INTERNSHIP TRAINING

REPORT
ON
132 KV GRID SUB STATION
(BEER), HISAR
A training report submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirement for
the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
BY
MANMOHIT
190152010035

Submitted to

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

GURU JAMBHESHWAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE OF TECHNOLOGY,
HISAR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A Substation receives electrical power from generating station via incoming transmission line and
delivers electrical power through feeders and this is used for controlling the power on different routes.
Substations are integral part of a power system and form important part of transmission and distribution
network of electrical power system.

Their main functions are to receive energy transmitted at high voltage from the generating stations,
reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for local distribution and provide facilities for switching some
sub-station are simply switching stations different connections between various transmission lines are
made, others are converting sub-stations which either convert AC into DC or vice-versa or convert
frequency from higher to lower or vice-versa.

The various circuits are joined together through these components to a bus-bar at substation. Basically,
Sub-station consists of power transformers, circuit breakers, relays, isolators, earthing switches, current
transformers, voltage transformers, synchronous condensers/ Capacitor banks etc.

This mini project covers the important equipments & their function in a Sub- Station. And also an
attempt is made to cover the general maintenance of Substation and Checks the observations to be made
by Shift Engine. .
 CONTENTS

1) CERTIFICATE…………………………………………………………….…………....……………...2
2) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................... 3
3) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... 6
4) CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….7
1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A SUBSTATION..................................................................... 7
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS: .................................................................. 8
1.4 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM: ......................................................................................... 8
1.5 FEEDER CERCUIT:..................................................................................................... 9
1.6 TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT: ....................................................................................... 9
5) CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................ 10
2.1 LIGHTENING ARRESTORS: ................................................................................... 10
2.2 EARTHING: ............................................................................................................... 11
2.3 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT): ............................................... 11
2.4 WAVE TRAP: ............................................................................................................. 12
6) CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………............................13
3.1 ISOLATOR…………………………………………………………..........................13
3.2 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:.......................................................................... 14
3.3 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS:................................................................................. 14
3.4 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PT): ..................................................................... 15
3.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER: ................................................................................................ 16
3.6 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:....................................................................................... 17
3.7 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER: ............................................................................. 19
7) CHAPTER 4…………...…………………………………………………………………….21
4.1 BUS:…………… ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2 TRANSFORMERS: .................................................................................................... 21
4.3 PARTS OF TRANSFORMER. ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4 BUS BAR SCHEME................................................................................................... 26
4.5 STATION BATTERY: .............................................................................................. 28
8) CHAPTER 5…………………………..……………………………………………………..29
4
 i). PROTECTION FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS: ..................................................... 29
5.1 TRANSFORMER ROTECTION: ............................................................................... 29
5.2 FEEDER PROTECTION: ........................................................................................... 29
5.3 RELAY………………………………………………………………………………30
5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAY………………………………………………..…..30
5.5 OVER CURRENT RELAY:....................................................................................... 30
5.6 DEFINITE TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY: ......................................................... 31
5.7 INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY: .......................................................... 31
5.8 INVERSE DEFINITE MINIMUM TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY OR IDMT
O/C RELAY: ................................................................................................................ 32
5.9 VOLTAGE RELAY……………………..………..…………………………………32
5.10 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY………………………………………………33
5.11 THERMAL RELAY………………………………………………………………..33
5.12 BUCHHOLZ RELAY: ............................................................................................. 34
9) IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN VIEW WHILE LAYING OUT
THE SUBSTATION: ..................................................................................................... 37
10) CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................... 38
11) REFERENCE……………………………………………………….……………………………...39

5
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EHV–Extra high voltage

SLD– Single line diagram

PT – Potential transformer

CT – Current transformer

HVCT- High voltage CT

LVCT – Low voltage CT

CVT – Capacitor voltage transformer

LA – Lightening arrestors

ES - Earth switches

CB – Circuit breaker

HV side – High voltage side

LV side – Low voltage side

PLCC - Power Line Carrier Communication

OLTC – On load tap changer

HG Fuse - -Horn gap fuse

OTI – Oil temperature indicator

WTI – Winding temperature indicator

IDMT Characteristics–Inverse definite minimum time characteristics.

6
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
The present-day electrical power system is A.C. i.e. electric power is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current. The electric power is produced at the power stations which
are located at favourable places, generally quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the
consumers through a large network of transmission and distribution. At many places in the line of the
power system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, A.C. to
D.C., frequency, Power factor etc.) of electric supply.

This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station. For example, generation voltage (11KV or
6.6KV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (say 220KV or 132KV) for transmission of
electric power. The assembly of apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose is the sub-station.
Similarly, near the consumer‟s localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level.
This job is again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called „substation.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A SUBSTATION:

At the time of constructing a substation, we have to consider some factors which affect the substation
efficiency like selection of site.

