TABLE OF CONTENT

SNO CONTENT PAGE NUMBER

I INTRODUCTION 2

II COMPANY PROFILE 11

III PROCESS IN THE COMPANY 13

IV SWOT ANALYSIS 28

V INTERNSHIP ACTIVITY 29

VI CONCLUSION 30

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 CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION

THERMO MECHANICALLY TREATED (TMT)

Thermo mechanically treated (TMT) bars are nowadays a fundamental requirement

for construction in India and abroad. TMT bars have improved properties such as
yield strength, ductility and toughness and corrosion resistance over Torsional bars.
The multilayered microstructure having soft ferrite-pearlite core of TMT bars enables
them to bear dynamic and seismic loads.

TMT bars have high fatigue resistance to Dynamic/ Seismic loads due to its
higher ductility. This makes them most suitable for use in earthquake prone areas.
With the above properties, TMT steel is also highly economical and safe for use and
hence finds wide application in the areas of construction of roads, buildings, bridges
etc.

TMT bars are most preferred because of their flexible nature and fine welding
features. TMT bars (having low carbon content) can be used for welded joints without
reduction in strength at the weld. External ribs running across the entire length of the
TMT bar Thermo give superior bonding strength between the bar and the concrete
and fulfils Bond requirements as per IS: 456/78 and IS: 1786/85. The TMT process
gives the bar superior strength and anticorrosive properties.

Controlled water-cooling prevents the formation of coarse carbides, which has

been cited as the main cause for the corrosive nature of the common bar. Another
reason for better corrosion resistance is the absence of surface stresses caused by the
cold twisting process. Due to very high elongation values and consistent properties
through out the length of the bar, TMT bars have excellent workability and
bendability.

TMT bars provide better safety of structures because of higher Strength

combined with higher ductility and Bendability. Unlike cold twisted deformed (CTD)
Reinforcement bars, TMT bars have high thermal stability. They are the preferred

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choice in the application areas such as construction of Chimney fires as they sustain
elevated temperatures of 1200-1000 degree Celsius.

COLD TWISTED DEFORMED (CTD)

CTD (Cold twisted deformed) Bars: During the making, the bars are kept in
natural cooling and being twisted at room temperature. Due to this process, the grains
inside the bar turns into crystal, that provides the required strength. These kind of bars
also have few disadvantages. The twisting process has adverse effect on the steel
ductility. Also it breaks the protective blue oxide leaving the CTD bar open to rods
are called as Cold Twisted Deformed.

The method of twisting the rods generaly increases the tensile strength of rods.
After steel rods gets cooled twisting is done. Here at this time the topmost and near
topmost fibres are getting ruptured while it is twisted, which ends in the formation of
micro cracks over the surface of the finished steel rods. If these cracks are carefully
seen in microscope the width of cracks is more at the topmost fibre and gradually
reduces when it goes deeper into the section. These cracks gets water or water
molecules which are harmful to steel or it may be the major cause for RUST. Hence
the use of CTD rods are not advisable.

INTRODUCTION TO ORGANISATION

Rosvar Steels P Ltd.., is a manufacturer of Cold twisted Steel bars(CTD) and

Thermo Mechanically Treated steel bars established in commercial operation in 1996
in a small village of Kuppipalayam near Annur in Coimbatore district.

Mr Ravichandran at Technocraft- agriculture is the founder of the unit with the

vision to manufacture and supplt steel products of consistent quality to meet the ever
increasing demand of the constructive Industries. He has visualised that the demand
for conventional CTD bars would be shifted to a more reliable, strong and durable
Thermo – Mechanically – Treated (TMT) bars by the construction engineers, builders,
building promoters and the even by the government undertakings /departments.

This vision has promoted him to promote the TMT Steel bar along with the
CTD bars in the market with the full-fledged manufacturing and testing facility, well

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experienced and trained personnel in the organisation, dedicated involvement from
the chairman to the last work and persistent brand promotion activities has yielded the
desired results. The TMT bars with the brand name ROSUN-TMT is presently a well-
known and well-organized and appreciated product by the construction community.

ROSVAR has been supported by its sister concerns namely Sri Varahi
Amman steels P LTD., in Coimbatore in manufacturing INGOTS of desired quality
suitable for TMT bars. ROSVAR has a full-fledged re- rolling units of its own which
is making the CTD bars and has a most advanced plant and re-rolling TMT bars.

The consistency in quality confirmation to IS 1786 has been certified by

Bureau of Indian standard and incidentally ROSUN-TMT is the first and the only ISI
certified product manufactured by a secondary steel manufacture in South India.

The organisation has accepted that the need and expectations are fullfilled to
their fullest satisfaction and continually enhancement the same. To ensure achieving
this ROSVAR has implemented the Quality Management system based on ISO 9001
2000 Standard at the functions and level.

The report on the global TMT steel bar market covers segments such as
diameter type, grade type and application. On the basis of the diameter type, the sub-
market include 6-8 mm, 8-12 mm and 12 mm and above. On the basis of grade type
the sub-markets include fe-415, fe-500 and fe-550 and other grade types. On the basis
of applications, the sub-market includes residentials, infrastructure and commercial.

