Design and Analysis of 132KV Grid Station

Larkana on ETAP

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

IN PARTIAL FULFILLENT OF REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

AT

QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

CAMPUS LARKANA

SUBMITTED BY

SHAZIA AMUR (F-18EL-55)

ROHIT KUMAR (F-18EL-19)

SURESH KUMAR (F-18EL-08)

SUPERVISED BY

SYED ABID ALI SHAH

OCTOBER, 2022

1
 ABSTRACT
A substation covers various equipment's such as Circuit Breakers, isolators, earth Stitches, Lightning
Arresters, Grounding system and etc. Protection scheme is designed to limit the effects of
disturbances in the power system which is allowed to persist, may damage plant and interrupt the
supply of electric energy. The greatest threat to the power supply station is short circuit which imposes
sudden and violent change in the power system. Rapid isolation of the fault by nearest switchgear will
minimize the damage. It covers various types of protection used in switchyard such as relays, circuit
breakers etc.

An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of electricity generation, transmission and distribution

system where voltage is transformed from high transmission and distribution system where voltage
sis transformed from high to low or low to high using transformers to low or low to high using
transformers. Substations generally contains transformers and have switching, protection and control
equipment. In large substations, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overloaded
currents that may occur on circuits. Smaller distribution stations may use reclose circuit breakers or
fuses for protection of branch circuit network.

This paper examines the load flow analysis of a high-voltage substation using ETAP, and explores
options for improving the voltage profile of the system. This study yields critical information about the
system, such as the voltage drop at each feeder, the voltage at each bus, as well as real and reactive
power losses at the different branches and feeders. In this power flow examination, the system’s
performance is evaluated for different operating conditions, so that control measurements can be
applied if necessary. The experimental results are used for proposing a plan of using fixed and
switched shunt capacitor banks to improve the voltage stability of the substation. Distribution systems
include inductive loads along with transformers and transmission lines, which account for quite
significant power loss due to lagging current. The introduction of strategically sized and positioned
shunt capacitors within the distribution system, helps to counteract losses due to inductive elements
and improves the voltage profile of the network. The problem of capacitor allocation includes the
location, type (fixed or switched), and size of capacitor. To determine the sizing of the shunt capacitor
bank necessary to compensate inductive effect of the loads, power flow equations are used along with
the ETAP simulation results. The results obtained in the load flow analysis will be substituted into
these equations to perform a power factor correction. Overall, the purpose of this paper is to use the
ETAP software to analyze the load flow operation of the substation.

2
 DEDICATION

Our project report is a very brief reflection of our academic career which we proudly dedicate

to firstly our parents and after that we proudly dedicate this report to our respectable

teachers and all the faculty members of Electrical Department of Quaid-e-Awam University

of Engineering Science and Technology, Larkana. Very importantly we dedicate this work to

our supervisor Syed Abid Ali Shah and co-supervisor Syed Abrar Ali Shah who provided us with

best of their knowledge and skills.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very grateful to Almighty Allah who has given us the opportunity to gain

education and has given us chance to polish our skills. We are also very grateful to our parents

who fulfilled our every essential need in terms of lifestyle and education. Especially we are

very grateful to our respected chairperson and supervisor Syed Abid Ali Shah co-supervisor

Syed Abrar Ali Shah who truly recognized our potential and provided us with all guidance that

we needed to complete this report.

Finally but prominently we are thankful to all the faculty members of our department

who played the most important role in our education.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ 2
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................ 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 4
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... 7
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 9
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 GRID STATION ................................................................................................................................. 11
1.3.1 REQUIREMENT OF LAND/AREA................................................................................................ 11
1.3.2 TYPES OF SUBSTATION ............................................................................................................. 12
1.4 OVERVIEW OF 132KV SUBSTATION/GRID STATION........................................................................ 12
1.4.1 GRID STATION 132KV LARKANA............................................................................................... 12
1.4.2 SOURCES OF POWER TO 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA ...................................................... 13
1.4.3 POWER CAPACITY .................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.4 RURAL AND URBAN FEEDERS................................................................................................... 13
1.5 SWITCHGEARS ................................................................................................................................. 14
1.5.1 EARTH SWITCHES ..................................................................................................................... 14
1.5.2 ISOLATORS ............................................................................................................................... 15
1.5.3 CIRCUIT BREAKERS ................................................................................................................... 16
1.5.4 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS ...................................................................................................... 18
1.5.5 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS .................................................................................................... 19
1.6 ISOLATORS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA ........................................................... 19
TECHNICAL DATA OF ISOLATORS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION LARKANA ........................................ 19
1.6.1 BUSBAR ISOLATORS ................................................................................................................. 19
1.6.2 TRANSFORMER ISOLATORS...................................................................................................... 21
1.7 CIRCUIT BREAKERS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA ............................................... 23
TECHNICAL DATA OF ISOLATORS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION LARKANA ........................................ 23
1.8 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA ............................... 25
TECHNICAL DATA OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION LARKANA............. 25
1.9 POWER TRANSFORMERS ................................................................................................................ 26
1.9.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ....................................................................................................... 27

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 1.9.2 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING .......................................................................................................... 28
1.9.3 TYPES OF TRANSOFORMERS .................................................................................................... 29
1.9.4 TRANSFORMERS IN POWER SYSTEMS (TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS) ......... 30
1.9.5 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS ........................................................................ 31
STAR CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS .......................................................................................... 32
DELTA CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS ........................................................................................ 33
STAR–DELTA AND DELTA–STAR CONNECTIONS ............................................................................... 34
1.9.6 TRANSFORMER COOLING ........................................................................................................ 35
1.9.7 TRANSFORMER COOLING METHODS ....................................................................................... 36
DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS ............................................................................................................... 36
OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS ...................................................................................................... 37
1.9.8 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS...................................................................................................... 37
NO-LOAD LOSSES .............................................................................................................................. 38
LOAD LOSSES ..................................................................................................................................... 38
EXTRA LOSSES ................................................................................................................................... 39
1.9.9 PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS........................................................................... 39
PURPOSE OF PARALLEL CONNECTIONS ............................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 41
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 41
2.1 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING ETAP ................................................................................................ 41
2.2 SUMMARY OF RELATED WORKS ..................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 48
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................................... 48
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE .......................................................................................................... 48
3.2 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................... 50
3.2.1 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 50
3.3 CALCULATION METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 50
3.3.1 FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS .................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 53
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................. 53
4.1 RESULTS........................................................................................................................................... 53
4.3 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... 67
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 69
APPENDIX A (RUNNING LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ON ETAP) ................................................................... 70

6
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Load Flow Analysis on ETAP 10

Figure 1.2 Power Grid Station 11

Figure 1.3 Grid Station LARKANA 132KV 13

Figure 1.4 Grid Station Earth Switches 15

Figure 1.5 Grid Station Isolators 16

Figure 1.6 Grid Station Circuit Breakers 17

Figure 1.7 Grid Station Current Transformers 18

Figure 1.8 Grid Station Potential Transformers 19

Figure 1.9 Power Transformers 27

Figure 1.10 Construction of Transformers 27

Figure 1.11 Topology of Induction Coils and Transformers 28

Figure 1.12 Electric Power System 30

Figure 1.13 Three-Phase Connection of Transformers 31

Figure 1.14 Star-Star Connection of Transformers 32

Figure 1.15 Delta-Delta Connection of Transformers 34

Figure 1.16 Star-Delta Connection of Transformers 34

Figure 1.17 Delta-Star Connection of Transformers 35

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Requirements of Land for Installing Grid Station 12

Table 1.2 Types of Circuit Breakers 18

Table 1.3 LKN-1 Circuit Breaker 19

Table 1.4 LKN-2 Circuit Breaker 20

Table 1.5 LKN-3 Circuit Breaker 20

Table 1.6 LKN-4 Circuit Breaker 20

Table 1.7 L101-5 Circuit Breaker 21

Table 1.8 LKN-81-1 Isolator 22

Table 1.9 LKN-82-1 Isolator 22

Table 1.10 LKN-83-1 Isolator 23

Table 1.11 LKN-1 Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) 24

Table 1.12 LKN-2 Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) 24

Table 1.13 Potential Transformer 132KV 25

Table 1.14 Potential Transformer 66KV 25

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
File power network is a complex and amazingly vital framework, and a standout amongst the most
noteworthy building accomplishments of the advanced time. It transmits control produced at an
assortment of offices and appropriates it to end clients, frequently finished long separations. It gives
power to structures, mechanical offices, schools, and homes. Also, it does as such each moment of
consistently, year-round.

A short diagram of a regular network station is given, I trust it will help, and will fabricate a thought
how these substations function The power matrix has developed and changed monstrously since its
roots in the mid-1880s, when vitality frameworks were little and restricted. Amid this time, two
distinct sorts of power frameworks were being created: the DC, or direct present, framework, and the
AC, or exchanging current, framework. Rivalry between these two frameworks was savage.
Contending electric organizations hung wires on similar lanes in urban communities, while electric
administration for rustic zones was overlooked. In spite of a crusade by Thomas Edison to advance the
immediate current framework, representative George Westinghouse and designer Nikola Tesla won
the help of electric organizations for the exchanging current framework, which had the unmistakable
favorable position of enabling high voltages to be conveyed long separations and afterward changed
into bring down voltages for client utilize. As the power framework developed, the upsides of AC
enabled service organizations to construct matrices over bigger regions, making economies of scale.