1.2.1 SELECTION OF SITE:

Main points to be considered while selecting the site for EHV Sub-Station are as follows:
 The site chosen should be as near to the load centre as possible.
 It should be easily approachable by road or rail for transportation of equipments.
 Land should be fairly levelled to minimize development cost.
 The source of water should be as near to the site as possible. This is because water is required for
various construction activities;
 (Especially civil works,), earthing and for drinking purposes etc.
 The sub-station site should be as near to the town / city but should be clear of public places,
aerodromes, and Military / police installations.
 The land should be have sufficient ground area to accommodate substation equipments, buildings,
staff quarters, space for storage of material, such as store yards and store sheds etc. with roads and
space for future expansion.
7
  Set back distances from various roads such as National Highways, State Highways should be
observed as per the regulations in force.
 While selecting the land for the substation preference to be given to the Govt. land over Private land.
 The land should not have water logging problem.
 The site should permit easy and safe approach to outlets for EHV lines.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS:

1. Generating substation

2. Grid substation (132kv)

3. Distribution substation (33kv, 11kv)

132 KV BEER(HISAR) SUB-STATION AT A GLANCE

A) TECHNICAL DETAILS:

Voltage Level: 132 KV

Total Land Area: 04 Acre
Switchyard Area with control room 04 Acre

B) PARTICULARS OF EXISTING 132 KV SIDE:

No. of 132 kv line feeders 02

No of Bays 07
No. of T/F 03
No. of Bus Coupler 01

C) PARTICULARS OF EXISTING 132 KV SIDE:

No. of 132 KV line feeders : 02

No of bays : 07
No of T/ : 01

1.4 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD):

A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the concerned Electrical
System which includes all the required electrical equipment connection sequence wise from the point of
entrance of Power up to the end of the scope of the mentioned Work. As in the case of 132KV
Substation, the SLD shall show Lightening Arrestor, C.T/P.T Unit, Isolators, Protection and Metering
P.T & C.T. Circuit Breakers, again Isolators and circuit Breakers, Main Power Transformer, all
protective devices/relays and other special equipment like CVT, GUARD RINGS, etc as per design
criteria. And the symbols are shown below. There are several feeders enter into the substation and
8
carrying out the power. As these feeders enter the station they are to pass through various instruments.

1.5 FEEDER CERCUIT:

1. Lightening arrestors; 2. CVT; 3. Wave trap; 4. Isolators with earth switch

5. Current transformer; 6. Circuit breaker; 7. Feeder Bus isolator
8. BUS; 9. Potential transformer in the bus with a bus isolator.

1.6 TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT:

1.6.1 HV side:
1. Transformer bus Isolator 3. Current transformer
2. Circuit breaker 4. Lightning Arrestors
5. Auto Transformer 100MVA (220/132KV)
1.6.2 LV side:
1. Lightening arrestors 5. Bus
2. Current transformer 6. Potential transformer with a bus isolator
3. Circuit breaker 7. A capacitor bank attached to the bus
4. Bus Isolator.

9
 CHAPTER 2

BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS IN THE SUBSTATION

2.1 LIGHTENING ARRESTORS:

Lightening arrestors are the instruments that are used in the incoming feeders so that to prevent the high
voltage entering the main station. This high voltage is very dangerous to the instruments used in the
substation. Even the instruments are very costly, so to prevent any damage lightening arrestors are used.
The lightening arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on the station. If some lightening occurs the
arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth. In any substation the main important is of
protection which is firstly done by these lightening arrestors. The lightening arrestors are grounded to the
earth so that it can pull the lightening to the ground.
These are located at the entrance of the transmission line in to the substation and as near as possible to
the transformer terminals.
 LA will be provided on the support insulators to facilitate leakage current measurement and to count
the no of surges discharged through the LA.
 LA bottom flange will be earthed via leakage ammeter and surge counter. Leakage current is to be
recorded periodically. If the leakage current enters into the red range from the green range, the LA is
prone for failure. Hence, it is to be replaced.
 There should be independent earth pit for LA in each phase so as to facilitate fast discharging and to
raise the earth potential.
The lightning arresters or surge diverters provide protection against such surges. A lightning arrester or a
surge diverter is a protective device, which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the
ground.

10
(i) Surge diverter
(ii) Characteristics of the non linear resister

Fig shows the basic form of a surge diverter. It consists of a spark gap in series with a non-linear resistor.
One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of the equipment to be protected and the other end is
effectively grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal voltage is not enough to cause an arc but
a dangerously high voltage will break down the air insulation and form an arc. The property of the non-
linear resistance is that its resistance increases as the voltage (or current) increases and vice-versa. This
is clear from the volt/amp characteristic of the resistor shown in Fig.

2.2 EARTHING:
The earthing practice adopted at generating stations, sub-stations and lines should be in such a
manner as to provide:
a) Safety to personnel
b) Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy fault currents
c) Improve reliability of power supply.