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 One of the primary forces behind industrialization has been the use of metals.
Steel has traditionally occupied a top spot among metals. Steel production and
consumption are frequently seen as measures of a country's economic development
because it is both a raw material and an intermediary product. Therefore, it would not
be an exaggeration to argue that the steel sector has always been at the forefront of
industrial progress and that it is the foundation of any economy. The Indian steel
industry is classified into three categories - major producers, main producers and

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secondary producers. As of April 2022, India was the world's second-largest producer
of crude steel, with an output of 10.14 MT. In FY22, the production of crude steel and
finished steel stood at 133.596 MT and 120.01 MT, respectively. The growth in the
Indian steel sector has been driven by the domestic availability of raw materials such
as iron ore and cost-effective labour. Consequently, the steel sector has been a major
contributor to India's manufacturing output. The Indian steel industry is modern, with
state-of-the-art steel mills. It has always strived for continuous modernisation of older
plants and up-gradation to higher energy efficiency levels.

MARKET SIZE:

In the past 10–12 years, India's steel sector has expanded significantly.
Production has increased by 75% since 2008, while domestic steel demand has
increased by almost 80%. The capacity for producing steel has grown concurrently,
and the rise has been largely organic. In FY22, the production of crude steel and
finished steel stood at 133.596 MT and 120.01 MT, respectively. The consumption of
finished steel stood at 105.751 MT in FY22. In April 2022, India's finished steel
consumption stood at 9.072 MT. In April-July 2022, the production of crude steel and
finished steel stood at 40.95 MT and 38.55 MT respectively. In FY22, exports and
imports of finished steel stood at 13.49 MT and 4.67 MT, respectively. In FY22,
India's export rose by 25.1% YoY, compared with 2021. In FY21, India exported 9.49
MT of finished steel. In July 2022 exports of finished steel stood at 3.80 lakh MT.
The annual production of steel is anticipated to exceed 300 million tonnes by 2030–
2031. By 2030–31, crude steel production is projected to reach 255 million tonnes at

6
85% capacity utilisation a chieving 230 million tonnes of finished steel production,
assuming a 10% yield loss or a 90% conversion ratio for the conversion of raw steel
to finished steel. With net exports of 24 million tonnes, consumption is expected to
reach 206 million tonnes by the years 2030–1931. As a result, it is anticipated that
per-person steel consumption will grow to 160 kg. The steel industry and its
associated mining and metallurgy sectors have seen major investments and
developments in the recent past. According to the data released by the Department for
Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), between April 2000-March 2022,
Indian metallurgical industries attracted FDI inflows of US$ 17.01 billion. In FY22,
demand for steel is expected to increase by 17% to 110 million tonnes, driven by
rising construction activities.

INVESTMENTS:

The steel industry has emerged as a major focus area given the dependence of
a diverse range of sectors on its output as India works to become a manufacturing
powerhouse through policy initiatives like Make in India. With the industry
accounting for about 2% of the nation's GDP, India ranks as the world's second-
largest producer of steel and is poised to overtake China as the world's second-largest
consumer of steel. Both the industry and the nation's export manufacturing capacity
have the potential to help India regain its favourable steel trade balance. The National
Steel Policy, 2017 envisage 300 million tonnes of production capacity by 2030-31.
The per capita consumption of steel has increased from 57.6 kgs to 74.1 kgs during
the last five years. The government has a fixed objective of increasing rural
consumption of steel from the current 19.6 kg/per capita to 38 kg/per capita by 2030-
31. As per Indian Steel Association (ISA), steel demand will grow by 7.2% in 2019-
20 and 2020-21. Huge scope for growth is offered by India's comparatively low per
capita steel consumption and the expected rise in consumption due to increased
infrastructure construction and the thriving automobile and railways sectors.

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES:

Some of the other recent Government initiatives in this sector are as follows:
In October 2021, the government announced guidelines for the approved specialty
steel production-linked incentive (PLI) scheme. In October 2021, India and Russia

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signed an MoU to carry out R&D in the steel sector and produce coking coal (used in
steel making). In July 2021, the Union Cabinet approved the production-linked
incentive (PLI) scheme for specialty steel. The scheme is expected to attract
investment worth ~Rs. 400 billion (US$ 5.37 billion) and expand specialty steel
capacity by 25 million tonnes (MT), to 42 MT in FY27, from 18 MT in FY21. In June
2021, Minister of Steel & Petroleum & Natural Gas, Mr. Dharmendra Pradhan
addressed the webinar on 'Making Eastern India a manufacturing hub with respect to
metallurgical industries', organised by the Indian Institute of Metals. In 2020, 'Mission
Purvodaya' was launched to accelerate the development of the eastern states of India
(Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal and the northern part of Andhra
Pradesh) through the establishment of an integrated steel hub in Kolkata, West
Bengal. Eastern India has the potential to add >75% of the country's incremental steel
capacity. It is expected that of the 300 MT capacity by 2030-31, >200 MT can come
from this region alone. In June 2021, JSW Steel, CSIR-National Chemical Lab
(NCL), Scottish Development International (SDI) and India H2 Alliance (IH2A)
joined forces to commercialise hydrogen in the steel and cement sectors.