1.2 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

In this paper, a load flow analysis is performed to a 138/69kV substation using ETAP. The substation
layout and equipment choice were provided by Black & Veatch (B&V) as part of a Senior Design project.
The scope of this report encompasses the load flow results, and explains how these were used to
implement changes on the feeders that resulted in an improved voltage profile. In this context, the
load flow study is performed for different operating conditions or scenarios to determine what control
measurements are necessary to prevent system breakdown. The results of the load flow study for the
different scenarios, will be substituted into power flow equations destined to improve the power
factor of a given bus. The equations define the relationship of the real and reactive power with the
desired power factor. They yield the updated size of fixed or switched shunt capacitor banks required
to compensate the inductive effect of the loads. To verify that the theoretical results are accurate, the

9
load flow is performed with the updated parameters for the capacitor banks. As early introduced, the
power flow study for this substation will be performed on ETAP. The acronym ETAP stands for
Electrical Transient and Analysis Program. This software is a comprehensive platform for the design,
simulation, and protection of electrical networks. ETAP not only provides solutions to substation
designs, but also specializes in generation, transmission, and distribution of power systems. The
software relies on predictive simulation. This allows the user to perform analysis using real-time
system parameters and may also simulate “what if” scenarios to predict equipment malfunctioning.
ETAP also uses preventive simulation, which allows the user to see any automated alarms and
warnings. These alarms and warnings are based on events that could potentially occur (generator
outages/contingencies) and corrective action will be suggested. ETAP analyses are always verified and
validated against field results, real system measurements, and hand calculations. The one-line diagram
of the electrical system in question is composed by several pieces of equipment, each with a specific
function. All of the components for this substation are highvoltage components. Some of the most
important components are the power source, disconnect switches, circuit breakers, capacitor banks,
transmission lines, as well as power transformers, potential transformers, and current transformers.
The process of choosing the most suitable type of conductors for the transmission lines is discussed in
the next section.

Figure 1.1 Load Flow Analysis on ETAP

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1.3 GRID STATION
Substation is a get together of contraption, which change the qualities of electrical vitality starting
with one frame then onto the next, say starting with one voltage level then onto the next level, thus
a substation is an Intermediate connection between the Generating station and buyers.

Figure 1.2 Grid Station

1.3.1 REQUIREMENT OF LAND/AREA

The site ought to have adequate region to appropriately oblige the Sub Station structures, structures,
types of gear, and so on and ought to have the adequate territory for future expansion of the
structures and/or switchyard. The site should be:

 As near the load Centre as possible.

 Easily accessible to the public road to facilitate transport of material
 Above highest flood level (HFL) so that there is no water logging.
 Sufficiently away from areas where police and military rifle practices are held.
 Free from master plans / layouts or future development activities to have free line

Far away from Airport

The requirement of land for construction of Sub Station including staff colony is as under:

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 S No. Voltage Class of GSS (KV) Required Area
1 400 20.0 Hectare
2 220 6.0 Hectare
3 132 3.2 Hectare

Table 1.1 Requirement of Land for Installing Grid Station

1.3.2 TYPES OF SUBSTATION

The Grid Station can be classified in several ways as following:

1. Classification Based On Voltage Levels

AC Grid station: EHV, HV, MV, LV, HVDC ETC.
2. Classification Based On Indoor And Outdoor
Outdoor Grid station is under the open sky.
Indoor Grid station is inside the building.
3. Classification Based On The Configuration
Conventional air insulated outdoor substation or SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
Composite substations having combination of the above two
4. Classification Based On Application
Step up Substation: Associated with generating station as the generating voltage is
low.
Distribution Substation: Created where the transmission line voltage is Step Down
to supply voltage.
Mobile Substation: Temporary requirement.

1.4 OVERVIEW OF 132KV SUBSTATION/GRID STATION

A short review of an ordinary lattice station is given, 1 trust it will help, and will fabricate thought how
these substations function. The most critical piece of electric power framework is the Grid Station. A
132kv Grid station is that piece of energy framework where high voltage of 132kv is gotten, ventured
down to 11kv and afterward given to various feeders that encourage conveyance lines. This entire
procedure is done by various parts and equipment.

1.4.1 GRID STATION 132KV LARKANA

132KV grid station Larkana is located in Sindh Pakistan, it is an Outdoor type Grid station, which is the
first 132KV station in larkana division, Importance of 132KV grid station was felt in 1975 and the

12
project was announced by former Prime minister of Pakistan Shaheed Zulfiqar All Bhutto, and
completed in 1978. Figure 1.3 shows the 132KV Grid station Larkana.

Figure 1.3 Grid Station Larkana 132KV

1.4.2 SOURCES OF POWER TO 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA

Three regular 132KV input sources of supply to the gird station larkana.

Uch (560MW) power plant located in Dera Murad Jamali, district Nasirabad.

Guddu Power Plant (1600MW) power plant located in Guddu, district kashmore, Sindh

Thermal Power Station Jamshoro (850MW) power station located in Jamshoro.

1.4.3 POWER CAPACITY

The total power capacity of 132KV grid station is

Capacity without using cooling system 113 MVA

Maximum capacity with cooling system 143.5 MVA

1.4.4 RURAL AND URBAN FEEDERS

132KV grid station Larkana contains four transformers two of them are 132/66KV and other two are
132/11KV.

There are eighteen feeders drawn from 132/11KV gird station seventeen outgoing Feeders while one
feeder is incoming.

Five feeders are providing supply to rural areas

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 Twelve feeders are providing supply to urban area

Two transformers of 132/66KV are supplying the power to another small 66/11KV grid station by
means of 66KV sub-transmission line.

1.5 SWITCHGEARS
The term 'switchgear' is a generic term encompassing a wide range of products like circuit breakers.
Switches, switch fuse units, off-load isolators, HRC fuses, contactors, earth leakage circuit breakers
(ELCBs), etc. The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and
equipment's is known as switchgear. Electric switchgear is necessary at every switching point in the
electrical power system. There are various voltage levels and hence various fault levels between the
generating stations and load centers. Therefore various types of switchgear assembly are required
depending upon different voltage levels of the system. Besides the power system network, electrical
switchgear is also required in industrial works, industrial projects, domestic and commercial buildings.
The switchgear system is directly linked to the supply system. It is placed in both the high and low
voltage side of the power transformer. It is used for de-energizing the equipment for testing and
maintenance and for clearing the fault. During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or
off generators, transmission lines, distributors and other electrical equipment. On the other hand,
when a failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of power system, a heavy current flows through
the equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the customers. I
however, the switchgear detects the fault and disconnects the unhealthy section from the system.
Three classification of switch gears are high voltage switch gear, medium voltage switch gear and low
voltage switch gear.

1.5.1 EARTH SWITCHES

Earth switch is very important equipment as per safety of humans. While taking should down of any
Equipment first we have to discharge the charge stored in it before doing any work on that. So in order
to discharge the charge we have to connect earth switch (outdoor substation) or cable Earthing trolley
in door substation. We have to put the earth switch in close position because of there, voltage will
induce in dead equipment due to line running beside it. Earthing Switch is necessary to earth the
conducting parts before maintenance and also to provide deliberate short-current while testing.

14
 Figure 1.4 Grid Station Earth Switches

1.5.2 ISOLATORS
Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch which separates a part of the electrical power.
Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate one portion of the
circuit from the other and is not intended to be opened while current is flowing in the line. Isolators
are generally used on both ends of the breaker in order that repair or replacement of circuit breaker
can be done without and danger. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to
allow physical isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for
maintenance. The isolator is usually not Intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety
isolation. Isolator can be operated either manually or automatically.

Unlike load break switches and circuit breakers, isolators lack a mechanism for suppression of electric
arc, which occurs when conductors carrying high currents arc electrically interrupted. Thus, they are
off-loading devices, intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other
control device. In isolator we don't have any arc quenching medium so we cannot eliminate the arc in
isolator. So after opening the breaker only we should open the isolator, so we should design some
interlocks like below.

Breaker close condition, isolator should not open.

Breaker open condition , Isolator can close or open.

15
 Figure 1.5 Grid Station Isolators

1.5.3 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and automatically for
controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the modern power system deals
with huge currents, the special attention should be given during designing of circuit breaker for safe
interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit breaker. The contacts can be opened
manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the
trip coils of the breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled. Each pole of the Circuit
Breaker comprises one or more interrupter or arc-extinguishing chambers. The interrupters are
mounted on support insulators. The interrupter encloses a set of fixed and moving contacts. The
moving contacts can be drawn apart by means of the operating links of the operating mechanism. The
operating mechanism of the Circuit Breaker gives the necessary energy for opening and closing of
contacts of the Circuit Breakers as shown in picture 3.4 the arc produced by the separation of current
carrying contacts is interrupted by a suitable medium and by adopting suitable techniques for arc
extinction. The Circuit Breaker can be classified on the basis of the arc extinction medium.

16
 Figure 1.6 Grid Station Circuit Breakers

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

The type of the Circuit Breaker is usually identified according to the medium of arc quenching. The
classification of the Circuit Breaker hosed on the medium or arc quenching is as follows;

(1) Air break Circuit Breaker (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

(2) Oil Circuit Breaker (tank type of bulk oil)

(3) Minimum oil Circuit Breaker.

(4) Air blast Circuit Breaker.

(5) Vacuum Circuit Breaker.

(6) Sulphur hexafluoride Circuit Breaker (Single pressure or Double Pressure).

Type Medium Voltage. Breaking Capacity

1 - Air break Circuit Breaker Air at atmospheric pressure (430 - 600) V- (5-15)MVA
(3.6-12) KV - 500 MVA

2 Miniature CB.
- Air at atmospheric pressure (430-600 ) V

3 Tank Type oil CB.

- Dielectric oil (3.6 - 12) KV

4 Minimum Oil CB.

- Dielectric oil (3.6 - 145 )KV

17
 5 Air Blast CB.
- Compressed Air 245 KV, 35000 MVA
(20 - 40 ) bar
up to 1100 KV, 50000 MVA
6 - SF6 CB. SF6 Gas 12 KV, 1000 MVA
36 KV , 2000 MVA
145 KV, 7500 MVA
245 KV , 10000 MVA

7 - Vacuum CB. Vacuum 36 KV, 750 MVA

8 -- H.V.DC CB. Vacuum , SF6 Gas 500 KV DC

Table 1.2 Types of Circuit Breakers

1.5.4 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

The current transformer has two jobs to do. It steps down the current to such levels that it can be
easily handled by the relay current coil. The standard secondary current ratings used in practice are 5
A and 1 A. This frees the relay designer from the actual value of primary current. Secondly it isolates
the relay circuitry from high voltage of the EHV system. In its most basic form, a CT consists of a
laminated steel core, a secondary winding around the core, and insulating material surrounding the
windings. The working principle of the current transformer is slightly different from the power
transformer. In a current transformer, the load's impedance or burden on the secondary has slightly
differed from the power transformers. Thus, the current transformer operates on secondary circuit
conditions.