2.2.1 THE PRIMARY REQUIREMENTS ARE:

The impedance to ground (Resistance of the earthing system) should be as low as possible and should not
exceed,

Large sub-stations -1 ohm

Small sub-stations -2 ohms Power stations -0.5 ohms
Distribution transformer stations- 5 ohms

All exposed steel earthing conductors should be protected with bituminous paint.

2.3 CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (CVT):

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step-down extra high
voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to operate a protective relay.
These are high pass Filters (carrier frequency 50KHZ to 500 KHZ) pass carrier frequency to carrier
panels and power frequency parameters to switch yard. In its most basic form the device consists of three

11
parts: two capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the
device and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage.

Circuit diagram of cvt.

The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a
ground terminal and at least one set of secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or
protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one
hundred KV where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice the first
capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series.

2.4 WAVE TRAP:

Wave trap is an instrument using for trapping of the wave. The function
of this wave trap is that it traps the unwanted waves. Its shape is like a
drum. It is connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap
the waves which may be dangerous to the instruments in the substation.
Generally it is used to exclude unwanted frequency components, such as
noise or other interference, of a wave.

12
 CHAPTER 3
3.1 ISOLATOR:

Isolator is a type of switching device. It has non control devices. Isolator are operated after the circuit
breaker is opened. While closing the circuit, first close the isolator and after the circuit breaker is closed.
Strictly speaking Isolators are operated under no current condition. In the following cases it is
permissible to use isolator for making and breaking of the circuits.

ISOLATORS AT BEER(HISAR) SUBSTATION:

In BEER (HISAR) Substation the isolators used are single break and double break isolators. All the
isolators used in the substation are manually and electrically operated.

Ratings of Isolator
Make : SIEMENS
Rated voltage : 145 KV motorized type

Electric motor : 1HP,1385 rpm, 415 v,1.95 A

Reduction gear ratio : 20:1
Opening and Closing time : 10 to 12 sec approx.
Auxillary contacts : 8 NO +8 NC,10 A.
13
3.2 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:
“Instrument Transformers are defined as the instruments in which the secondary current or voltage is
substantially proportional to the primary current or voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle
which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of connection”.

Types of Instrument Transformers:

Instrument transformers are of two types:

 Current Transformers

 Voltage Transformers

3.3 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS:

Current transformer is a current measuring device used to measure the currents in high voltage lines
directly by stepping down the currents to measurable values by means of electromagnetic circuit.

 Ampere turns plays very important role in designing current transformers.

 Current transformers must be connected in series only.

 Current transformer has less no of turns in primary and more no of turns in secondary.

 The secondary current is directly proportional to primary current.

 The standards applicable to CT's are IEC-60044-1 and IS – 2705.

Simple Line Diagram of Current Transformer:

The line diagram of a current transformer contains different components:

14
Primary Winding: It is the winding which is connected in series with the circuit, the current of which
is to be transformed.

These are of two types:

1. Single turn primary winding 2. Multi-turn primary winding

Secondary winding: The winding which supplies the current to the measuring instruments, meters,
relays, etc.

Burden: The relay, instrument or other device connected to the secondary winding is termed as
'burden' of a current transformer..

3.4 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (PT):

An instrument transformer in which the secondary voltage, in normal conditions of use, is substantially
proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero
for an appropriate direction of the connections.

Basic Functions of Voltage Transformers are:

 To reduce the line voltage to a value which is suitable for standard measuring instruments relays etc.

 To isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays etc. from high voltage side an installation.

 To sense abnormalities in voltage and give signals to protective relays to isolate the defective
system.

Simple Line Diagram of Voltage Transformer:

15
 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.

3.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER:

The circuit breakers are used to break the circuit if any fault occurs in any of the instrument. These
circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can damage other instrument in the station. For any unwanted
fault over the station we need to break the line current. This is only done automatically by the circuit
breaker.

Arc quenching medium:

 Bulk oil (called bulk oil circuit breakers-BOCB)

 Minimum oil (called minimum oil circuit breakers-MOCB)

 Natural air (called air circuit breakers-ACB) (415v)

 Forced air (called air blast circuit breaker-ABCB)

 Vacuum (called vacuum circuit breaker-VCB)

 SF6 gas (called Sulphur Hexafluoride-SF6 gas CB).

There are mainly two types of circuit breakers used for any substations. They are
1. SF6 circuit breakers 2. Vacuum circuit breakers.

16
3.6 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc extinguishing
properties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with pressure and is more than the dielectric
strength of oil at 3 kg/cm2. SF6 is now being widely used in electrical equipment like high voltage metal
enclosed cables; high voltage metal clad switchgear, capacitors, circuit breakers, current transformers,
bushings, etc. The gas is liquefied at certain low temperature, liquidification temperature increases with
the pressure.

Sulphur hexafluoride gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in the fluorine gas, in a
steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4 kg of sulphur. The steel box
is made gas tight.