ROAD AHEAD:

The steel industry has emerged as a major focus area given the dependence of
a diverse range of sectors on its output as India works to become a manufacturing
powerhouse through policy initiatives like Make in India. With the industry
accounting for about 2% of the nation's GDP, India ranks as the world's second-
largest producer of steel and is poised to overtake China as the world's second-largest
consumer of steel. Both the industry and the nation's export manufacturing capacity
have the potential to help India regain its favourable steel trade balance. The National
Steel Policy, 2017 envisage 300 million tonnes of production capacity by 2030-31.
The per capita consumption of steel has increased from 57.6 kgs to 74.1 kgs during
the last five years. The government has a fixed objective of increasing rural
consumption of steel from the current 19.6 kg/per capita to 38 kg/per capita by 2030-
31. As per Indian Steel Association (ISA), steel demand will grow by 7.2% in 2019-
20 and 2020-21 Huge scope for growth is offered by India's comparatively low per

8
capita steel consumption and the expected rise in consumption due to increased
infrastructure construction and the thriving automobile and railways sectors.

INTERNSHIP:

An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a

limited period. The term is now used for a wide range of placements within
businesses, non-profit organizations and government agencies
One of the key advantages of an internship is that graduates with work experience,
such as an internship, are more attractive to employers. As a graduate
with experience, you’re seen as more valuable to a business as they may need to
spend less time training you. Not long ago, I had the opportunity to talk with
a Product Manager from a large technology company. On discovering I was in
working as an intern, she highlighted that as an employer herself, she looks out for
graduates with prior work experience. During an internship, you learn a lot about your
skills, and your strengths and weaknesses. This can come in the form of valuable
input from supervisors or from colleagues. It’s a once-in-a-lifetime experience that
you may not have as a working adult.  In my time working with this organisation, I
had the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills that I had
previously developed through my studies. I was able to integrate these skills into my
everyday work, giving me a deeper understanding and appreciation of them. For
example, while working with the Advertising Campaigns team, I was tasked
with doing some market research. To do this, I used Microsoft Excel to organise my
findings and detail my process.

OBJECTIVES OF THE TRAINING:

 Explore career alternatives prior to graduation.

 Integrate theory and practice.
 Assess interests and abilities in their field of study.
 Learn to appreciate work and its function in the economy.
 Develop work habits and attitudes necessary for job success.

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 Develop communication, interpersonal and other critical skills in the job
interview process.
 Build a record of work experience.
 Acquire employment contacts leading directly to a full-time job following
graduation from college.
 Identify, write down, and carry out performance objectives (mutually agreed
upon by the employer, the MCC experiential learning supervisor, and the
student) related to their job assignment.

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 CHAPTER - II

COMPANY PROFILE

CIN U27109TZ1995PLC006283

Company Name ROSVAR STEELS PRIVATE LIMITED

Company Status Active

RoC RoC - Coimbatore

Registration Number 6283

Company Sub Category Non-govt company

Class of Company Public

Date of Incorporation 29 June 1995

Age of Company 27 years,

Activity Manufacture of Basic Iron & Steel.

Office address: 66/3B, KUPPEPALAYAM POST, NEAR GANESAPURAM, S S

KULAM VIA, COIMBATORE, TAMIL NADU - 641107

Managing Director R RAVICHANDRAN - 00282132

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ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTIRE

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 CHAPTER - III

PROCESS & DEPARTMENTS IN THE COMPANY

PROCESS OF THE COMPANY:

Steel is one of the most preferred materials for construction, manufacturing of tools, cars and for
various other applications It is an alloy of iron and some other element such as chromium. Steel has been
manufactured since ages, but the large scale commercialization of the process began only in the 19th
century. The 1850s and 1860s saw the advent of different revolutionary techniques, turned the steel-
making process into a mainstream industry. The ensuing technological advancements in the injection
technology as well as in the process control has made mass production of steel easier, and an integral
part of the global economy.

MANUFACTURING:

Ancient steel manufacturing process was carried out in bloomeries and crucibles The Industrial
Revolution brought about the development of large scale methods of producing steel Steel making
involves removal of impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and carbon from the
sourced iron, as well as alloying other elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium etc., to produce
different grades of steel. Modern steel industries use recycled materials as well as traditional raw
materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone Almost all the steel manufactured today uses 2 processes-
basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) and electric arc furnaces (EAF).

Iron-making:

This is the first step in the manufacturing of pure steel in this step, the raw materials like iron ore,
coal and lime are melted in a blast furnace. This results in the formation of molten iron, also known as
hot metal, which still contains 4-45% of carbon and other impurities which makes it brittle These have to
be subsequently removed.

Primary Steel Making:

The remaining impurities are removed by either 605 or EAF methods. In the BOS method,
recycled or scrapped steel is added to the molten iron in a convertor Oxygen is blown through the metal
at high temperatures and this reduces the carbon content to about 0-15%. In the EAF method scrop steel
is fed through high-power electric orcs to melt the metal and convert it into high quality steel. The steel
that is obtained at the end of this step, by either of the methods, is called raw steel

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Secondary Steel Making:

This step involves treating the raw steel in different ways to get different grades of steel. This
may include addition or removal of certain elements and/or altering the temperature and the production
environment. The final grade of steel that is desired determines the further techniques that need to be
applied. These may include-

 Stirring
 Altering the temperature
 Ladle injection
 Removal of gasses
 CAS-OB.

