (Q)
S = Channel slope
n = Manning roughness Coefficient

Open Flow Channel Design

Permissible-Velocity Method

7
 Sediment Transport

1000

Erosion
100
Velocity (cm/sec)

10
Transportation

Deposition
1

0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100

Particle Diameter (mm)

Open Flow Channel Design

Permissible-Velocity Method – Design Example

Problem: Design a 3:1 (width : depth) rectangular, natural channel to carry a maximum flow of 50
ft3/sec on a 1% slope, assuming stiff very colloidal clay and clear water.

Solution:
(a) Select a limiting velocity & Manning roughness (V = 3.75 ft/sec & n = 0.025)
"# $.) *.+)×-.-.) $.)
(b) Calculate Hydraulic Radius 𝑅! = = = 0.50𝑓𝑡
$.&'( !.# $.&'×-.-$!.#

depth (d)

width (w)

8
 Open Flow Channel Design

Permissible-Velocity Method – Design Example

Problem: Design a 3:1 (width : depth) rectangular, natural channel to carry a maximum flow of 50
ft3/sec on a 1% slope, assuming stiff very colloidal clay and clear water.

Solution:
(a) Select a limiting velocity & Manning roughness (V = 3.75 ft/sec & n = 0.025)
"# $.) *.+)×-.-.) $.)
(b) Calculate Hydraulic Radius 𝑅! = = = 0.50𝑓𝑡
$.&'( !.# $.&'×-.-$!.#
/ )-
(c) Calculate the channel cross-sectional area 𝐴 = = = 13.33𝑓𝑡 .
" *.+)
0 $*.**
(d) Calculate wetted perimeter 𝑃 = = = 26.72𝑓𝑡
1$ -.)-
(e) Size a 3:1 rectangular channel:

Since: 𝑃 = 2𝑑 + 𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 = 3𝑑
𝑃 = 5𝑑

Then: d = 2⁄) = .3.+.⁄) = 5.34𝑓𝑡

w = 3𝑑 → 3×5.34𝑓𝑡 = 16.03𝑓𝑡
depth (d)
(f) Construction dimensions (freeboard & constructability)
Width (w’) = 16.0-ft
Depth (d’) = 6.5-ft
width (w)

Design of Natural Channels

(Regime Method)

9
 Open Flow Channel Design

Regime Theory Method

• Based on empirically observed channels that erode at the same rate they
are rebuilt by deposition from silty water

• Once channels were in balance they are said to be “in-regime”

Open Flow Channel Design

Regime Theory Method

Given the flow rate (Q) and geotechnical conditions of the channel, the
width, and average channel depth can be determined:

Width: w = 0.9𝐾% 𝑄".$

For (Rh ≤ 7ft)

Height: h = 1.21𝐾& 𝑄".'(
Critical Velocity: 𝑉) = 126𝐾%".&&* 𝑄".''++ 𝐾& 𝐾+ 𝑆 ".(%'$

For (Rh > 7ft)

Height: h = 2.0 + 0.93𝐾& 𝑄".'(
Critical Velocity: 𝑉) = 112 𝐾%".'* 𝐾+ 𝑆𝑄".%,$ 2 + 0.93𝐾& 𝑄".'( ".(%'$

-45.67 . 8.79 Where:

Limiting Slope: S= V = velocity (ft/sec)
/!0: 1 8.79
ν = kinematic viscosity (ft2/sec)
Q = flow rate (ft3/sec)
S = slope

10
 Open Flow Channel Design

Regime-Theory Method – Design Example

Problem: Design a rectangular, natural channel to carry a flow of 28 ft3/sec on a 1.2% slope,
assuming sandy bed & banks.
Solution:
(a) Select K1=3.5, K2=0.52, and K4=0.33 for a cannel with “sandy bed and banks”

Regime-Theory Method Coefficients

Open Flow Channel Design

Regime-Theory Method – Design Example

Problem: Design a rectangular, natural channel to carry a flow of 28 ft3/sec on a 1.2% slope,
assuming sandy bed & banks.
Solution:
(a) Select K1=3.5, K2=0.52, and K4=0.33 for a cannel with “sandy bed and banks”

(b) Calculate channel width: w = 0.9𝐾$𝑄 -.) = 0.9×3.5×28-.) = 16.67𝑓𝑡

(c) Assume R<7ft and calculate depth: ℎ = 1.21𝐾.𝑄 -.*3 = 1.21×0.52×28-.*3 = 2.09𝑓𝑡

(d) Check assumption and slope

0 $3.3+×..-'
(e) Calculate hydraulic radius: 𝑅 = = = 1.67𝑓𝑡 ß OK < 7ft
2% .×..-';$3.3+