Figure 1.7 Grid Station Current Transformers

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1.5.5 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Potential transformers are also known as voltage transformers and they are basically step down
transformers with extremely accurate turns-ratio. Potential transformers step down the voltage of
high magnitude to a lower voltage which can be measured with standard measuring instrument. These
transformers have large number of primary turns and smaller number of secondary turns. A potential
transformer is typically expressed in primary to secondary voltage ratio. The standard secondary
voltage on line-to-line basis is 110 V. This helps in standardized the protective relaying equipment
irrespective of the value of primary extra high voltage.

Figure 1.8 Grid Station Potential Transformers

1.6 ISOLATORS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA

132KV Larkana grid station contains huge number of isolator switches behind each costly equipment data.

TECHNICAL DATA OF ISOLATORS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION LARKANA

1.6.1 BUSBAR ISOLATORS
132KV BUSBAR ISOLATOR OF LKN-1 BREAKER

MAKE CHINA
TYPE CS 17-G
S. NO 88.10.143

DATE 1988
ROTATING ANGLE 1800
Table 1.3 LKN-1 CIRCUIT BREAKER

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132KV BUSBAR ISOLATOR OF LKN-2 BREAKER

MAKE _
TYPE GW4-145
S. NO 1002
RATED VOLTAGE 145K V
RATED CURRENT 1000 A
WEIGHT 240kgs
DATE 12-1973

Table 1.4 LKN-2 CIRCUIT BREAKER

66KV BUSBAR ISOLATOR OF LKN-3 BREAKER

MAKE LK-NES DENMARK

TYPE SBB 60/1600
S. NO 6449
KVIA 60/1250
IMPULSE VOLTGE TO EARTH 358KV
WEIGHT PER POLE 330 lbs
SHORT TIME CURRENT 1-SECOND kA

Table 1.5 LKN-3 CIRCUIT BREAKER

66KV BUSBAR ISOLATOR OF LKN-4 BREAKER

MAKE LKN-NES DENMARK

TYPE SBB-60/1600
S. NO 6470
KV/A 60/1250A
IMPULSE VOLTGE TO EARTH 358KV
WEIGHT PER POLE 3301bs
SHORT TIME CURRENT 1-SECOND 31.8KV

Table 1.6 LKN-4 CIRCUIT BREAKER

20
66KV BUSBAR ISOLATOR OF L101-5 BREAKER

MAKE LKN-NES DENMARK

TYPE SBB-60
S. NO 7207
KV/A 72.5/1250A
IMPULSE VOLTGE TO EARTH 325 KV
WEIGHT PER POLE 150kgs
SHORT TIME CURRENT I-SECOND 32 kA
RATED AUX: VOLTAGE 110 DC
RATED MECHANICAL TERMINAL LOAD S

Table 1.7 L101-5 CIRCUIT BREAKER

1.6.2 TRANSFORMER ISOLATORS

ISOLATOR LKN-81-1

ALTERNATING CURRENT DISCONNECTOR

MAKE SHENYANG CHINA

TYPE GW4-145/I600

S,NO 1988.8.089

FREQUENCY 501-1Z

WAPDA CONTRACT NO 417 LOT(6).0T.28-41988 FOR

ISOLATORS
RATED VOTAGE I45KV

RATED CURRENT 1600A

RATED AUXILARY VOLTAGE 110DC

RATED SHORT TIME CURRENT 1-SECOND 20kA

RATED POWER FREQUENCY WITH STAND 275KV

VOLTAGE TO EARTH AND B/W POLES

RATED POWER FREQUENCY WITH STAND 315KV

VOLTAGE ACROSS ISOLATING DISTANCE

21
 RATED LIGHTENING IMPULSE WITHSTAND 650KV
VOLTAGE TO EARTH AND B/W POLES
RATED LIGHTENING IMPULSE WITHSTAND 750KV
VOLTAGE ACROSS ISOLATING DISTANCE
(PEAK)
RATED MECHINICAL TERMINAL LOAD 500N AND 170N

STRAIGHT AND CROSS

WEIGHT PER POLE 270kgs

Table 1.8 LKN-81-1 ISOLATOR

ISOLATOR LKN-82-1

MAKE SHENYANG CHINA

TYPE - GW4-I45/1600
S.NO 1988.08.069
DATE 1988
WAPDA CONTRACT NO 417 LOT(6)-DT 28-4-1988
- 145KV
RATED CURRENT 1600A
RATED AUXILARY VOLTAGE 110 DC
RATED SHORT TIME CURRENT I- 201(A

SECOND
RATED POWER FREQUENCY WITH 275KV

STAND VOLTAGE TO EARTH AND B/W

POLES
RATED POWER FREQUENCY WITH 315KV

STAND VOLTAGE ACROSS ISOLATING

DISTANCE
FREQUENCY 50 HZ
WT:PER POLE 270KGS

Table 1.9 LKN-82-1 ISOLATOR

22
ISOLATOR LKN-83-1

MAKE LKNES DENMARK

TYPE SBB-60
S.NO 7205
KV'A 725/1250
IMPULSE VOLTAGE TO EARTH 1/50 325KV
SHORT TIME CURRENT 1-SECOND 32kA
'RATED AUXILARY VOLTAGE 110DC
RATED MECHANICAL TERMINAL LOAD 125kgs
WT:PER POLE 150kgs

Table 1.10 LKN-83-1 ISOLATOR

1.7 CIRCUIT BREAKERS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA

132KV Larkana grid station contains huge number of circuit breakers behind each costly equipment data.

TECHNICAL DATA OF ISOLATORS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION LARKANA

13SKV OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (OCB) LKN-1

MAKE LK-NES DENMARK

TYPE MULB-150
S. NO 01211
KV/A 145/1250
YEAR OF MANUFACTURE 1977-78
STANDARD ICE
FREQUENCY 50 HZ
IMPULSE WITH STAND VOLTAGE 650KV
SYMETRICAL BREAKING CAPACITY 20KA
ASYMETRICAL BREAKING CAPACITY 22KA
SHORT TIME CURRENT 1-SECOND 36KA
PEAK MAKING CURRENT 45KA

OPERATING DUTY 0-0,3-0

BREAKING TIME AT RATED CURRENT 70M /SEC
RECLOSING TIME 370M/SEC
RESTRIKING VOLTAGE

23
 APMLITUDE FACTOR 1.4
RATE OF RISE 1000V/p. SEC
CONTROL AND TRIPING VOLTAGE 110V DC
MOTOR SUPPLY VOLTAGE 230 VAC
WEIGHT OF OIL PER POLE 105KGS
WEIGIII PER POLE 670KGS

Table 1.11 LKN-1 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (OCB)

13SKV OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (OCB) LKN-2

CONTROL DADU SECTION

MAKE CHINA
TYPE SW6-145
SERIES 040A
DATE 11-1974
RATED VOLTAGE I45KV
RATED CURRENT 1000
RATED INSULATION LEVEL 650/275KV
RATED FREQUENCY 50HZ
RATED SHORT CIRCUIT BREAKING 3500MVA
CAPACITY
NET WEIGHT 1800KGS
OIL WEIGHT 300 KGS

Table 1.12 LKN-2 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (OCB)

24
1.8 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS INSTALLED AT 132KV GRID STATION LARKANA
In 132kv grid station Larkana potential transformer used with different ratings for the measurement
purpose below are shown the technical data of potential transformer with different ratings:

TECHNICAL DATA OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS USED AT 132KV GRIDSTATION

LARKANA
132KV POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

MAKE GANZ HUNGRY BUDAPEST

"TYPE VEOF 120/600
FREQUENCY 50 Hz
SERIAL NO 120948
YEAR 1968
PRIMARY
NORMAL SYSTEM VOLTAGE 132KV
INDUCED VOLTAGE/SOURCE 220/2KV

11,11%S.1
INDUCED WITHSTAND VOLTAGE 550K I/50sec v
Table 1.13 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER 132KV

66KV POTENTIAL TRANSFORME0RS

MAKE MESSWANDLER BAU

TYPE
GMBH BAMBERG GERMANY
UOS 72.5 72.5/140/325KV
SERIAL NO 81/713283-81/713286
NORMAL VOLTAGE 66000N3 KV-50HZ
BURDEN 200VA
CLASS 0.5 (6P)
THERMAL BURDEN 2000VA
Table 1.14 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER 66KV

25
1.9 POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are important component in our current life and they make large power systems
possible. To effectively transfer hundreds of megawatts of power over long distances, very high line
voltages are required - in the range of 161 to 1000 kV. However, the highest practical design voltage
for large generators is about 25 kV. How can electrical power be generated at 25 kV and transmitted
at a much higher voltage? Transformers can provide the solution to this problem.

They can step voltages up or down with a very small loss of power. Connecting a step-up transformer
between the generator and a transmission line allows the creation of a practical design voltage for the
generator and at the same time an effective transmission line voltage. With step-down transformers
connected between the transmission line and the various electrical loads connected to it, it is allowed
to use the transmitted power at a safe voltage. Without them, it would be impossible to develop large
power systems that exist today.

In ideal case, a transformer should not make any changes to the power factor and should have zero
internal power loss. If 𝑃1 is the input power for a three-phase transformer and 𝑃2 its output power,
the following relationship must be satisfied for an ideal three-phase transformer:

√3𝑉𝐿1𝐼𝐿1𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃∅ = 𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = √3𝑉𝐿2𝐼𝐿2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃∅ (1)

where,

𝑉𝐿1 - line-to-line voltage at the input terminals of the transformer, [V]

𝐼𝐿1 - input line current, [A]

𝑉𝐿2 - line voltage at the output terminals, [V]

𝐼𝐿2 - output line current, [A]

𝜃∅ - angle between phase current and phase voltage (The angle between phase current and phase
voltage is assumed to be unchanged between input and output)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃∅ - power factor.

It is clear that, when the transformer steps up the voltage, it proportionately reduces the current.
Since the losses in transmission lines are proportional to square of the line current (𝐼2𝑅), it is obvious
that the high transmission line voltages, which can be obtained with the help of transformers, increase
the efficiency of the power system by reducing the line currents.

26
 Figure 1.9 Power Transformers

1.9.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The function of the transformer is based on the principle that electrical energy is transferred efficiently
by magnetic induction from one circuit to another. When one winding of the transformer is energized
from an AC source, an alternating magnetic field is installed in the transformer core. Alternating
magnetic lines of force, which circulate through the core, are called “flux”. With a second winding
around the same core, voltage is induced by the alternating flux lines. A circuit, connected to the
terminals of the second winding, results in current flow.