Continuous Casting:

In this step, the molten steel is cast into cooled moulds, cousing the steel to harden. Using guided
rollers, the steel is drawn out of the moulds while it is still hot and then allowed to cool and fully solidify
Next, it is cut to the desired lengths, depending on the applications-beams, slabs, billets, etc.

Primary Forging

In primary forming the cut steel is formed into different shapes generally by hot rolling which
eliminates the casting defects and gives a desirable shape and surface quality Seamless tubing, long
products. flat products and various other speciality products can be obtained by this process.

Secondary Forming:

The final step is the secondary forming process, which gives the steel its finished shape and
properties Various techniques can be applied at this stage, which involve:

 Heat treatment (tempering)

 Joining (welding)
 Shaping (cold rolling)
 Coating (galvanising)
 Machining (drilling).
 Surface treatment (carburising)

Steel is primarily produced using one of two methods: Blast Furnace or Electric Arc Furnace.

The blast furnace is the first step in producing steel from iron oxides. The first blast furnaces
appeared in the 14th century and produced one ton per day. Even though equipment is improved and
14
higher production rates can be achieved, the processes inside the blast furnace remain the same. The
blast furnace uses coke, iron ore and limestone to produce pig iron. Coal traditionally has been a key part
of the coke-making process. The coal is crushed and ground into a powder and then charged into an oven
where it is heated to approximately 1800°F in the absence of oxygen. As the oven is heated, the coal
begins to melt so most of the volatile matter such as oil, tar, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur are removed.
The cooked coal, called coke, is removed from the oven after 18 to 24 hours of reaction time. The coke
is cooled and screened into pieces ranging from one inch to four inches. The coke is a porous, hard black
rock of concentrated carbon (contains 90 to 93 percent carbon), which has some ash and sulfur but
compared to raw coal is very strong. The strong pieces of coke with a high energy value provide
permeability, heat and gases which are required to reduce and melt the iron ore, pellets and sinter.
Today, natural gas is increasingly being added in place of coke to the same degree in the blast furnace to
reduce carbon emissions. The first electric arc furnaces (EAFs) appeared in the late 19th Century. The
use of EAFs has expanded and now accounts for over 70 percent of steel production in the United States.
The EAF is different from the blast furnace as it produces steel by using an electrical current to melt
scrap steel, direct reduced iron, and/or pig iron, to produce molten steel.

Steel manufacturing Principle of the Bessemer Process :

The main raw materials for Steel production in a blast furnace are Iron ore, limestone, coke, and
some scrap steel. These materials are charged into the blast furnace from the top and converts into
molten pig iron. Next, a current of air is blown through the molten pig iron containing carbon, silicon,
and manganese. These elements and some iron are oxidized. The carbon forms gas and escapes, But the
oxidized silicon, manganese, and iron form a mixed ferrous-manganese silicate slag. This process is
known as the Acid Bessemer Process.The above oxidation process, especially the oxidation of silicon,
produces a large amount of heat. This heat maintains the temperature and fluidity of the molten pig iron.
If the content of silicon in the pig iron is very high, the heat evolved may be excessive, and cold steel
scraps are added to the converter to lower the temperature. Once the oxidation is completed, the
produced mild steel contains a considerable amount of oxygen and maybe hydrogen which is rectified by
spiegeleisen or ferromanganese additions. This is usually done when the metal is poured from the
converter into the casting ladle. All the reactions taking place in the converter are reflected in the flame
which issues from the mouth of the converter. During the early part of the blow, when the manganese
and silicon are being oxidized, the flame is short and of low luminosity, gradually increasing in length
and luminosity as the blow proceeds and the carbon is eliminated. But the flame drops when
decarburization is completed, and blowing is discontinued. Any prolongation of blowing after the drop
of the flame results in oxidation of iron and this is indicated by the number of brown fumes in the flame.

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 In the Basic Bessemer Process, the blowing is prolonged after the flame drops, and this period is
known as the after-blow. The phosphorus is removed during the after-blow. The pig iron used in the
basic process contains a low silicon and manganese content but is high in phosphorus. It is the oxidation
of phosphorus that produces the necessary heat.

The removal of phosphorus necessitates a basic lined converter and a basic slag which is formed from
lime added to the converter just before the molten pig iron is poured into it.

The procedure adopted in either the acid or basic process is similar. The molten pig iron is poured into
the converter, which is in a horizontal position turned down so that the metal is away from the tuyeres.
These tuyeres are fixed in the bottom of the converter and they supply the current of air. The blast is then
put on, and the converter is rotated into a vertical position. Immediately the flame drops, the vessel is
turned down again and the blown metal is poured into a casting ladle. At this stage, the finishing
additions are usually made.

Hence, the process, whether acid or basic, consists of the following three stages:

1. A hot metal supply

2. A suitable vessel for blowing the air through the molten pig iron.
3. A casting ladle and ingot mold with auxiliary plant, for teeming the steel into ingot form.

Steel Making Principle by the Open Hearth Proces s:

In the open-hearth process of steel production the slag is the refining medium and serves two purposes:

 It is the oxidizing medium to remove the impurities.

 It works as a receptacle to retain the oxidation products in a stable form.