11
 Open Flow Channel Design

Regime-Theory Method – Design Example

Problem: Design a rectangular, natural channel to carry a flow of 28 ft3/sec on a 1.2% slope,
assuming sandy bed & banks.
Solution:
(a) Select K1=3.5, K2=0.52, and K4=0.33 for a cannel with “sandy bed and banks”

(b) Calculate channel width: w = 0.9𝐾$𝑄 -.) = 0.9×3.5×28-.) = 16.67𝑓𝑡

(c) Assume R<7ft and calculate depth: ℎ = 1.21𝐾.𝑄 -.*3 = 1.21×0.52×28-.*3 = 2.09𝑓𝑡

(d) Check assumption and slope

(f) Calculate critical velocity: 𝑉< = 126𝐾$-...+𝑄 -.**&& 𝐾.𝐾&𝑆 -.3$*)

𝑉< = 126×3.5-...+×28-.**&&× 0.52×0.33×0.012 -.3$*)

𝑉= = 11.48𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
!.)*
"&'.()>!.)* $$.&B'.()× $..$×$-,#
(g) Calculate limiting slope: 𝑆 = = = 1.29%
?!@+A!.)* *...×..-'×-.**×($3.3+)!.)*

Note: Since the limiting slope > design slope, the channel dimensions will work

Universal Soil-Loss Equation

12
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
• Estimates the quantity of erosion based on parameters of the site
• Typically caused by sheet & rill erosion
• Highly empirical equation originally developed for agricultural application
Where:
E = Soil Loss (tons / acre / year)
R = Rainfall erosivity Index (100 ft-tons-in / acre-hr-yr)
K = Soil erodibility factor (tons / acre per unit R)
T = Topographic factor (unitless)
C = Crop-management Factor (unitless)
P = Conservation-practice Factor (unitless)

Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Rainfall Erosivity Index (R) (100 ft-ton-in/Ac-hr-yr)***
• Measure of the kinetic energy available from the rainfall
• Measure of 30-minute rainfall intensity for all significant storms in a year

*** This notation, “hundreds of,” means that the numerical value for the factor is 0.01 times its true value. That is, if R = 125, its true
value is 12,500 (ft-ton-in)/(acre-hr-yr). The converse is true for “hundreds of” in the denominator of a fraction.

13
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP

Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Soil Erodability Factor (K) (tons/Ac per unit R)
• Ease which soil is detached by splash during rainfall or by sheet flow, or both.

• Fine-textured soils Clay has low K values (about 0.05 to 0.15), particles are
resistant to detachment.

• Coarse-textured soils Sandy soils have low K values (about 0.05 to 0.2), have high
infiltration resulting in low runoff even though these particles
are easily detached.

• Medium-textured soils Silt loam have moderate K values (about 0.2 to 0.45) are
moderately susceptible to particle detachment, and they
produce runoff at moderate rates.

• Soils having a high silt content are especially susceptible to erosion and have high K values
(can exceed 0.45) and can be as large as 0.65.

14
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Soil Erodibility Factor (K) (tons/Ac per unit R)
• Scaling factor from test plots to design conditions
• Function of:
ü % silt + very fine sand
ü % sand
ü % organic matter
ü Soil-structure
ü Soil permeability

Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

15
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Soil Erodibility Factor (K) (tons/Ac per unit R)
• Alternate approach for determining K-factor
• Use NRCS Soil Survey data: Http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov

Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Topographic Factor (T) (unitless)
• Accounts for the shape of the topography length & slope that erosion travels
• Based on empirical observation & curve fitting

65.41𝑆 & 4.56𝑆 𝐿,

2
𝑇= + & + 0.065 72.5
𝑆& + 10,000 𝑆 + 10,000 ".$
Where:
L = Length of average distance from point of
overland flow to (a) point where slope
decreases, or (b) point where flow enters rill
(usually < 400ft)

S m
m =
<1% 0.2
1% - 3% 0.3
3% - 5% 0.4
>5% 0.5

16
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Topographic Factor (T) (unitless)
• Alternate approach for determining T-factor
• Use NRCS Soil Survey data: Http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov

Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Crop Management Factor (C) (unitless)
• Accounts for the crop cover holding the soil in place

Land Classes Crop Management Factor (C)

Alpine vegetation 0.036
Barren lands 0.4
Bushland 0.039
Forest 0.006
Grassland 0.04
Shrub land 0.036
Water bodies 0
Woodland 0.0060

17
 Universal Soil-Loss Equation (USLE)

E = RKTCP
Conservation Practice Factor (P) (unitless)
• Accounts for the soil conservation practices being used
• Typically taken as P = 1 for new construction sites

Channel Sediment Transport

18
 Sediment Transport

As waterway empties into

deeper water, velocity
greatly diminishes, and
sediments settle-out.