Figure 1.10 Construction of Transformer

27
Each phase of a transformer consists of two separate coil windings, wound on a common core. The
low-voltage winding is located closer to the core; the high-voltage winding is then placed around the
low voltage winding and core. We can see from figure 2 internal construction of one phase. The core
is usually made from very thin steel laminations, each of which is covered with insulation. Isolation
between individual laminations reduces losses. The steel core provides a low resistance path for
magnetic flux. High-voltage and low-voltage windings are isolated from the core and from each other,
and leads are brought out through insulating bushings. A three-phase 4 transformer typically has a
core with three legs and has around each leg both high-voltage and low-voltage windings. For
insulation and internal structural support are used special paper and wood.

1.9.2 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

Basically, a transformer is very simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device
that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by converting electrical energy from one
value to another. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is responsible for
transformation action in an electrical transformer. Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
(second law) states that the magnitude of emf (E) induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of
flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil
and flux associated with the coil.

Figure 1.11 Topology of Induction Coils and Transformers

28
As we said before, transformer has three main parts, which are:

 Primary winding of transformer – produces magnetic flux when it is connected to

electrical source.
 Secondary winding of transformer – output winding. The flux, produced by primary
winding, passes through the core and will link with the secondary winding.
 Magnetic Core of transformer – the flux produced by the primary winding, that will
pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and create a
closed magnetic circuit.

1.9.3 TYPES OF TRANSOFORMERS

In this part, we are not discussing in detail about each type of transformer, so I described in general
types of transformer according to their usages, shapes, use etc.

Step up Transformer & Step down Transformer – They are used for stepping up and down the voltage
level of power in transmission and distribution power system network.

Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer – Former, as a rule, is used in three-phase
power system, as it is more cost effective than later. However, when size matters, it is preferable to
use a bank of three single-phase transformer, as it is easier to transport than one single three-phase
transformer unit.

Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer – Power Transformer is transferring energy

between high voltage and very high voltage systems, i.e. between generators and transmission
systems and between transmission systems and distribution systems. Also, they are used in
transmission network for stepping up or down the voltage level. It operates mainly during high or peak
loads and has maximum efficiency at or near full load. Distribution transformer steps down the voltage
for distribution purpose to domestic or commercial users. It has good voltage regulation and operates
24 hours a day with maximum efficiency at 50% of full load.

Indoor Transformer & Outdoor Transformer – Transformers that are designed for installing at indoor
are indoor transformers and transformers designed for installing at outdoor are outdoor transformers.

Oil Cooled & Dry Type Transformer – In oil cooled transformer the cooling medium is transformer oil
whereas in dry type transformers air is used as the cooling medium instead of oil.

Phase-Shifting Transformer – A phase-shifting transformer is a device for controlling the power flow
through specific lines in a complex power transmission network. Purposes of Phase-Shifting
transformers:

a) To control the power flow between two large independent power systems

29
 b) To change the effective phase displacement between the input voltage and the output
voltage of a transmission line, thus controlling the amount of active power that can flow in
the line.

1.9.4 TRANSFORMERS IN POWER SYSTEMS (TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS)

Transmission refers to the bulk transfer of power by high-voltage links between central generation
and load centres. Distribution, on the other hand, describes the conveyance of this power to
consumers by means of lower voltage networks.

Modern transformers used in transmission and distribution systems have very high efficiencies up to
90%-99%. This means that they can transmit up to 90%-99% of the electrical energy input to them
when stepping up or stepping down the voltage.

Transmission: Generators usually produce voltages in the range 11–25kV, which is increased by
transformers to the main transmission voltage. At substations, the connections between the various
components of the system, such as lines and transformers, are made and the switching of these
components is carried out. Large amounts of power are transmitted from the generating stations to
the load-centre substations, for example at 400kV and 275kV in Britain, and at 765, 500 and 345kV in
the Pakistan.

Distribution Systems: Distribution networks differ from transmission networks in several ways, quite
apart from their voltage levels. The number of branches and sources is much higher in distribution
networks and the general structure or topology is different. A typical system consists of a step-down
(e.g. 132/11kV) on-load tap-changing transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a number of circuits
which can vary in length from a few hundred metres to several kilometres. A series of step-down
three-phase transformers, for example, 11kV/433V in Britain or 4.16kV/220V in the USA, are spaced
along the route and from these are supplied the consumer three-phase, four-wire networks which
give 240V, or, in the USA, 110V, single-phase supplies to houses and similar loads.

Figure 1.12 Electric Power System

30
A large number of transformers of different classes and sizes are needed in the transmission and
distribution network, with a wide range of operating voltages. The last transformation step into the
consumer mains voltage (in Europe 400/230V) is done by the distribution transformer. Distribution
transformers operated and owned by electricity distribution companies are responsible for supplying
about 70% of low voltage electricity to final users. Voltage levels are classified as:

 Extra high voltage: transmission grid(>150kV) typically 220–400kV(ultra high>400kV)

 High voltage >70 kV up to 150 kV

 Medium voltage >1 kV up to 70 kV (typically up to 36 kV)

 Low voltage < 1kV (e.g. 110V, 240V, 690 V).

1.9.5 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS

Three-phase connections can be made either by using three single-phase transformers or by using a
three-phase transformer. Advantages of the three-phase transformer are: o it costs less; o the weight
is less; o it requires less floor space; o has lower losses than three single-phase transformers. The
methods of connecting windings will be the same, whether using the one three-phase transformer or
three separate single-phase transformers. The two general methods of connecting three-phase
transformers are shown in figure 1.13

Figure 1.13 Three Phase Transformer Connections

The method shown in at figure 1.13a is known as a delta connection and figure 1.13b as the star or
wye connection. Differences between star and delta connection in that star connection has two
phases in series. And the common point “O” of the three windings is called the neutral because equal
voltages exist between this point and any of the three phases.

31
STAR CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
For high-voltage transmission systems, the use of the Y-connected transformer is more economical
because the voltage across the phase of each winding is a factor of 1.73 less than the voltage between
the lines. If the neutral point is grounded, there is no need to insulate it for the line voltage.

Figure 1.14 Star-Star Connection of Transformers

Figure 1.14 shows a bank of three transformers connected in Y on both the primary and secondary
sides. If the ratio of transformation of each transformer is K, then the same ratio will exist between
the line voltages on the both sides. This connection will give satisfactory service only if the three-phase
load is balanced; when the load is unbalanced, the electrical neutral will shift from its exact center to
a point that will make the line to neutral voltages unequal.

Advantages of the Y-Y connection:

The primary and secondary circuits are in phase; i.e., there are no phase angle displacements
introduced by the Y-Y connection. This is an important advantage when transformers are used to
interconnect systems of different voltages in a cascading manner. For example, suppose there are four
systems operating at 500, 230, 138, and 69kV that need to be interconnected. Substations can be
constructed using Y-Y transformer connections to interconnect any two of these voltages. The 500 kV
system can be tied with the 69 kV 23 system through a single 500 to 69 kV transformation or through
a series of cascading transformations at 230, 138, and 69 kV.

32
If the neutral end of a Y-connected winding is grounded, then it is possible to use reduced levels of
insulation at the neutral end of the winding. A winding, which is connected across the phases, requires
full insulation throughout the winding.

Disadvantages of the Y-Y connection:

The presence of third (and other zero-sequence) harmonics at an ungrounded neutral can cause
overvoltage conditions at light load. When constructing a Y-Y transformer using single-phase
transformers connected in a bank, the measured line-to-neutral voltages are not 57.7% of the system
phase-to-phase voltage at no load but are about 68% and very quickly decrease as the bank is loaded.
The effective values of voltages at different frequencies combine by taking the square root of the sum
of the voltages squared. With sinusoidal phase-to-phase voltage, the third-harmonic component of
the phase-to-neutral voltage is about 60%.

DELTA CONNECTION OF TRANSFORMERS

The delta–delta connection has an economic advantage over the Y–Y connection for low-voltage, high-
current requirements because the winding current is reduced by a factor of 1.73 to 58% of that in the
Y–Y connection. Another advantage of this connection, if composed of three single-phase
transformers, is that one transformer can be removed and the remaining two phases operated at 86.6%
of their rating in the open delta(if one transformer fails it may switched out of the line and operation
continued at a reduced power level) connection.

The principle disadvantage of the delta–delta connection is that the neutral is not available. As a result,
the phases cannot be grounded except at the corners. The insulation design is more costly because
this type of three-phase transformer connection has higher ground voltages during system fault or
transient voltages. Supplying an artificial neutral to the system with a grounding transformer can help
to control these voltages. The delta-connection insulation costs increase with increasing voltage.
Therefore, this type of connection is usually limited to a maximum system voltage of 345 kV. 24 In
figure 1.15 is shown a bank of transformers connected in delta on both the primary and secondary
sides.

33
 Figure 1.15 Delta-Delta Connection of Transformers

STAR–DELTA AND DELTA–STAR CONNECTIONS

The star-delta or delta-star connections have less objectionable features than any other connections.
In general, these combine most of the advantages of the y–y and delta–delta connections. Complete
voltage and current symmetry is maintained by the presence of the delta. The exciting third-harmonic
current circulates within the delta winding, and no third-harmonic voltage appears in the phase
voltages on the wye side. The high-voltage windings can be connected wye, and the neutral can be
brought out for grounding to minimize the cost of the insulation.

Differences in magnetizing current, voltage ratio, or impedance between the single-phase units are
regulated by a small circulating current in the delta. All of these factors result in unbalanced phase
voltages on the delta, which causes a current to circulate within the delta.

Figure 1.16 Star-Delta Connection of Transformers

34
Although the delta–wye connection has most of the advantages of the y–y and delta– delta, it still has
several disadvantages. This connection introduces a 30r phase shift between the primary and
secondary windings, which must be matched for a parallel operation. A delta–wye bank cannot be
operated with only two phases in an emergency. If the delta is on the primary side and should
accidentally open, the unexcited leg on the wye side can resonate with the line capacitance.