The raw materials for the acid process are of a siliceous nature, but low in sulfur and phosphorus. The
maintenance of an acid slag prevents the elimination of these elements. The pig iron and scrap are
charged, and when melted the slag is rendered fluid and oxidizing by iron-ore additions. The carbon,
silicon, and manganese present in the charge are oxidized by these ore additions. The carbon escapes as
carbon monoxide gas, while the silica and manganese oxide passes into the slag, which is virtually a
ferrous - manganous silicate.

In the basic process, a wider range of raw materials may be employed. The addition of Limestone forms
a basic slag that affects the removal of sulfur and phosphorus. As far as possible, Siliceous materials
should be avoided because an excessive lime is required to neutralize the silica formed, and if the slag
16
becomes too siliceous the removal of sulfur and phosphorus is hindered and the basic lining of the
furnace is attacked. In many cases, cold or solid pig iron is charged into the furnace and the process is
referred to as “the cold pig and scrap” process. At composite works, where blast-furnace metal is
available, molten pig iron is employed. This is referred to as the “hot metal” process. Whether the
process is acid or basic, and whether hot or cold pig iron is used, the same type of furnace is employed.

TMT bars are manufactured from steel ingots after reheating in the reheating furnace or directly
from the billets received from the billet caster. Reheated ingots or stock billets are subjected to hot
rolling by passing through series of rolls of different cross sections with definite speed and roll
pressure to form TMT bars. The finishing roll stand provides the necessary ribs on the TMT bars.
Figure no.1 indicates the processing route for the TMT bars. To provide unique set of properties
microstructure is developed by controlled heating and cooling. Figure no.2 indicates the cooling
curve for the TMT and naturally cooled bars [3]. Rolled bars are passed through a quenching system
which turns the outer austenite layer into martensite while the core remains austenitic. During
further processing the bar leaves the quench box with a temperature gradient through its cross
section. As the bar cools, heat flows from the bar's centre to its outer surface so as to obtain an
tempered outer layer of martensite with an intermediate ring of martensite and bainite.

Finally, the bars pass over the cooling bed for slow cooling, Quenching automatically tempers the
austenitic core to ferrite and pearlite on cooling which provides improved properties such as yield
strength, ductility and toughness to TMT bars. These bars are then cut into required size of about 12
meters for ease of transportation. Cut bars of high yield strength are then subjected to bending for ease
of transportation. The efforts are made so as to have uniform and safe bending during this operation.

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Steel Production by Electric Arc Furnace

In the production of steel, the direct arc resistance electric furnace is employed. In this type of
electric arc furnace, the heat is generated by the arcs formed between the electrodes and the charge. The
resistance is provided by the charge to the passage of the current. There are two methods of operating the
electric arc furnace:

 The basic process.

 The acid process.

The basic process is carried out in a basic lined furnace. The production of high-grade tool steel,
alloy, and special steels in ingot form is ideal in the basic process. The basic process is also used for the
production of steel castings. On the contrary, the acid process operating with a silica-lined hearth is used
chiefly for the production of steel castings.

Basic Process:

In the basic electric arc steel making process a wide range of steel scrap is employed. The normal
steel manufacturing procedure is to melt the scrap, which is recarburised with coke, anthracite, or broken
electrodes, to give sufficient carbon at the “melt out” to assure a good carbon boil. As a rule, no pig iron
is employed.

Acid Process:

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 Acid-lined electric arc furnaces for steel making have a very limited application and are chiefly
employed in steel foundries. Acid furnaces require selected scrap and raw materials low in sulfur and
phosphorus. In many foundries, the acid furnaces are used for the remelting of the scrap arising in the
foundry, whilst basic-lined furnaces are used for converting the miscellaneous brought scrap into low
sulfur and phosphorus steel.

ACTIVITY VS. COMPOSITION RELATIONSHIPS:

Activity is an abstract thermodynamic parameter, and is of no practical significance. What is

important is to know the compositions of various phases—metal, slag, gas, etc. which would co-exist at
chemical equilibrium. This requires knowledge of activity as a function of composition in various phases
of importance in iron making and steel making at high temperatures. Roughly speaking, activity is a
measure of ‘free concentration’. In ideal gases, molecules are free, and hence activity of a species i (i.e.
ai ) = pi , as already noted in the earlier section.

Pyro-metallurgical processing is quite fast and gets completed in a reasonably short period of
time (of the order of hours/minutes). Solid reactants and reagents in these processes are compounds
(either pure or mixture). Solid products are also either almost pure metals or compounds, since with
solid-state diffusion being very slow, there is almost no opportunity for solid solution formation. Hence,
all participating solids are assumed to be pure and by convention, are at their respective standard states,
and hence, their activities are to be taken as 1. Therefore, the main concern is with activity-versus-
composition relations in liquid slags and liquid alloys. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, molten slags
are solutions of oxides. Liquid alloys are metallic solutions.

Activities in Molten Slag Solutions:

Molten slags are, by definition, concentrated solutions since the minimum concentration of any
component oxide is more than a few weight percent. Hence, their activity–composition relations are
handled on the basis of the equations proposed earlier. Mole fraction is the composition scale, activity
and activity coefficient defined with Raoult’s law as the reference state, and pure components as
standard states. Activity vs. composition data in binary slag systems are, therefore, for binary iron
alloys. However, industrial slags are generally multicomponent solutions, and cannot be represented in
the same manner as in Figure 4.2. The ternary CaO–SiO2–Al2O3 constitutes the basis for blast furnace
slags, and also some slags encountered in steelmaking processes. Presents the values of activity of SiO2
in this system at 1550°C (1823 K). These are in the form of iso-activity lines for SiO2 . Similary, there
would be diagrams presenting iso-activity lines for CaO and Al2O3 . For other temperatures, separate
diagrams are required. In Figure 4.3, the liquid field (i.e. molten slag field) is bounded by liquidus lines.