Settling creates new land

mass at mouth of
waterway to form “deltas”

Stokes Law of Settling

19
 Settling Mechanics
Water travel time (tx) = Lreach / Vx(reach)

Particle settle time (ty) = dwater / Vy(article)

Reach of the Stream (L)

FBuoy Fdrag

Fgravity

Water depth (d)

Velocity of Reach

Sediment Build-up

Profile view of stream reach

Stokes Law

Terminal Settling Velocity from Stokes Law

𝐷 0 𝛾1 − 𝛾
𝑉=
18𝜇
Where:
V = Terminal settling velocity of the particle
D = Particle diameter (ft or m)
γ = Specific weight of fluid (lb/ft3 or N/m3)
γs = Specific weight of soil particle (lb/ft3 or N/m3)
μ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid (lb-sec/ft2 or N-sec/m2)

20
 Stokes Law

Terminal Settling Velocity from Stokes Law

𝐷 0 𝛾1 − 𝛾
𝑉=
18𝜇
Where:
V = Terminal settling velocity of the particle
D = Particle diameter (ft or m)
γ = Specific weight of fluid (lb/ft3 or N/m3)
γs = Specific weight of soil particle (lb/ft3 or N/m3)
μ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid (lb-sec/ft2 or N-sec/m2)

Sediment Transport

21
 Sediment Transport

Wash Load

Wash Load Finest particles carried by flow causing water turbidity

Suspended Load
Carried in the fluid away from the bed

Suspended Load Bed Load

Movement of materials along the bed

Total Load = Wash Load + Suspended Load + Bed Load

Bed Load

Sediment Transport
Classification of Sediment

22
 Sediment Transport

103

Shear Stress – Τo (dynes/cm2)

Suspension Saltation
+ Rolling
+ Saltation
102 + Rolling

g
l lin
Ro
101

No Movement
100

10-1
10-2 10-1 100 101 102

Diameter (mm)

Sediment Transport

Quantity of sediment transport is controlled by

three variables independent of the channel:
• Discharge in the channel (Q) Erosion
Velocity (cm/sec)

• Nature of sediments entering the channel

üGrain size distribution
Transportation
üGrain shape and SG Deposition

• Quantity of sediment entering the channel

Particle Diameter (mm)

Deposition

23
 Channel Sediment Transport

Suspended Load

Sediment Transport
Suspended Load
• Sediment lifted off the bed of a channel and carried up into the body of flow

• Gravity pulls the sediment downward, while eddy currents push it upward

• Concentration decreases proportional to the distance up from the bed

24
 Sediment Transport
Suspended Load Distribution
Steady-state distribution of concentration of suspended estimated as:

Suspended Load
4
𝐶 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎
= ×
𝐶3 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎

Where
𝑤 𝑤
𝑧= =
𝑘 𝜏5⁄𝜌1 𝑘𝑢

Sediment Transport
Suspended Load Distribution
C = sediment concentration at distance-y up from the bed

Ca = known concentration at some reference level, i.e. height-a

above the bed

4
D = depth of water in the channel
𝐶 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎
= ×
𝐶3 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎 w = settling or fall velocity of sediment grains in the channel

Where k = Von-Karman’s universal constant = 0.4

𝑤 𝑤
𝑧= = u = shear velocity = 𝜏E ⁄𝜌 = 𝛾A 𝑅′ (⁄F = 𝑔𝑅 G 𝑆
𝑘 𝜏5⁄𝜌1 𝑘𝑢
ρw = density of water

τo = bed shear stress = 𝛾A 𝑅 G 𝑆

' - '
#G H -( I. (
where: 𝑅 G = 𝑅 ; nG = ; 𝑛=
# .& .&
0
where: 𝑅 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 2 = 𝐷
/
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

25
 Sediment Transport
Example – Suspended Load
A wide channel 4-m deep consists of uniform grain of 0.5-mm. The fall velocity of grains in still water is
0.02-m/sec. Determine the concentration of load at 1.0-m above the bed if the concentration of
sediment particles at 0.3-m above the bed is 350-ppm. Assume: particle SG = 2.67, S = 1/4444, &
representative roughness of size of bed particles ks = 2.0-mm.