Figure 1.17 Delta-Star Connection of Transformers

The three-phase Delta-Star connections are shown in Figure 1.17 above. This type of connections is
used where it is necessary to step up the voltage, as for example, at the beginning of a high-tension
transmission system.

1.9.6 TRANSFORMER COOLING

Usually the efficiency of power transformers is more than 99% and because of this the input and
output powers are almost the same. Because of the small amount of inefficiency, losses occur inside
the transformer. These losses are losses such as losses in conductors, losses in electrical steel due to
the changing flux, which is carried, and losses in metallic tank walls and other metallic structures cause
by the stray time varying flux. These losses lead to temperatures increases, which must be controlled
by cooling. The primary cooling media for transformers are oil and air.

In oil-cooled transformers, the coils and core are immersed in an oil-filled tank. The oil is then
circulated through radiators or other types of heat exchanger so that the ultimate cooling medium is
the surrounding air or possibly water for some types of heat exchangers. In small distribution
transformers, the tank surface in contact with the air provides enough cooling surface so that radiators
are not needed. Sometime in these units, the tank surface area is augmented by means of fins or
corrugations. The cooling medium in contact with the coils and core must provide adequate dielectric
strength to prevent electrical breakdown or discharge between components at different voltage levels.
For this reason, oil immersion is common in higher voltage transformers since oil has a 27 higher

35
breakdown than air. Often one can rely on the natural convection of oil though the windings, driven
by buoyancy effects, to provide adequate cooling so that pumping is not necessary. Air is a more
efficient cooling medium when it is blown by means of fans through the windings for air-cooled units.

In some applications, the choice of oil or air is dictated by safety considerations such as the possibility
of fires. For units inside buildings, air-cooling is common because of the reduced fire hazard. While
transformer oil is combustible, there is usually tittle danger of fire since the transformer tank is often
sealed from the outside air or the oil surface is blanketed with an inert gas such as nitrogen. Although
the flash point of oils is quite high, if excessive heating or sparking occurs inside an oil-filled tank,
combustible gasses could be released.

Environment also plays a big role in the choice of coolants. Mineral oil used in transformers is known
to be detrimental to the environment if there is an accident. For transformers such as those used on
planes or trains or units designed to be transportable for emergency use, aircooling is preferred. For
units that are not so restricted, oil is the preferred cooling medium, in general oil cooled transformers
are used in everyday units, from large generator or substation units to distribution units on telephone
poles.

There are other cooling media, which find limited use in certain application, such as sulfur hexafluoride
gas, which is usually pressurized. This is a relatively inert gas and it has a higher breakdown strength
than air, it is generally used in high-voltage units where oil cannot be used and where air does not
provide enough dielectric strength. Usually, the standard transformer oil is used in oil-cooled
transformers. Nevertheless, there are other types of oil are also used for specialized usage. For
example, silicon oil. It can be used at a higher temperature than the standard transformer oil and at a
reduced fired hazard.

1.9.7 TRANSFORMER COOLING METHODS

DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS
This method can be divided in two types:
Air Natural (AN) Air natural or self-air cooled transformer is generally used for small
ratings transformers up to 3 MVA. Basically, this method uses the natural air flow surrounding
the transformer as cooling medium.
Air forced (AF) Natural air-cooling method is adequate to use for transformers rated more
than 3 MVA. Therefore, blowers or fans are required to force the air towards the core and
windings so, hot air is gained cooled due to the outside natural conventional air. However, the
air forced must be filtered to prevent the accumulation of dust particles in ventilation ducts.
This method can be used for transformers up to 15 MVA. In figure below, we can see the
example of forced aircooled transformer.

36
OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS
Generally, the transformer winding and core are immersed in the mineral oil, which has good electrical
insulating property to block the current flow through the oil and high thermal conductivity. This
method can be divided into four types:

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) This cooling method may be used for transformers up to about
30MVA. In this method, the heat generated in the core and winding is transferred to the oil.
The heated oil moves in the upward direction and flows from the upper portion of the
transformer tank according to the principle of convection. The heat from the oil will dissipate
in the atmosphere due to the natural air flow around the transformer. In this case, the oil in
transformer will keep circulating because of natural convection and will dissipate heat in
atmosphere due to natural conduction.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Generally, this method of transformer cooling is useful for large
transformers up to about 60 MVA. The heat dissipation can be improved by applying forced
air on the dissipating surface. Heat dissipation rate is faster and more in ONAF transformer
cooling method than ONAN cooling system. In this manner, fans are mounted near to the
radiator and can be provided with an automatic starting arrangement, which turns on when
temperature increases beyond certain value.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) cooling method is provided for
higher rating transformers at substations or power stations. In this method, oil is circulated
with the help of a pump, and then compressed air is forced to pass on the heat exchanger
with the help of high-speed fans. Furthermore, the heat exchangers can be mounted
separately from the transformer tank and connected through pipes at top and bottom.

Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) We know that ambient temperature of water is much less
than the atmospheric air in same weather condition. Thus, water may be used as better heat
exchanger medium than air. The oil is forced to flow through the heat exchanger with the help
of a pump, where the heat is dissipated in the water, which is also forced to flow. The heated
water is taken away to cool in separate coolers. Generally, this type of cooling is used for very
large transformers with very high power rating above 500 MVA.

1.9.8 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

Like every existing machine, transformers also can`t work without energy losses. The transformer has
no moving parts and therefore the mechanical losses are absent in it. Transformer losses are classified
as no-load losses and load losses. These types of losses are common to all types of transformers,

37
regardless of transformer application or power rating. However, there are two other types of losses:
extra losses created by the non-ideal quality of power and auxiliary (or cooling) losses, which may
apply particularly to larger transformers, caused by the use of cooling equipment such as fans and
pumps.

NO-LOAD LOSSES
No-load losses (also called iron loss or core loss) are constant and occur 24 hours a day, 365 days a
year, regardless of the load, from this the term no-load losses. They present in the transformer core
whenever the transformer is energized. They are categorized as shown below:
Hysteresis losses caused by the frictional movement of magnetic domains in the core
laminations being magnetized and demagnetized by alternation of the magnetic field. These
losses are responsible for 50% to 80% of total no-load losses and depend on the type of
material used to build a core. Silicon steel has much lower hysteresis than normal steel but
amorphous metal has much better performance than silicon steel. Hysteresis losses can be
reduced by material processing such as cold rolling, laser treatment or grain orientation.
Eddy current losses caused by varying magnetic fields inducing eddy currents in the
laminations and thus generating heat and usually they are responsible for 20–50% of total
noload losses. Eddy current losses can be reduced by building the core from thin laminated
sheets insulated from each other by a thin varnish layer to reduce eddy currents.
Less significant stray and dielectric losses occur in the transformer core and these losses
usually account for no more than 1% of total no-load losses.

LOAD LOSSES
Load losses (also called copper losses or short-circuit losses) occur in the resistance of the winding of
the transformer when it carries the load current. The total loss of copper in the transformer is obtained
by adding both primary and secondary copper losses. Load losses vary according to the transformer
loading. These losses include:
Ohmic heat loss (sometimes called as copper loss) occurs in transformer windings and caused
by the resistance of the conductor. The magnitude of this loss increases with the square of
the load current (𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2 ) and is proportional to the resistance of the winding (𝑅𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔).
Ohmic heat loss can be reduced by increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor or by
reducing the winding length of conductor (R=𝜌𝑙 𝑆 ).
Conductor eddy current losses caused by alternating current and occur in the windings (due
to magnetic fields). Eddy currents can be reduced by reducing the cross-section of the
conductor, so stranded conductors with the separate strands isolated against each other are
used to achieve the required low resistance while controlling eddy current loss.

38
EXTRA LOSSES
Extra losses caused by unbalanced harmonics and reactive power.
Harmonics: Non-linear loads, such as power electronic devices, such as variable speed drives
on motor systems, computers, UPS systems, TV sets and compact fluorescent lamps, cause
harmonic currents on the network. Harmonic voltages are generated in the impedance of the
network by the harmonic load currents. Harmonics increase both load and no-load losses due
to increased skin effect, eddy current, stray and hysteresis losses.
Unbalance: Transformers subject to negative sequence voltage transform them in the same
way as positive sequence voltages. The behavior with respect to homo-polar voltages depends
on the primary and secondary connections and, more particularly, the presence of a neutral
conductor. If, for example, one side has a three-phase four-wire connection, neutral current
can flow. If at the other side of the winding is delta-connection, the homo-polar current is
transformed into a circulating (and heat-causing) current in the delta. The associated homo-
polar magnetic flux passes through constructional parts of the transformer causing by
parasitic losses in parts such as the tank, sometimes requiring an additional derating.
Extra losses due to current distortion: The most important of these losses is that due to eddy
current losses in the winding, it can be very large and consequently most calculation models
ignore the other harmonic-induced losses. The precise impact of a harmonic current on load
loss depends on the harmonic frequency and the way the transformer is designed. In general,
the eddy current loss increases by the square of the frequency and the square of the load 33
current. So, if the load current contains 20% fifth harmonic, the eddy current loss due to the
harmonic current component would be 5 2∗0.2 2 multiplied by the eddy current loss at the
fundamental frequency, meaning that the eddy current loss would have doubled.
Extra losses due to voltage distortion: The common approach presented above assumes that
although the magnetizing current does include harmonics, these are extremely small
compared with the load current and their effect on the losses in minimal. When not ignoring
extra harmonic losses from voltage harmonics and also those generated in the transformer
core.

1.9.9 PARALLEL OPERATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

To supply a load that exceeds the rated power of an existing transformer, two or more transformers
may be connected in parallel with the existing transformer. Transformers are connected in parallel,
when the load on one of the transformers exceeds its capacity. The reliability increases with parallel
operation, than when using single large unit. The cost associated with maintaining the spares is less
when two transformers are connected in parallel. Usually it is economical to install in parallel another

39
transformer instead of replacing an existing transformer by a single larger unit. In the case of two
parallel transformers with the equal rating, the cost of the spare unit is also lower than the cost of one
large transformer. Also for reliability reasons, it is preferable to have a parallel transformer.
Requirements for Parallel operation of Transformers:

- Same voltage Ratio & Turns Ratio (both primary and secondary Voltage Rating is same).
- Same Percentage Impedance and X/R ratio.
- Identical Position of Tap changer.
- Same KVA ratings.
- Same Phase angle shift (vector group are same).
- Same Frequency rating.
- Same Polarity.
- Same Phase sequence.