The use of SF6 circuit breaker is mainly in the substations which are having high input KV, say above
220KV and more. The gas is put inside the circuit breaker by force i.e. under high pressure. When if the
gas gets decreases there is a motor connected to the circuit breaker. The motor starts operating if the gas
went lower than
20.8 bar. There is a meter connected to the breaker so that it can be manually seen if the gas goes low.
The circuit breaker uses the SF6 gas to reduce the torque produce in it due to any fault in the line. The
circuit breaker has a direct link with the instruments in the station, when any fault occur alarm bell rings.

Some of the properties of SF6 are,

 Very high dielectric strength

 High thermal and chemical inertia
 Superior arc extinguishing capability
 Low decomposition by arcing

17
SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS.

18
3.7 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

A vacuum circuit breaker is a kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in a vacuum
medium. The operation of switching on and closing of current carrying contacts and interrelated arc
interruption takes place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called a vacuum interrupter.
The vacuum circuit breaker comprises a steel arc chamber in the center-symmetrically arranged ceramic
insulators. The pressure inside the vacuum interrupter is maintained below 10^-4 torr. The material used
for current-carrying contacts plays an important role in the performance of the vacuum circuit breaker.
Alloys like, Copper-bismuth or copper-chrome is the ideal material to make VCB contacts.

From the figure shown above, the Vacuum circuit breaker consists of fixed contact, a moving contact,
and a vacuum interrupter. The moving contact is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel
bellow. The arc shields are supported o the insulating housing such that they cover these shields and is
prevented from condensing on the insulating enclosure. The possibility of a leak is eliminated due to the
permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber for that a glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer
insulating body.

Working of Vacuum Circuit Breaker:

The sectional view of a vacuum circuit breaker is shown in the figure below when the contacts are
separated due to some abnormal conditions, an arc is struck between the contacts, the arc is produced
due to ionization of metal ions and depends very much on the material of contacts.
The arc interruption in vacuum interrupters is different from other types of circuit breakers. The
separation of contacts causes the release of vapor which is filled in the contact space. It consists of

19
positive ions liberated from the contact material. The vapor density depends on the current in the arc.
When the current decreases, the rate of vapor release decreases, and after current zero, the medium
regains its dielectric strength if the vapor density is reduced.
When the current to be interrupted is very small in a vacuum, the arc has several parallel paths. The total
current is divided into many parallel arcs that repel each other and spread over the contact surface. This
is called a diffused arc which can be interrupted easily. At high values of current, the arc gets
concentrated in a small region. It causes rapid vaporization of the contact surface. The interruption of the
arc is possible if the arc remains in a diffused state. If it is quickly removed from the contact surface, the
arc will be re-strike.
Arc extinction in vacuum breakers is greatly influenced by the material and shape of the contacts and the
technique of considering metal vapor. The path of the arc is kept moving so that temperature at any one
point will not be high. After the final arc interruption, there is a rapidly building up of dielectric strength
which is peculiar of the vacuum breaker.

The Breakers used in BEER (HISAR) sub-station are of SF6 type:

Circuit Breakers both of 132 KV ratings used at Beer (Hisar) Sub Station are of SF6 type. SF6 used
here for its arc extinction property.
Which reduces the production of arc almost at the time of opening or closing of the breaker.
Ratings of Circuit Breakers (132 KV).

Make : SIEMENS
Rated voltage : 145 kV
Lightening impulse : 650 kV
Withstand voltage
Short Ckt. Breaking current : 40 kA
Short time withstand : 40 kA , 3 Sec.
Current and duration
Rated Power freq. : 275 kV
Withstand voltage
Rated normal current : 3150 A
Line charging : 50 A
Breaking current
Impulse weight of SF6 gas : 8.1 kg
Frequency : 50Hz.

20
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 BUS:
The bus is a line in which the incoming feeders come into and get into the instruments for further step up
or step down. The first bus is used for putting the incoming feeders in la single line. There may be
double line in the bus so that if any fault occurs in the one the other can still have the current and the
supply will not stop. The two lines in the bus are separated by a little distance by a conductor having a
connector between them. This is so that one can work at a time and the other works only if the first is
having any fault.

4.2 TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers come in a range of sizes from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power
grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designsis wide. While new
technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are
essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically
practical.

21
Basic Principle:
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field
(electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage
across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).
Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing
magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure; Current passing through the primary coil creates a
magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic
permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both primary and secondary
coils.

Induction law:

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction,
which states that, where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and Φ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil.

Operation:

The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current
required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the
secondary circuit.

22
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of
zero resistance. When voltage is applied to the primary winding, small current flows, driving flux around
the magnetic circuit of the core. The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing
current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is
negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding. Since the ideal
windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS
measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF,
acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF". This is due
to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose
development of any such change in magnetic field.

There are three transformers in the incoming feeders so that the three lines are step down at the same
time. In case of a 220KV or more KV line station auto transformers are used. While in case of lower KV
line such as less than 132KV line double winding transformers are used.