19
In this diagram, Al2O3 has been written as AlO1.5 because the molecular masses of CaO, SiO2 and
AlO1.5 are close, being equal to 56, 60 and 51 respectively. Therefore, the mole fraction scale becomes
approximately the same as the weight fraction scale. Further discussions on thermodynamics of slag
solutions shall be taken up later.

Properties of Liquid Iron and Steel:

Solid pure iron occurs in two crystalline modifications, namely, body-centred cubic (BCC) denoted as a-
Fe and d-Fe, and face-centred cubic (FCC), denoted as g -Fe.The vapour pressure of iron at steelmaking
temperatures is approximately 0.01 mm Hg (10–4 to 10–5 atmosphere). Solutes dissolved in liquid iron
lower its melting point depending on the nature and concentration of the solute. Carbon and phosphorus,
for example, significantly lower the melting point of iron. Liquidus temperature (TL ) of steel.

Casting and rolling:

Blast furnace:

Before iron ore can be used, oxygen must be removed from it. Known as ‘reducing’, this can be
done either in the blast furnace, where hot air is injected into a continuous feed of coke, sinter and lime,
or by the direct reduced iron (DRI) process. The result from both is liquid iron, which is then transported
to the basic oxygen furnace. The blast furnace process also produces two important by-products: carbon
dioxide (CO2), and slag (a mixture of minerals).

DRI Furnace:

Instead of sinter, the DRI process uses pelletised iron ore. But just like sinter, it still has to have
the oxygen removed. This process is known as ‘reducing’. Instead of coke, the energy source used in the
DRI furnace is natural gas. Again, the result is liquid iron. From the DRI furnace, the iron moves to the
electric arc furnace on conveyors.

Scrap Steel:

Steel that has been previously manufactured and used, and which has then come to the end of its
life in that form, can be infinitely recycled. As such, it is another important raw material in steelmaking.
There are about 20 different grades of scrap that can make different types of new steel. Scrap is usually
melted down in an electric arc furnace (EAF), but can also be added to the mix in a basic oxygen furnace
(BOF) to control heat in that part of the steel making process.

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Electric arc furnace:

These furnaces are typically charged with scrap steel. They use high-power electric arcs to melt
the scrap. They also convert direct reduced iron into liquid steel, reaching the same quality that can be
achieved in an integrated steel plant. The electric arc furnace creates valuable slag as a by-product, just
as the blast furnace does. Just as in the basic oxygen furnace, the melt is then further treated to adjust its
chemical composition.

Basic Oxygen Furnace:

Oxygen is blown into the molten iron, reducing its carbon content from 4% to <0.5%. Scrap is
added to control the temperature. Steel is then tapped from the furnace vessel into a steel ladle ready for
casting, and slag is removed. Waste gases containing carbon monoxide are captured and used for power
generation. Depending on the required steel grade, the melt is further treated to adjust its chemical
composition. Treatment has to be individual and very precise.

CASTING AND ROLLING:

Continuous Caster:

Liquid steel is brought to the continuous caster in a ladle. In the caster, the still liquid steel passes
through a mould and then through a sequence of ‘segments’, during which its vertical path out of the
ladle and the mould gradually becomes horizontal, as it cools. It then emerges as a continuous slab of
steel, solid now but still red hot. The continuous slab is then cut to length into semi-finished products
known as blooms, billets or slabs.

Hot Rolling:

Semi-finished products are re-heated to 1,200°C. This is above steel’s recrystallisation

temperature, making it easier to form, but less suitable for precision applications like car bodies. Before
it is rolled, scale is removed and the steel is cooled. During the flat steel hot rolling process, the steel
thickness can be reduced from 22-1.25mm. The first stage of creating long products such as sections,
tubes, wires and rods consists of rolling to create rods that range in width from 5-20mm.

Cold Rolling:

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 Steel needs to go through the cold rolling process when products with more precise dimensions
and better surface characteristics are needed. There is a huge variety of such products, including steel for
car body panels, electric motor components and beverage cans. Additionally during the cold rolling
process the steel is ‘pickled’ in heated acid to remove the scale that forms during hot rolling, and treated
to give it specific structural or strength qualities.

FINISHING:

Various sizes and profiles of steel products emerge from hot and cold rolling. Processes such as
annealing, galvanising and organic coating are then applied as required.

TYPES OF STEELS:

Steel is classified by its composition: iron is fused with carbon and any number of other elements
to achieve a specific end. The four main types are:

 Carbon steel
 Stainless steel
 Alloy steel
 Total steel

Carbon Steel:

All steel contains carbon, but carbon steel is unique for a notable absence of other elements in its
makeup. Though it only contains 2% carbon or less by weight, its elemental nature makes carbon steel a
strong, durable material that is ideal for numerous uses.