PURPOSE OF PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Typically, a power transformer provides maximum
efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those
transformers that will give the total demand, approaching its full load during this time. When the load
increases, we cannot switch any other transformer connected in parallel to fulfil the total demand. In
this way, we can run the system with maximum efficiency.

To maximize electrical power system availability: If the numbers of transformers are running in
parallel, we can shut down any of them for maintenance purposes and other parallel transformers in
the system will serve the load without completely interrupting power.

To maximize power system reliability: In case of any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped
due to fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share the load, consequently power supply
cannot be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.

To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a possibility of increasing or

decreasing future demand of power system. If it is projected that the power demand will be increased
in the future, it is necessary to connect the connecting transformers in the system in parallel to fulfil
the extra demand, since it is economically inexpedient to install a more powerful rated single
transformer by forecasting the increased future demand, as it is unnecessary investment of money.
Also, if future demand decreases, parallel transformers can be removed from the system to balance
the capital investment and its return.

40
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS USING ETAP
ETAP is Electrical Transient Analyzer Program. This software provides engineers, operators, and
managers a platform for continuous functionality from modeling to operation. ETAP‟s model-driven
architecture enables „Faster than Real-Time‟ operations - where data and analytics meet to provide
predictive behavior, preemptive action, and situational intelligence to the owner-operator. ETAP
offers a suite of fully integrated electrical engineering software solutions including arc flash, load flow,
short circuit, transient stability, relay coordination, cable capacity, optimal power flow, and more. Its
modular functionality can be customized to fit the needs of any company, from small to large power
systems. Here we are focusing on load flow studies of 220 kV/132 kV/33 kV substation.

2.2 SUMMARY OF RELATED WORKS

For a deeper understanding of this thesis, it is important to cover important information about the
load flow analysis. The load flow is analysis is performed to determine whether the system voltages
operate within the specified voltage limits under normal or fault operating conditions. It is used to
determine the voltage drop at different points of the system, the voltage reading at each bus, and real
and reactive power losses through each branch and feeder. ETAP creates warnings if a feeder bus is
below the nominal voltage. Likewise, the load flow study is often performed to identify the need for
additional generation units, and the addition or replacement of capacitors and/or reactors to maintain
system voltages within specified limits [1]. From the information gathered from the load flow test, the
voltage profile of the system is of critical importance. If there is a substantial variation in the voltage
over the system, large reactive flows will occur. This could lead to an increase in real power losses,
and in extreme scenarios, a likelihood for system breakdown. It is a common practice to install
capacitor banks when a particular bus exhibits particularly low-voltage, to provide reactive
compensation to the load. The major cause of all the major power system disturbances is due to under
voltage [2]. The load flow study can also be performed to determine the optimum size and location of
capacitors. The simplest way to improve power factor is by adding power factor (PF) correction
capacitors to the electrical system. PF correction capacitors act as reactive current generators. They
help offset the non-working power used by inductive loads, thereby improving the power factor [3].
In the one-line drawing, the first two current transformers closer to the 138kV bus have a winding

41
ratio of 3000:5. The rest of the transformers below it, have a winding ratio of 2000:5. This information
is in agreement with the parameters displayed in the B&V original blueprints for the substation.

Electrical Fault: An electrical fault is defined as a condition in the electrical system that causes failure
of the electrical equipment in the circuit such as: generators, transformers, cables and all other
equipment in the system that operate at within defined voltage limits [4]. Equipment Overloading: A
circuit overload takes place when the amount of current flowing through the circuit exceeds the rating
of the protective devices. Exceeding the rated load for the circuit will cause the circuit breaker to trip,
shutting off the power of an entire region in the system. If there were no breakers in the circuit, an
overload would cause the circuit wiring to overheat, which could melt the wire insulation and lead to
a fire [5]. Series capacitors have very limited use in distribution systems. This is because of problems
with its implementation. The installment of these requires a large amount of vast engineering
investigation, so utilities often are reluctant to install series capacitors. Additionally, series capacitors
have the particularity of providing considerably less correction to the power factor [6]. Unlike series
capacitors, shunt capacitors are used very extensively in distribution circuits. Shunt capacitors supply
the amount of reactive power or current necessary to counteract the inductive effect of a load. By
installing shunt capacitors banks, the magnitude of the source current can be reduced, the power
factor can be improved, and hence the voltage drop between the sending end and the load is also
reduced [6]. Depending on the needs of a particular substation, fixed or automatically switched
capacitor banks may be installed. There are two main types of power factor correction capacitors:
fixed and automatic. Automatic capacitors also receive the name of switched capacitors. Automatic
capacitors vary the amount of correction (KVAR) supplied to an electrical system, while fixed
capacitors supply a constant amount of correction (KVAR) [6]. Fixed Capacitors. Fixed capacitor
installations are those that are permanently on the line. These capacitor banks are connected to the
system through a disconnecting device (i.e. switch). The importance of the switches is that they are
capable of interrupting the capacitor current, allowing removal of capacitors for maintenance
purposes. The use of fixed capacitor banks is recommended when a voltage boost to the system is
required during heavy load periods [7]. Key Terms: About Capacitors: University of Arkansas EE
Department Page | 8 Switched Capacitors. Switched capacitors are those where the capacitor bank is
switched in and out of service, depending upon the needs of the system. Typically, these are switched
on when the load requirements are the highest and switched off during light-load conditions. They
can be switched on/off as a block or in several consecutive stages as the reactive load increases from
light-load level to peak load and sized accordingly [7].

Conductor line sizing is a critical step of designing a substation. The size of conductors chosen for this
substation were designed to handle the rated current of the high and low voltage sides of the

42
substation plus an additional a safety margin. The transmission line conductor size was selected to
accommodate the above ratings plus a 30% safety margin for possibilities of load increment, voltage
drop, and power losses. The conductor selections indicate that a bare 2500 kcmil all aluminum
conductor was chosen for the 138kV high voltage side bus and a bare 1590 kcmil all aluminum
conductor was chosen for the rest of the substation. The 2500kcmil AAC (all aluminum conductor) is
rated for 1706 Amps and the 1590kcmil AAC is rated for 1333 Amps [8]. The 138kV high voltage side
bus conductor size was selected to be much larger than the rest of the substation. The reason is that
this bus will connect to several substations and other loads before it is terminated. The conductors
chose are bare all aluminum stranded conductors. This design choice has numerous advantages. The
bare conductors use the air around them as insulation. The stranded wires improve flexibility and
increase the surface area of wires exposed to the air. This helps the conductor to cool down, and hence
increases the conductivity. The chosen bare all aluminum conductor lines contribute the substation
design be safe, reliable, and cost effective. Based on the above calculations, a conductor with similar
ratings was chosen for the transmission lines in the substation. Relay co-ordination plays an important
role in the protection of power system. For proper protection, proper coordination of relays with
appropriate relay settings is to be done. Relay settings are done in such a way that proper co-
ordination is achieved along various series network. However the review of Co-ordination is always
essential since various additions / deletion of feeders and equipments will occur after the initial
commissioning of plants. As power can be received from generators of captive power plant, the
analysis becomes complex. So this study can be a base reference for relay as well as circuit breaker
ratings and plug setting of the protective devices.

The project work assigned to us was to design a 132/33 KV EHV substation. We considered incoming
power at 132 KV and the power was transferred to main bus through isolator-circuit breaker-isolator
combination. The power from main bus was fed into a 20MVA transformer which stepped the voltage
down to 33KV. The power is then fed into a 33KV bus from which different loads were tapped. In the
process, the surge impedance loading of 132 KV and 33 KV lines were calculated and they were used
to estimate the maximum power that can be transferred by one transmission line. The design of the
entire substation was made keeping in mind the most basic requirements of a proper substation
including the civil and domestic requirements. The design is then submitted to our mentor for
verification.

In a power system, load varies from one hour to another, reactive power varies accordingly which
results into unacceptable voltage variation. This affects the performance of load and other parameters
like power loss and power factor. This paper deals with Simulation of 132 / 11 kV Distribution Sub
Station using SVC for voltage enhancement. Load Flow I carried out, considering balanced system

43
during peak load condition, with the voltage enhancement is the main objective. Other objectives of
the paper are the reduction in power loss and improvement in power factor. Simulation is developed
in Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) environment and recorded parameters are compared
with Simulation results. Modern power system is different from older system. The character of load is
drastically changed now days. As most of the load is controlled and operated by using digital
electronics controller. It is also important to focus on protection of the modern power system. For
healthy operation of electrical power generation, transmission and distribution, it is important that
system should be balanced and fault current should be in design limits. This paper deals with the
simulation of 220/132 kV substation fault current calculation. The analysis is done by using advance
software Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) with detailed short circuit analysis. All the data
used for analysis is real time and collected from 220/132 KV substation under M.S.E.T.C.L.