23
 Ratings of transformer 132kV 10/16MVA

No of transformer : 1
132/33 kv : 1
Make : ECE
Type : Two windings
No. of phase : 3
Rated Voltage : HV 132kV
LV 33 kV
Rated line Current : HV 174.95
LV699.82
Frequency : 50Hz
Insulation Level : HV L1( 550/AC 230)
: Hvn&LVN L 170/AC70LV(170/AC70)
Core and oil mass : 45800kg
Tank and fitting mass : 17350kg
Mass of oil : 16350kg
Total weight : 79500kg
Volume of oil : 18400 l
Ratings of transformer : 132kV 10/16MVA.

ARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
4.3 PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER:
Transformers are used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another through electromagnetic
induction. They are used either to step up or step down voltage levels. A transformer is made of several
different parts that function in their own different ways to enhance the overall functioning of a
transformer. These include core, windings, insulating materials, transformer oil, tap changer, conservator,
breather, cooling tubes, Buchholz Relay and explosion vent. The core, windings, insulating materials and
transformer oil are seen in almost every transformer, while the other components are seen in transformers
that are more than 50 KVA.

24
1. CORE:
The core of the transformer is used to support the windings. It is made of soft iron to reduce eddy current
loss and Hysteresis loss, and provides low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. The diameter of a
transformer‟s core is directly proportional to copper loss and inversely proportional to iron loss.

2. WINDINGS:
Windings consist of several copper coil turns bundled together, each bundle connected to form a complete
winding. Windings can be based either on the input-output supply or on the voltage range. Windings that
are based on supply are classified into primary and secondary windings, meaning the windings to which
the input and output voltage is applied respectively. On the other hand, windings based on voltage range
can be classified into high voltage and low voltage windings.

3. INSULATING MATERIALS:
Insulating materials like papers and card boards are used to isolate primary and secondary windings from
each other as well as the transformer core. These windings are made of copper due to high conductivity
and ductility. High conductivity minimizes the amount of copper needed and minimizes losses. Moreover,
high ductility results in easy bending of conductors into tight winding around the core that also minimizes
the amount of copper and volume of winding.

4. TRANSFORMER OIL:
The transformer oil insulates as well as cools the core and coil assembly. The core and windings of the
transformer must be completely immersed in the oil that normally contains hydrocarbon mineral oils.

5. CONSERVATOR:
The conservator is an airtight metallic cylindrical drum fitted above the transformer that conserves the
transformer oil. It is vented at the top and is filled only half with the oil to allow expansion and
contraction during temperature variations. However the main tank of the transformer with which the
conservator is connected is completely filled with the oil through a pipeline.

6. BREATHER:
The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel, which is used to keep the air that enters the
tank moisture-free. This is because the insulating oil when reacts with moisture can affect the insulation
and cause internal faults, which is why it is a must to keep the air free from moisture. In the breather,
when the air passes through the silica gel, the moisture contents are absorbed by the silica crystals.

25
7. TAP CHANGER:
To balance voltage variations within the transformer, tap changers are used. There are two types of tap
changers – on load and off load. In on load tap changers, tapping can be changed without isolating
transformer from the supply, while in off load, the transformer needs to be disconnected from the supply.

8. COOLING TUBES:

As the name suggests, cooling tubes are used to cool the transformer oil. The circulation of oil within the
transformer may be natural or forced. In the case of natural circulation, when the oil temperature rises, the
hot oil naturally moves to the top and cold oil moves down, while in case of forced circulation, an eternal
pump is used.

9. BUCHHOLZ RELAY:

Placed over the connecting pipe that runs from the main tank to conservator tank the Buchholz Relay
senses the faults occurring within the transformer. It operates by the gases emitted due to decomposition
of transformer oil during internal faults. Thus, this device is used to sense and in turn protect the
transformer from internal faults.

10. EXPLOSION VENT:

The boiling hot oil from the transformer is expelled during internal faults through the explosion vent to
avoid explosion of the transformer. This is generally placed above the level of the conservatory tank.
Understanding all these parts of a transformer will help you understand transformers and their functions
much better. With a wide variety of transformers available, you need to know which transformer type is
the most suitable for you. However, for any kind of transformer purchase, you can get in touch with
Miracle Electronics who manufactures the best-in-class power transformers in India since over the past 20
years and has been successfully supplying its products to over 20 countries across the globe.

4.4 BUS BAR SCHEME

1. SINGLE BUS SCHEME:

Simplest and cheapest bus bar scheme. Maintenance and extensions of bus bars are not possible without
shutdown of the substation. Operation & maintenance of bus bar is easy.

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2. SINGLE BUS WITH SECTIONALISER:

Similar to the single bus scheme except the sectionalising breaker or isolator.
By keeping the sectionaliser open one section can be in service and the other can be taken for
maintenance or extension.
If a bus section breaker is provided bus bar protection can detect fault on any section and trip the
breakers connected to that section and isolate it.

3. SINGLE MAIN & TRANSFER SCHEME:

Individual CB can be taken out for maintenance on-load at a time.