Carbon steel is sometimes confused with cast iron, though it must contain less than 2% carbon. Cast iron
contains 2% to 3.5% carbon, giving it a rough texture and more brittle nature. Even though carbon steel
is composed of alloyed metals, it doesn’t have alloy classification because of the lack of other alloying
elements in its composition. This simplicity contributes to carbon steel’s popularity — it accounts for
about 90% of all steel production.

Types of Carbon Steel:

Below the 2% carbon threshold, carbon steel can be grouped into three categories: low, medium,
and high carbon. Each type retains the inherent strength of carbon, but its useful purpose will change as
the carbon content increases.
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Low carbon: This is the most common and the least expensive type. It’s easy to form due to its high
ductility — its innate ability to be stretched under strain. Wires, bolts and pipes use this type of steel.

Medium carbon: A carbon content between 0.31% and 0.60% gives this variety a higher strength and
lower ductility than lower carbon varieties. Medium carbons are found in gears and railroad tracks.

High carbon: The toughest variety is more than 0.61% carbon and is often used to produce brick nails
and sharp cutting tools like trencher blades. They do not contain more than 2% carbon.

Carbon steel’s relative adaptability and low cost make it an ideal choice for a variety of construction
projects, both large and small-scale.

Stainless steel:

This type is commonly known for its role in manufacturing medical equipment and appliances, but its
range of use is far greater than just the gas range in your kitchen. Chromium is the alloy that sets
stainless steel apart, lending the material its distinctive luster. Chromium is more than a purely cosmetic
addition, however: the element is oxidation-resistant and will increase the metal’s longevity by
preventing it from rusting. Typically, stainless steel has a chromium content of more than 10.5% and
sometimes contains up to 30% in certain applications.

Higher chromium content directly translates to a higher gloss when polished and has greater resistance to
corrosion. Stainless steel is different from chrome when chromium is electroplated onto another metal to
produce a tough, polished coating. The sheen in high-chromium stainless steel applications is less
mirror-like due to the addition of other elements.

Types Of Stainless Steel

Kitchen, medical and automotive applications are common, but stainless steel is highly valued for other
uses as well. It’s is grouped into four subcategories that each serve a different purpose.

Martensitic alloys: Toughness is a hallmark of martensitic alloys, but they’re prone to corrosion.

They’re formed by a rapid-cooling process that makes them ideal for heat treatment and are found in
medical instruments, cutlery and pliers.

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Ferritic alloys: These are less-expensive steels with low amounts of carbon and nickel. Automotive
applications are common final destinations for ferritic alloys because of their chromium-induced strength
and sheen.

Austenitic alloys: Austenitic alloys have higher chromium and nickel contents, improving their
resistance to corrosion and causing them to become non-magnetic. They’re present in commercial
kitchen appliances and are popular because they’re durable and easy to clean.

Duplex alloys: A combination of austenitic and ferritic alloys results in a duplex alloy that inherits the
properties of both while doubling strength. They’re also ductile and corrosion-resistant due to their fairly
high chromium content.

Stainless steel variants, when used in the construction industry, are prized for their corrosion resistance
and strength. They’re well-suited for a variety of building applications, as well as storage functions for
hazardous construction materials.

Alloy Steel:

The alloy type is iron fused with one of several other elements, each contributing its own unique
attributes to the final product. It’s true that all steels are alloys, but carbon and chromium are specific
alloys with names attributed to the type of metal they form.

Alloy steel as a grouping includes a diverse range of alloys with an equally diverse range of
properties. Shipping containers use a complex alloy that combines multiple elements to produce a
durable and lasting product. Silicon isn’t often thought of as a component of steel, but its magnetic
properties make it a perfect component of most large machinery. Aluminum is versatile and used
in revolutionary building materials that are both lightweight and extremely durable.

Some of the elements that combine with iron and carbon to produce alloys are also found in tool steels
cobalt, tungsten and molybdenum, for example, are ultra-hard metals that are desired for their impact
resistance and cutting abilities.

Types Of Alloy Steel:

The varied potential of alloy steel allows for intense customization for specific applications. However,
because the secondary elements involved are not always easy to come by like carbon or chromium,
certain alloys command a steep price.
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Some of the most common alloys include:

Aluminum: Lightweight, heat-resistant steel that’s ductile and easy to work with and is often used in hot
exhaust systems and power generators.

Copper: Corrosion-resistant steel that conducts heat very efficiently, making it a great choice for
electrical wiring and industrial heat exchangers.

Manganese: Impact-resistant steel that’s extremely tough. It can be found in bulletproof cabinets, anti-
drill plates and high-strength safes.

Molybdenum: Weldable, corrosion-resistant steel that performs under high pressure, making it well-
suited for underwater construction or oil and gas pipelines.

Silicon: Soft-natured steel that’s malleable and highly magnetic, and creates strong permanent magnets
that are used in electrical transformers.

Vanadium: High-impact steel that’s shock-absorbent and vibration-resistant, and often found in
automotive parts like springs and shocks.

Their downright versatility makes alloys a common occurrence in many construction projects. Copper
and aluminum alloy varieties are particularly popular for their low weight and heat working properties.

Tool Steel:

Tool steels are up-front about their business: they’re used to tool manufacturing machinery.
Tempering, the process of adding high heat, cooling quickly then heating again, creates tool steel that’s
extremely hard and heat-resistant. They’re usually used in high-impact environments and are very
abrasive.