Electricity Transmission Corporation Limited (MSETCL) which comprises of 16 Transmission Lines, 3

cables, 4 Power Transformers, 27 Circuit Breakers, 27 Current Transformers, 27 Buses, 4 Potential
Transformers and 56 Isolating switches, and 15 Load Centres. The major cause of almost all power
system disturbances is under voltage, voltage drops and power factor. In order to identify and pinpoint
these disturbances, load flow studies are conducted. The result of these studies help to address the
system disturbances with the help of additional devices (capacitors..etc). Short circuits can occur
anywhere in the system. In order to protect the system against short circuits, it is necessary to install
circuit breakers which can safely isolate the circuit in fault conditions. The results of these studies help
in proper selection & settings of protective device such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays used in
the protection scheme. Thus helping utilities maintain a safe, reliable and efficient electrical
distribution system The single line diagram of the substation is simulated in ETAP based upon actual
data, and it is seen that at the 11kV, 33kV feeder buses and 132 kV buses there is under voltage. To
overcome the under voltage at the 11kV, 33kV feeder buses and 132 kV buses capacitor bank of
suitable ratings are added. Power System study and analyses are important parts of power system
engineering. This innovative concept deal with a 132 kV Grid simulation in Electrical Transient Analyzer
Program (ETAP). Existing power distribution system in Pakistan consists of approximately 6000 11 kV
feeders, which are mainly analyzed by software FDR-ANA (Feeder Analyses). This software does not
have capability to provide comprehensive analyses for integrated power system which is essential.
This research paper focused on the detailed analyses and monitoring by using the most modern
software ETAP, which performs numerical calculations of large integrated power system with fabulous
speed besides, generating output reports. In a developing country like Pakistan it is first time that
Offline monitoring is made which includes current flowing in every branch, power factor, active and
reactive power flow, harmonic distortion etc. of large power system. Based upon the recorded data

44
obtained from an actual 132 kV grid which has been implemented in ETAP for Off-line monitoring and
analyses. The main objective of this thesis is to simulate and analyze the 220 KV Substations. The
simulation and analysis includes power flow analysis and short circuit analysis. Power flow study also
known as load flow constitutes an important part of power system analysis and design of any power
system network. The power flow analysis and short circuit analysis is done in the Power World
Simulator Software. For the power flow analysis using the single line diagram of 220 KV substations,
the model of the substation is developed in the Power World Simulator. The different kinds of faults
are also simulated at various buses of the substation. Power World Simulator is very useful software
for analyzing power system operation. By doing the power flow analysis in the Power World Simulator
we estimate the real and reactive power flows, power losses in the entire network and phase angle
using Power World Simulator. Short circuit analysis is also useful to select, set, and coordinate
protective equipment such as circuit breakers, fuses, relays, and instrument transformers. Simulation
technique is very useful in the power system planning and design.

Load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power systems as well as in
determining the best operation of existing systems. In this paper analysis of 132/33/11 kV substation
using ETAP software is carried out with an approach to overcome the problem of an under voltage,
line losses and voltage drops. Load Flow Studies using ETAP software is an excellent tool for system
planning. A number of operating procedures can be analyzed such as the loss of generator, a
transmission line, a transformer or a load. This can be used to determine the optimum size and
location of capacitors to surmount the problem of an under voltage. Also, they are useful in
determining the system voltages under conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads. Load
flow studies determine if system voltages remain within specified limits under various contingency
conditions, and whether equipment such as transformers and conductors are overloaded. It was often
used to identify the need for additional generation, capacitive, or inductive VAR support, or the
placement of capacitors and/or reactors to maintain system voltages within specified limits. Short
circuits studies are the most required in a power system in order to adequately size the devices, so
that they are capable to handle the short circuit currents. Also these studies provide information
regarding the intensity and the probable damage which can be caused in the event of the short circuit.
These studies also help to adequately design the protection system. And, equally important, short
circuit study is the prerequisite for Relay Co-ordination and Arc Flash Studies. The implementation of
a voltage regulator to the system was considered. Nevertheless, the drawing corresponding to this
piece of equipment was not available on ETAP. So, the effect of this device could not be demonstrated
with simulations. Despite this fact, it is worth mentioning the effect of voltage regulator in the
performance of the system. Voltage regulators are often implemented both at the substation and out

45
on distribution lines to help maintain a constant voltage level along the feeders. Their operation
consists on automatically regulating voltage changes, trying to maintain a constant voltage level. They
raise or lower the voltage on the distribution lines to as the amount of load on the line changes [6].
Incorporating a voltage regulator to the system would be advantageous, since they minimize
variations in voltage in order to protect the equipment using the electricity. In power distribution
systems, the regulators may be placed at the substations or on the feeder lines themselves. Two
common types of regulators are used: step regulators, in which switches normalize the current supply,
and induction regulators, in which an induction motor supplies a University of Arkansas EE Department
Page | 20 secondary, constantly adjusted voltage to even out current variations in the feeder line [13].
It can be mentioned that a fixed capacitor is not a voltage regulator and cannot be directly compared
to regulators. Nevertheless, in some instances, automatically switched capacitors can replace
conventional step-type voltage regulators for voltage control on distribution feeders [6].

Recent advances in engineering sciences have brought a revolution in the field of electrical
engineering after the development of powerful computer based software. This research work high-
lights the effective use of Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) software for Short Circuit
Studies. Transmission networks of present power systems are becoming progressively more stressed
because of increasing demand and limitations on building new lines. One of the consequences of such
a stressed system is the risk of losing stability following a disturbance. Transients occur due to various
disturbances like sudden change in the load, switching of the power electronics devices and capacitor
banks, loss of the synchronous generators. The short circuit fault can occurs due to any reason. In
electrical devices unintentional short circuits are usually caused when a wire's insulation breaks down,
or when another conducting material is introduced, allowing charge to flow along a different path
than the one intended. In mains circuits, short circuits may occur between two phases, between a
phase and neutral or between a phase and earth (ground). Such short circuits are likely to result in a
very high current and therefore quickly trigger an over current protection device. However, it is
possible for short circuits to arise between neutral and earth conductors, and between two conductors
of the same phase. Such short circuits can be dangerous, particularly as they may not immediately
result in a large current and are therefore less likely to be detected. Possible effects include
unexpected energization of a circuit presumed to be isolated. A short circuit fault current can, within
milliseconds, be thousands of times larger than the normal operating current of the system. Damage
from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit breakers, or other overload
protection, which disconnect the power in reaction to excessive current. Overload protection must be
chosen according to the current rating of the circuit. In IEC short-circuit calculations; an equivalent
voltage source at the fault location replaces all voltage sources. A voltage factor c is applied to adjust

46
the value of the equivalent voltage source for minimum and maximum current calculations. All
machines are represented by their internal impedances. Transformer taps can be set at either the
nominal position or at an operating position, and different schemes are available to correct
transformer impedance and system voltages if off-nominal tap setting exists. System impedances are
assumed to be balanced 3-phase, and the method of symmetrical components is used for unbalanced
fault calculations. Zero sequence capacitances of transmission lines, cables and shunt admittances can
be considered for unbalanced fault calculations (LG and LLG) if the option in the study case is selected
to include branch Y and static load. This means that the capacitances of static loads and branches are
considered based on IEC 60909-0 2001. Calculations consider electrical distance from the fault location
to synchronous generators. For a far-from generator fault, calculations assume that the steady-state
value of the short-circuit current is equal to the initial symmetrical short-circuit current and only the
DC component decays to zero. However, for a near-to-generator fault, calculations count for decaying
in both AC and DC components. The equivalent R/X ratios determine the rates of decay of both
components, and different values are taken for generators and loads near the fault. Relay co-
ordination plays an important role in the protection of power system. For proper protection, proper
coordination of relays with appropriate relay settings is to be done. Relay settings are done in such a
way that proper co-ordination is achieved along various series network. However the review of Co-
ordination is always essential since various additions / deletion of feeders and equipment will occur
after the initial commissioning of plants. As power can be received from generators of captive power
plant, the analysis becomes complex. So this study can be a base reference for relay as well as circuit
breaker ratings and plug setting of the protective devices.

47
 CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Conductor line sizing is a critical step of designing a substation. The size of conductors chosen for this
substation were designed to handle the rated current of the high and low voltage sides of the
substation plus an additional a safety margin. The calculations below display the rated current of the
high and low voltage sides for the substation, using the equations from reference [6]:

The transmission line conductor size was selected to accommodate the above ratings plus a 30% safety
margin for possibilities of load increment, voltage drop, and power losses. The conductor selections
indicate that a bare 2500 kcmil all aluminum conductor was chosen for the 138kV high voltage side
bus and a bare 1590 kcmil all aluminum conductor was chosen for the rest of the substation. The
2500kcmil AAC (all aluminum conductor) is rated for 1706 Amps and the 1590kcmil AAC is rated for
1333 Amps [8]. The 138kV high voltage side bus conductor size was selected to be much larger than
the rest of the substation. The reason is that this bus will connect to several substations and other
loads before it is terminated. The conductors chose are bare all aluminum stranded conductors. This
design choice has numerous advantages. The bare conductors use the air around them as insulation.
The stranded wires improve flexibility and increase the surface area of wires exposed to the air. This
helps the conductor to cool down, and hence increases the conductivity. The chosen bare all aluminum
conductor lines contribute the substation design be safe, reliable, and cost effective. Based on the
above calculations, a conductor with similar ratings was chosen for the transmission lines in the
substation.

With all the parameters filled out for each piece of equipment, the first load flow simulation is
performed. For this simulation, the substation parameters given by Black & Veatch were applied. That
includes the size of the capacitor bank and the ratings for all pieces of equipment. For the first scenario
tested, the load power factor of one of the feeders is set to a particularly low power factor. The loads
placed on the other two feeders were set to acceptable operating power factors. For substations with
large inductive loads, the operating power factor normally ranges from 80% to 95% [6].

48
When running this simulation, the ETAP software also flagged the power transformer on the high
voltage side of the substation. As displayed in the pictures as follows, the voltage through the power
transformer is overloaded at 102.5%. ETAP highlights the overloaded transformer in red. During
overloading scenarios, excess heat will cause the insulation system to break down, resulting in
decreased life expectancy of the transformer [6]. This suggest that an optimization of the system is
required. It can be observed that introducing a load with a lagging power factor of 0.60 significantly
drops the voltage on each of the feeders to about 64.97 kV. The change represents a decrease of 5.84%
of the nominal voltage (69kV). All of the feeders have the same configuration and parameters, and are
connected in parallel. For this reason, the voltage reading through each of them is the same. The
percentage voltage drop observed to the left of each feeder corresponds to voltage change through
the transmission line. In the same way, the reading of real and reactive power consumed by the load
is displayed to the right of each feeder. The results from the simulation indicate that the size of the
capacitor bank is not large enough to compensate the inductive effect of the loads. As explained in
the book Electrical Power Distribution Engineering by Gonen, shunt capacitors can be used to control
the voltage drop in the system caused by inductive loads [6]. In particular, shunt capacitor banks are
widely used to improve the power factor in the network. At the same time, they improve voltage
stability and reduce network losses. Improving the power factor also results in a higher power
transmission capability and improved control of the power flow [6]. To optimize the system’s voltage
stability, the approach of modifying the size of the existing fixed capacitor bank. The goal of
performing this change is to bring up the voltage level at the loads and try to correct the overloading
at the transformer.