The transfer bus coupler acts as the breaker for the circuit under by pass.
Individual circuits have a bypass isolator to connect to the transfer bus and this isolator will be closed
during bypass operation of that particular circuit.

4. DOUBLE BUS SCHEME:

Most commonly used bus scheme.

Normally load will be distributed on both the buses and the bus coupler will be kept closed.
For maintenance & extension of any one of the buses the entire load will be transferred to the other bus.
On load transfer of a circuit from one bus to the other bus is possible through bus isolators provided the
bus coupler is closed and thereby two buses are at the same potential.
On load bypassing of any circuit for breaker maintenance is not possible.

5. DOUBLE MAIN WITH BY-PASS ISOLATOR:

This bus arrangement provides the facilities of a double bus arrangement & a main and transfer bus
arrangement.
The bus to which the transfer bus isolator is connected can be used as a transfer bus also.
During the time a circuit is under bypass, the bus coupler will act as the breaker for the bypassed circuit.

6. DOUBLE MAIN & TRANSFER SCHEME:

In this bus scheme, in addition to the main buses there will be a separate transfer bus also.

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Since separate transfer bus is available there will be no need of transferring the load from one bus to the
other bus unlike in a double main cum transfer bus arrangement.
Other features are similar to the one described in double bus cum transfer bus arrangement.

7. DOUBLE BUS WITH 1 & ½ BREAKER SCHEME:

In this layout, two circuit have three breakers, the middle breaker ties the two circuits and hence is called
the tie breaker.
The combination of three breakers is called a diameter.
Parallel feeders from the same source should not be connected to the same diameter.
One great advantage of breaker and half scheme is that even both the buses are out of service , power can
be transferred from feeder to another.

8. DOUBLE BUS WITH DOUBLE BREAKER SCHEME:

This arrangement is very expensive one and hence followed in very important circuit only.
In this arrangement breaker maintenance for each circuit is possible.

4.5 STATION BATTERY:

Battery is heart of substation. In spite of using highly advanced protection switchgears, if we fail to keep
dc. battery healthy then we cant avoid the failure of operation of substation.
Proper maintenance is the key to dependable battery operation. Choosing a battery of sufficient
capacity helps insure its long life. A battery should be selected with ampere-hour(capacity sufficient to
carry electric load).
a) For 2 132 kv --- 220V,200AH
b) For 66kv 220KV,100AH

Details :
Sp. Gravity of acid : Dry
No. of cells : 107
Voltage per cell : 2.05V
Temp. : 27C
Make : NED
Current during charging : 20A.

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 CHAPTER 5
PROTECTION FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS:

5.1 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION:

 Station Transformer: HG Fuse protection on HV side and fuse protection on LV side and Vent pipe.
 Power transformers up to 7.5MVA.
 HV side: O/L & Directional E/L protection with highest element in O/L relays.
 LV side: O/L & E/L protection Buchholz Relay OLTC Buchholz Relay OTI and WTI.
 Power transformers from 8.0MVA and above: HV side O/L & Directional E/L protection with high
set element in O/L relays. LV side O/L & E/L protection: differential protection Buchholz Relay
OLTC Buchholz Relay OTI, WTI and PRV.
 Power transformers from 31.5MVA and above: Over flux protection & LV WTI in addition to
protection.
 220/132KV power transformers: Over flux protection on both HV & LV sides LBB protection on
HV side OLTC Buchholz phase wise in addition to protection.

5.2 FEEDER PROTECTION:

 33KV feeders: Non directional O/L & E/L protection with highest and IDMT
characteristics.
 132KV feeders: Main protection: Distance protection.
 Backup protection: Directional O/L & E/L protection.
 220KV feeders: Main-1 protection: Distance protection.
 Main-2protection: Distance protection, LBB protection, pole discrepancy Relay.

5.3 RELAYS:
Relay works as a protective device during abnormal condition. As every machine has its own a rating or
current capacity. When machine goes above its normal capacity it comes under the abnormal condition.
As when it operates at abnormal condition so there are the chances of causing any type of trouble that
resulting into the machine failiure . So we have an equipment relay which senses the abnormal
conditions and break the circuit. So we can say that relay is like a fuse which breaks the circuit at

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 abnormal condition

5.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS:

1. Based on actuating quantities :

a) Current relay

b) Voltage relay

c) Frequency relay

2. Based on logic protection for fault condition

a) Earth fault

b) Over current

c) Under voltage

d) Differential

3 Based on time characterstics

a) Definite time

b) IDMT

4. Based on its construction

a) Mechanical

b) Electromagnetic

c) Digital.

5.5 OVER CURRENT RELAY:

In an over current relay or o/c relay the actuating quantity is only current. There is only one current
operated element in the relay, no voltage coil etc. are required to construct this protective relay.
Working Principle of Over Current Relay:

In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When normal current flows through this
coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not sufficient to move the moving element of the relay,
as in this condition the restraining force is greater than deflecting force. But when the current through the
coil increases, the magnetic effect increases, and after a certain level of current, the deflecting force
generated by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force. As a result, the moving element

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starts moving to change the contact position in the relay. Although there are different types of overcurrent
relays but basic working principle of overcurrent relay is more or less same for all.