Types of Tool Steel:

Different types of tools require different types of tool steel in production. Tool steel is used in a variety
of ways to best serve the production requirements of a particular tool. Added elements will determine
which particular applications that it’s suited for.

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Air-hardening: The high chromium content in this steel allows it to be exposed to high temperatures
without distorting.

Water-hardening: This steel is water-quenched during use; it’s the most affordable tooling type and is
used to make common tools.

Oil-hardening: This oil-quenched steel is exceptionally wear-resistant from slipping, and is used to
produce knives and shears.

High-speed: High-speed steel is highly abrasive and impact-resistant. It’s found in drill bits and power
saws.

Hot-working: The name gives it away, but this steel can withstand extreme heat and is used in forging
and casting.

Shock-resisting: Small amounts of carbon, silicon and molybdenum harden this steel and suit it for
punches and riveting tools.

These types can be further separated by the industry they’re used in, as well as their hardness and
toughness.

Different grades of steel:

Steel is notably complicated due to its many properties and applications. Two comprehensive
grading systems have been developed to accurately categorize a particular type, even within subgroups.
These systems are standardized across industries so that material integrity can be insured. The two
grading systems are:

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials):

Alphanumeric classification that denotes the steel’s overall categorization and specific attributes.

SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)

Four-digit numerical classification that highlights steel type and carbon content along with the
presence of other alloying elements.

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 You can find steel everywhere, materialized in different forms to suit various needs. It’s is an
essential component of many building materials, home appliances and even tools used to make other
tools. By combining the right elements, an exact steel match is available for almost any application.

EXPORT PROCESS

Iron Steel is traded all around the world. The data provided on the export analysis shows that
there are almost 205 countries and territories, which actively import Iron Steel from India. The combined
value of total export is 2,631.48 USD million. Therefore, if any exporter wishes to export Iron Steel then
Connect2India offers a complete guide on how to export Iron Steel from India. The following data
contains everything from Iron Steel export analysis to export resources. The top five countries to export
Iron Steel from India

From the perspective of the data on Iron Steel export, India’s top 5 trade partners who import
Iron Steel from Indian exporters are mentioned in the table, although the total export value of the top 5
countries is 1,226.86 USD million which is the 46.62% of the total export value of Iron Steel. Export
analysis of Iron Steel are represented in the map format. The mapping presentation will assist Indian
exporters of Iron Steel to pick up their target region.

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 CHAPTER - IV
SWOT ANALYSIS

Strengths

 Availability of raw material.

 Availability of labour at low wage.
 Quality manpower.
 Developed transport & shipping system.

Weakness

 Systemic deficiencies
 High cost of capital
 Low labour productivity
 High cost of basic inputs and services
 High rate of taxes
 Quality issues and less expenditure on R&D.
 High cost of manufacturing.
 Inability to adopt technological advancement.

Opportunities

 Unexplored rural market and other sectors

 Export penetration and increase in demand
 Mergers and acquisition
 Infrastructure development in India & abroad.

Threats

 Slow industry growth

 Technological change
 Price sensitivity and demand volatility
 China factor -dumping of low price steel.

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 CHAPTER - V

INTERNSHIP ACTIVITIES

Name of Department where I worked

I have worked in the following departments during my internship at MANUFACTURING company.

 PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

In these 15 days of training period I could be able to learn lot of things about apparel industry.I
get opportunity to know about the processes under this. There is an advanced process on the
manufacturing process they made. Material selection, inspection, cost analysis is some of them. This
company is a place that lot of people work together for a single goal. Therefore, that was a good
opportunity for me to move with the people worked there. I studied a lot from their knowledge and their
experience and it had guided me to grow up as an engineer in the future. There was very friendly staff
and they help in so many ways.I had the opportunity to join some ongoing projects in the factory. It was
a great help for me to study some important points. Now I have a good knowledge about projects.
Considering all the things, I spent a valuable, pleasurable period during this training period.

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 CHAPTER - VI

CONCLUSION

In a ROSVAR STEELS PRIVATE LIMITED, this internship has been an excellent and
rewarding experience. I can conclude that there have been a lot I’ve learn from my work at TMT
MANUFACTURING COMPANY. Needless to say, the technical aspects of the work I’ve done are not
flawless and could be improved provided enough time. As someone with no prior experience with THE
MANAGER whatsoever I believe my time spent in research and discovering it was well worth it and
contributed to finding an acceptable solution to build a fully functional web service. Two main things
that I’ve learned the importance of are time-management skills and self-motivation.

My problems during the internship were few. I had troubles working with pieces of production
software. I was unfamiliar with them and I found them to be very different from the software I used at
school or for school normally. That was a setback because production work is heavily predicated on
software. Almost every department in production has its own kind of software to learn. Something else
that was a problem or issue was accuracy. There was a lot of pressure to be accurate. Everything I wrote,
in terms of the subtitles, would be read by millions. I felt a lot of responsibility, especially to be accurate,
clear, and have correct spelling. I never experienced that kind of pressure at school. I had some adapting
to change, after all the internship was a new environment with new people. Mostly, I had to deal with the
unexpected. I am inexperience in problem solving and working on my own. In school, I have an
instructor to ask for guidance; in the workplace, it’s own me.

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