4 Given
𝐶 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎
= × Channel Characteristics
𝐶3 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎 Channel depth (d) 4 m
Question depth (y) 1 m
Where: Measured depth (a) 0.3 m
𝑤 𝑤
𝑧= = Slope (S) 0.00023
𝑘 𝜏5⁄𝜌1 𝑘𝑢
Particle Characteristics
Uniform grain size (d) 0.5 mm
Fall velocity in still water (w) 0.02 m/sec
Representative roughness (ks) 2 mm
VonKarmin’s Universal Constant 0.4

Sediment concentration at measured depth (Ca) 350 ppm

Sediment Transport
Example – Suspended Load
A wide channel 4-m deep consists of uniform grain of 0.5-mm. The fall velocity of grains in still water is
0.02-m/sec. Determine the concentration of load at 1.0-m above the bed if the concentration of
sediment particles at 0.3-m above the bed is 350-ppm. Assume: particle SG = 2.67, S = 1/4444, &
representative roughness of size of bed particles ks = 2.0-mm.

Solution
𝐶 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎 4 𝑚𝑔 𝑘𝑔 10'𝐿 𝑘𝑔
= × 𝐶3 = 350𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 350 = 0.35 '
𝐶3 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎 𝐿 10(𝑚𝑔 𝑚' 𝑚
6/
Therefore, per unit width: 𝐶3 = 0.35 20
Where: Calculating shear velocity (u):
𝑤 𝑤 %8 %8
𝑧= = 𝑛′ 𝑑 ( 0.5 (
𝑘 𝜏5⁄𝜌1 𝑘𝑢 = = = 0.794
𝑛 𝑘7 2
'8
𝑛′ &
'8
Ratio of: 𝑅9 = 𝐷 = 4.0 0.794 & = 2.828𝑚
𝑛
n’ = average grain size of %8
suspended load 1 &
𝑢= 𝛾1𝑅 9𝑆 = 9.81×2.828× = 0.0790𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
n = average size of bed load 4444

26
 Sediment Transport
Example – Suspended Load
A wide channel 4-m deep consists of uniform grain of 0.5-mm. The fall velocity of grains in still water is
0.02-m/sec. Determine the concentration of load at 1.0-m above the bed if the concentration of
sediment particles at 0.3-m above the bed is 350-ppm. Assume: particle SG = 2.67, S = 1/4444, &
representative roughness of size of bed particles ks = 2.0-mm.

Solution
4 1 "."&
𝐶 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎 Calculating exponent: 𝑧 = 6: = ".+×"."*<" = 0.63
= ×
𝐶3 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎
Therefore:
Where:
𝑤 𝑤 𝐷−𝑦 𝑎 4
4−1 0.3 ".('
𝑧= = 𝐶 = 𝐶3 × = 0.4 ×
𝑘 𝜏5⁄𝜌1 𝑘𝑢 𝑦 𝐷−𝑎 1 4 − 0.3

0.1431𝑘𝑔
𝐶= = 143.1𝑝𝑝𝑚
𝑚'

Channel Sediment Transport

Bed Load

27
 Sediment Transport
Bed Load
• Moves along the bottom of the channel either rolling, sliding, or jumping in small
leaps. Not vertically supported, rests on bed

• Transmits its load to static grains below and exchange places with similar particles

Sediment Transport
Meyer-Peter-Muller Bed Load Approach
Empirical equation based on shear caused by flow rate (Q)
7⁄
6J L
𝑔7 = 4700 𝜏= 6JK
− 𝜏) kg/hr-m
Where:
𝑔M = 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 rate (weight 𝑝𝑒𝑟 time 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙)

𝜏N = 𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄M ⁄𝑄 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝛾A 𝐷𝑆

𝐾𝑔
𝜏= = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑚.
= 0.047 𝛾 − 𝛾A 𝑑 = 0.047 𝐺𝛾A − 𝛾A 𝑑 = 0.047 𝐺 − 1 𝛾A 𝑑

𝛾A = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟; 𝛾 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝐺 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝑑 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

kr & kr ’ = roughness of sediment load and bed load respectively

28
 Sediment Transport
Example -- Bed Load
Referring to the previous 4-m deep channel, determine the rate of bed load movement.
Given:
Slope (S) = 1/4444
Sediment roughness (kr) = 1.32
Bed roughness (kr ’) = 2.0
Bed particle size (avg) = 1.53mm
Ned particle SG = 2.67
)⁄
61 0
𝑔7 = 4700 𝜏= 612
− 𝜏) kg/m/hr
Bed Shear :
𝜏= = 𝛾1𝐷𝑆 = (10')(4) (1⁄4444) = 0.9 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚&

Critical Tractive Force:

𝜏) = 0.047 𝐺 − 1 𝛾1𝑑 = 0.047 2.67 − 1 (10') 1.53×10?' = 0.12 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚&

Volume Sediment Transport (by weight):

𝑘@ 1.32
= = 0.62
𝑘@9 2.0
)⁄
𝑔7 = 4700 0.9 0.62 0 − 0.12 = 2,512-kg/hr per unit with

29