Types of Over Current Relay:

Depending upon time of operation, there are various types of Over Current relays, such as,
1. Instantaneous over current relay.
2. Definite time over current relay.
3. Inverse time over current relay.
Inverse time over current relay or simply inverse OC relay is again subdivided as inverse definite
minimum time (IDMT), very inverse time, extremely inverse time over current relay or OC relay.
Instantaneous Over Current Relay

Construction and working principle of instantaneous over current relay is quite simple.
Here generally a magnetic core is wound by a current coil. A piece of iron is so fitted by hinge support
and restraining spring in the relay, that when there is not sufficient current in the coil, the NO contacts
remain open. When the current in the coil crosses a preset value, the attractive force becomes enough to
pull the iron piece towards the magnetic core, and consequently, the no contacts get closed.

We refer the pre-set value of current in the relay coil as pickup setting current. This relay is referred as
instantaneous over current relay, as ideally, the relay operates as soon as the current in the coil gets higher
than pick upsetting current. There is no intentional time delay applied. But there is always an inherent
time delay which we cannot avoid practically.

5.6 DEFINITE TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY:

This relay is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up the value of the current. A
definite time overcurrent relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at an exact amount of time after it
picks up. Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pickup adjustment. .

5.7 INVERSE TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY:

Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. Here, the speed of rotation of
rotating part of the device is faster if the input current is more. In other words, time of operation inversely
varies with input current. This natural characteristic of electromechanical induction disc relay is very
suitable for overcurrent protection. If the fault is severe, it will clear the fault faster. Although time

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inverse characteristic is inherent to electromechanical induction disc relay, the same characteristic can be
achieved in microprocessor-based relay also by proper programming.

5.8 INVERSE DEFINITE MINIMUM TIME OVER CURRENT RELAY:

Ideal inverse time characteristics cannot be achieved, in an overcurrent relay. As the current in the system
increases, the secondary current of the current transformer is increased proportionally. The secondary
current enters the relay current coil. But when the CT becomes saturated, there would not be a further
proportional increase of CT secondary current with increased system current. From this phenomenon, it is
clear that from trick value to certain range of faulty level, an inverse time relay shows specific inverse
characteristic. But after this level of fault, the CT becomes saturated and relay current does not increase
further with increasing faulty level of the system. As the relay current does not increase further, there
would not be any further reduction in time of operation in the relay. We define this time as the minimum
time of operation. Hence, the characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a definite
minimum operating time as the current becomes very high. That is why the relay is referred as inverse
definite minimum time over current relay or simply IDMT relay.

5.9 VOLTAGE RELAY:

A relay refers to an electrically operated switch or component used to break or interrupt a circuit.
Voltage relays run based on a preset level of voltage, or the force that drives an electrical current
between two points.
Working of over voltage relay:
Currents flow through the relay coil, creating a magnetic field. The field attracts the switch lever and
enables it to change position. Voltage switches typically offer two positions based on whether the coil's
current is on or off. Voltage relays can be over-voltage relays, under-voltage relays or a combination.

1 .OVER-VOLTAGE RELAY:

An over-voltage relay operates when the current produced by a load, or device connected to the output
of a circuit, exceeds a predetermined value.The over-voltage relay connects to a transformer, or device
that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another. The relay is calibrated to operate at or over a
preset voltage level. When the relay is switched on, one or multiple contacts trip, or open a circuit
breaker.

UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAY:

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2. UNDER-VOLTAGE RELAY: An under-voltage relay operates when the voltage that flows
through a relay‟s coil falls below a predetermined value. Under-voltage relays protect loads against
voltage drops that can lead to power shortages and brown-outs. The relay contacts trip the circuit
breaker when the voltage decreases to a certain level.

5.10 EMR (ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY):

This type of relay has an electromagnetic coil and a mechanical movable contact.
When the coil is energized it produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field attracts the armature
(movable contact). When the coil is de-energized the coil loose magnetic field and a spring retract the
armature to its normal position.

The EMR relay is designed for AC or DC source depending on the application it is used for. The structure
of AC & DC EMR relay differs from each other by having a slight difference in its coil construction. The
DC coil has a freewheeling diode for protection against back EMF & de-energizing the coil.
The polarity of the source in EMR relay does not matter, it energizes the coil in either way but if there is a
back EMF diode installed then polarity should be considered.
The main disadvantage of EMR relay is that its contacts produce arc during breaking which leads to
increasing its resistance over time & decreasing the lifespan of the relay.

5.11 ELECTROTHERMAL RELAY (THERMAL RELAY):

An electrothermal relay is made up of bimetallic (made up of two metals having different thermal
expansion coefficients) strip.