The implementation of a voltage regulator to the system was considered. Nevertheless, the drawing
corresponding to this piece of equipment was not available on ETAP. So, the effect of this device could
not be demonstrated with simulations. Despite this fact, it is worth mentioning the effect of voltage
regulator in the performance of the system. Voltage regulators are often implemented both at the
substation and out on distribution lines to help maintain a constant voltage level along the feeders.
Their operation consists on automatically regulating voltage changes, trying to maintain a constant
voltage level. They raise or lower the voltage on the distribution lines to as the amount of load on the
line changes [6]. Incorporating a voltage regulator to the system would be advantageous, since they
minimize variations in voltage in order to protect the equipment using the electricity. In power
distribution systems, the regulators may be placed at the substations or on the feeder lines themselves.
Two common types of regulators are used: step regulators, in which switches normalize the current
supply, and induction regulators, in which an induction motor supplies a University of Arkansas EE
Department Page | 20 secondary, constantly adjusted voltage to even out current variations in the

49
feeder line [13]. It can be mentioned that a fixed capacitor is not a voltage regulator and cannot be
directly compared to regulators. Nevertheless, in some instances, automatically switched capacitors
can replace conventional step-type voltage regulators for voltage control on distribution feeders [6].

3.2 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

The load flow study of 132/33/11kV substation is divided in 3 categories; the load flow studies are
conducted using Newton-Raphson method and the following are the tabulated results;

OPTIMUM LOAD

In this category all the sources are feeding the loads, and are on.

All the bus couplers are closed

All the loads are in normal configuration

MINIMUM LOAD

In this category all the sources are feeding the loads, and are on.

All the bus couplers are closed

All the loads are in minimum configuration

MAXIMUM LOAD

In this category two sources are feeding the loads, and are on.

All the bus couplers are open

All the loads are in maximum configuration

3.2.1 OBSERVATIONS ON THE LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

 It is quite clear that the line drops/losses are higher than the tolerable limits. This is resulting
in reduced voltages at the load buses. Hence the load is getting operated at reduced voltages,
which might lead to over current and overheating of the load equipment.
 In the ‘maximum load’ simulation, the transformers are getting overloaded, which might lead
to unnecessary tripping.
 Line voltage drops have exceeded the maximum tolerable limits.

3.3 CALCULATION METHODOLOGY

In IEC short-circuit calculations; an equivalent voltage source at the fault location replaces all voltage
sources. A voltage factor c is applied to adjust the value of the equivalent voltage source for minimum

50
and maximum current calculations. All machines are represented by their internal impedances.
Transformer taps can be set at either the nominal position or at an operating position, and different
schemes are available to correct transformer impedance and system voltages if off-nominal tap setting
exists. System impedances are assumed to be balanced 3-phase, and the method of symmetrical
components is used for unbalanced fault calculations. Zero sequence capacitances of transmission
lines, cables and shunt admittances can be considered for unbalanced fault calculations (LG and LLG)
if the option in the study case is selected to include branch Y and static load. This means that the
capacitances of static loads and branches are considered based on IEC 60909-0 2001. Calculations
consider electrical distance from the fault location to synchronous generators. In the short-circuit
calculations of the IEC, All voltage sources are replaced by an equivalent voltage source at the fault
location. In order to adjust the equivalent voltage source's value for minimum and maximum current
calculations, a voltage factor of c is used. Internal impedances are a representation of every machine.
If an off-nominal tap setting is present, various schemes are available to correct the impedance of the
transformer and the system voltages. Transformer taps can be set to either the nominal position or
an operating position. For unbalanced fault calculations, it is assumed that the impedances of the
system are balanced and three-phase. If the option in the study case is chosen to include branch Y and
static load, zero sequence capacitances of transmission lines, cables, and shunt admittances can be
taken into consideration for unbalanced fault calculations (LG and LLG).As a result, the capacitances
of static loads and branches are taken into account in accordance with IEC 60909-0 2001.Electrical
distances from the fault location to synchronous generators are taken into account in the calculations.
Calculations for a far-from-generator fault assume that only the DC component decays to zero and
that the steady-state value of the short-circuit current is the same as the initial symmetrical short-
circuit current. Calculations, on the other hand, account for decay in both AC and DC components in
the case of a fault close to the generator. The decay rates of the two components are determined by
the equivalent R/X ratios, with generators and loads close to the fault receiving different values.

For a far-from generator fault, calculations assume that the steady-state value of the short-circuit
current is equal to the initial symmetrical short-circuit current and only the DC component decays to
zero. However, for a near-to-generator fault, calculations count for decaying in both AC and DC
components. The equivalent R/X ratios determine the rates of decay of both components, and
different values are taken for generators and loads near the fault.

3.3.1 FORMULAS AND EQUATIONS

The short circuit current for a circuit in which the pre-load current can be ignored is:

51
Where,

Ɵ= impedance angle
α= initial phase displacement (or offset) angle of the source voltage, v (t)
The time constant, T, for the circuit is given by,

For a three phase fault, L and R are the positive sequence inductance and resistance of the system.
For an earth fault, L and R are derived from ZTOT = RTOT + jXTOT = Z1 + Z2 + Z0. The maximum
possible offset occurs when, α – Ɵ = ±90 i.e.

The asymmetrical R.M.S. equivalent of the transient current, I R.M.S., is given by,

K is called the asymmetry factor. The asymmetrical r.m.s. fault current varies from √3·IAC when t = 0
to IAC when t is large where IAC = Init Sym RMS. Note that the asymmetrical rms current does not
form part of IEC60909. The peak current, Ip, as per IEC 60909 is given by

52
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1 RESULTS
With all the parameters filled out for each piece of equipment, the first load flow simulation is
performed. For this simulation, the substation parameters given by Black & Veatch were applied. That
includes the size of the capacitor bank and the ratings for all pieces of equipment. For the first scenario
tested, the load power factor of one of the feeders is set to a particularly low power factor. The loads
placed on the other two feeders were set to acceptable operating power factors. For substations with
large inductive loads, the operating power factor normally ranges from 80% to 95%. Implementing a
particularly low power factor of 0.60 on one of the loads. The objective of doing this, is to determine
whether the size of the current capacitor bank (9 MVar) is sufficient to have the voltage operating
within permissible limits. Low power factors cause heavier current flow through the power
distribution lines, which brings about increased power losses in the system.

The results obtained in the first load flow scenario indicate that the feeders are under voltage. The
voltage at the feeders is at 94.16% of the nominal voltage which is 69kV. In other words, a voltage
drop of 5.84% of the nominal takes place at the feeders. This violates the National Standard for Utility
Voltage Regulation called ANSI C84.1. The feeders are operating below voltage, as shown by the
outcomes of the first load flow scenario. A voltage drop of 5.84 percent of the nominal occurs at the
feeders, where the voltage is 94.16 percent of the nominal voltage of 69 kV. This is against ANSI C84.1,
the National Standard for Utility Voltage Regulation. It states that the voltage service range should
never exceed 5% of the nominal value. Up to a maximum system voltage of 1,200 kV, this standard
includes preferred voltage ratings [10].Electrical faults can occur when voltages and currents deviate
from their nominal values. Equipment and devices are damaged when they are operating improperly.
Better and safer operating conditions are linked to higher power factors. It dictates that the voltage
service range should always remain within ±5% of nominal. This standard applies to any 60Hz electrical
power system University of Arkansas EE Department above 100 Volts. This standard includes preferred
voltage ratings up to 1,200kV maximum system voltage [10]. When voltages and currents deviate from
nominal values, electrical faults can occur. Fault operating conditions cause damage to equipment and
devices. Higher power factors are associated with improved and safer operating conditions.

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4.2 LOAD ANAYLYSIS ON ETAP

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4.3 CONCLUSION
Through this paper, the load flow analysis of a Grid station 132KV Larkana was examined for different
operating scenarios using ETAP. The results obtained from load flow study were used to make
pertinent adjustments to improve the system’s performance. Different approaches for power factor
corrections were examined, and considerations to keep in mind before any addition or modification
to the system were discussed. It is important to highlight that the ETAP simulation results confirmed
that the introduction of strategically sized and positioned shunt capacitors within the distribution
system, helps to counteract losses due to inductive elements and improves the voltage profile of the
network. It can be argued that the investment on fixed and switched capacitors comes with numerous
technical and financial benefits. These benefits include power loss reduction, improved voltage
stability, reducing equipment loading, and postponement in costly network upgrades. All in all, the
load flow analysis is of critical importance for ensuring an optimal system performance and for
preventing power outages. Load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power
systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. In this paper analysis of
132/33/11 kV substation using ETAP software is carried out with an approach to overcome the

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problem of an under voltage, line losses and voltage drops. Load Flow Studies using ETAP software is
an excellent tool for system planning. A number of operating procedures can be analyzed such as the
loss of generator, a transmission line, a transformer or a load. This can be used to determine the
optimum size and location of capacitors to surmount the problem of an under voltage. Also, they are
useful in determining the system voltages under conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads.
Load flow studies determine if system voltages remain within specified limits under various
contingency conditions, and whether equipment such as transformers and conductors are overloaded.
It was often used to identify the need for additional generation, capacitive, or inductive VAR support,
or the placement of capacitors and/or reactors to maintain system voltages within specified limits.

In this study, a comprehensive study for load flow analysis in distributed power system was presented.
Besides, a case study of modelling, simulation, and load flow analysis of the actual distributed power
system of LARKANA 132KV Grid Station using ETAP is implemented. In this paper, a comparison of
three common load flow techniques including Newton-Raphson, Fast Decoupled, and Accelerated
Gauss-Seidel was presented; the numerical methods of load flow were compared; the theoretical and
practical approaches of load flow have been learned, compared, and applied to solve the tasks given.
The results of load flow assessment (total generation, loading, demand, and power losses) were
obtained and analyzed. In addition, a load flow based simulation using ETAP were developed to find
out the optimum location of distribution system unit for load profile improvement and minimizing
power losses in the test distribution system. In order to improve speed performance and
computational accuracy in power system analysis, using powerful software like ETAP is very practical
and helpful, and it also offers a better view of the power network. Further research work can be done
for finding more powerful methods to solve the power flow equations with more efficiency in terms
of time, computer memory storage as well as robustness. In addition, understanding the best way of
load flow is economical, and therefore which can be a hot topic for future studies of the power
distribution system.

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APPENDIX A (RUNNING LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS ON ETAP)

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