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When the current flow through the conductor, it produces heat. Due to which the temperature of the
bimetallic strip rises and expands. The metal having high thermal expansion coefficient expands more
than the other metal. Due which the strip bends & closes the contacts to usually activate the trip circuitry.

5.12 BUCHHOLZ RELAY:

A Buchholz relay is a safety device mounted on (some) oil-filled power transformers and reactors,
equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a “conservator”. Buchholz relays are used as a
protective device, as they are sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure that can occur inside the
equipment they protect. Buchholz relays are a type of gas detection relay.
Buchholz relays have two main elements. The upper element consists of a float. The float is attached to a
hinge in such a way that it can move up and down depending upon the oil level in the Buchholz relay
container. A mercury switch is fixed on the float. The alignment of the mercury switch hence depends
upon the position of the float.

The lower element consists of a baffle plate and a mercury switch. This plate is fitted on a hinge just in
front of the inlet (main tank side) of the Buchholz relay in a transformer in such a way that when oil
enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the alignment of the baffle plate along with the mercury
switch attached to it, will change. .
In addition to these main elements, a Buchholz relay has gas release pockets on top. The electrical leads
from both mercury switches are taken out through a molded terminal block.
Buchholz Relay Working Principle:
Buchholz relay function is based on a very simple mechanical phenomenon. It is mechanically actuated.
Whenever there will be a minor internal fault in the transformer such as an insulation fault between turns,
break down of core of the transformer, core heating, the insulating transformer oil will be decomposed in
different hydrocarbon gases, CO2 and CO.

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The gases produced due to the decomposition of transformer insulating oil will accumulate in the upper
part of the Buchholz container which causes a fall of the oil level in it. The video below shows a working
animation of a Buchholz relay: Fall of oil level means lowering the position of the float and thereby tilting
the mercury switch. The contacts of this mercury switch are closed and an alarm circuit energized.
Sometimes due to oil leakage on the main tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the upper part of the
Buchholz container which may also cause a fall of oil level in it and the alarm circuit will be energized.

By collecting the accumulated gases from the gas release pockets on the top of the relay and by analyzing
them one can predict the type of fault in the transformer.
More severe types of faults, such as short circuits between phases or to earth and faults in the tap
changing equipment, are accompanied by a surge of oil that strikes the baffle plate and causes the
mercury switch of the lower element to close.
This switch energized the trip circuit of the circuit breakers associated with the transformer and
immediately isolate the faulty transformer from the rest of the electrical power system by inter-tripping
the circuit breakers associated with both LV and HV sides of the transformer. This is how Buchholz relay
functions.

Buchholz Relay Operation:

The Buchholz relay operation may be actuated without any fault in the transformer. For instance, when oil
is added to a transformer, air may get in together with oil, accumulated under the relay cover, and thus
cause a false Buchholz relay operation.

That is why the mechanical lock is provided in that relay so that one can lock the movement of mercury
switches when oil is topping up in the transformer. This mechanical locking also helps to prevent

35
unnecessary movement of breakable glass bulbs of mercury switches during transportation of the
Buchholz relays.
The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in the connection pipe through, not due to an
internal fault, is sufficient to trip over the float. This can occur in the event of the external short circuit
when overcurrents flowing through the winding cause overheated the copper and the oil and cause the oil
to expand.

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IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE KEPT IN VIEW WHILE LAYING OUT
THE SUBSTATION:

Substations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a considerable
extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations. It is, therefore, essential to exercise utmost care
while designing and building a substation.

The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a substation:
 It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be located at the centre of gravity of
load.
 It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration must be given to the
maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out repairs and maintenance, abnormal
occurrences such as possibility of explosion or fire etc. For reliability, consideration must be given
for good design and construction, the provision of suitable protective gear etc.
 It should be easily operated and maintained.
 It should involve minimum capital cost.

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 CONCLUSION

Transmission and distribution stations exist at various scales throughout a power system. In general, they
represent an interface between different levels or sections of the power system, with the capability to
switch or reconfigure the connections among various transmission and distribution lines.

The major stations include a control room from which operations are coordinated. Smaller distribution
substations follow the same principle of receiving power at higher voltage on one side and sending out a
number of distribution feeders at lower voltage on the other, but they serve a more limited local area and
are generally unstaffed. The central component of the substation is the transformer, as it provides the
effective in enface between the high- and low-voltage parts of the system. Other crucial components are
circuit breakers and switches. Breakers serve as protective devices that open automatically in the event
of a fault, that is, when a protective relay indicates excessive current due to some abnormal condition.

Switches are control devices that can be opened or closed deliberately to establish or break a connection.
An important difference between circuit breakers and switches is that breakers are designed to interrupt
abnormally high currents (as they occur only in those very situations for which circuit protection is
needed), whereas regular switches are designed to be operable under normal currents. Breakers are
placed on both the high- and low-voltage side of transformers. Finally, substations may also include
capacitor banks to provide voltage support. .

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