• Link State Routing: Dijkstra Algorithm

• Bridges
• Spanning Tree Algorithm (STA)
Link State Routing:

The basic concept of link-state routing is that every node constructs a map of the
connectivity to the network, in the form of a graph, showing which nodes are
connected to which other nodes. Each node then independently calculates the next
best logical path from it to every possible destination in the network.
 Applying Dijkstra Algorithm determine the shortest path from node A to rest all nodes in the network.

The node having minimum cost will become a member of visited queue in every iteration.

A 2 Iteration Visited NodeB NodeC NodeD NodeE NodeF

C
5 1 Nodes
2
D F Initial {-} ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
3
1 3 1st {A} 3 2 5 ∞ ∞
2 (A-B) (A-C) (A-D)
B E
4
2nd {A,C} 3 2 4 ∞ 3
ROUTING TABLE AT NODE A: (A-B) (A-C) (A-C-D) (A-C-F)
Dest. Next Cost 3rd {A,B,C} 3 4 7 3
Node node (A-B) (A-C-D) (A-B-E) (A-C-F)
B B 3 4th {A,B,C,F} 4 5 3
(A-C-D) (A-C-F-E) (A-C-F)
C C 2
5th {A,B,C,D,F} 4 5
D C 4 (A-C-D) (A-C-F-E)
E C 5 6th {A,B,C,D,E,F} 3 2 4 5 3
F C 3 (A-B) (A-C) (A-C-D) (A-C-F-E) (A-C-F)
ROUTING TABLE AT NODE A:

Dest. Next Cost 2

Node node A C
1
A - 0 2
B B 3 D F
3
C C 2
D C 4 2
E C 5 B E

F C 3

Iteration Visited NodeB NodeC NodeD NodeE NodeF

Nodes
6th {A,B,C,D,E,F} 3 2 4 5 3
(A-B) (A-C) (A-C-D) (A-C-F-E) (A-C-F)
 Bridge:
• A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single
aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network
segments. This function is called network bridging.
• Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to
communicate independently and yet remain separate, whereas bridging
connects two separate networks as if they were a single network.
• In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer.

Note:
A bridge has a table used in
filtering decisions.
A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.
Figure : A bridge connecting two LANs
Transparent Bridges: It is a bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge's existance.
Transparent bridging uses a table called the forwarding information base to control the forwarding of frames
between network segments. The table starts empty and entries are added as the bridge receives frames.
If a destination address entry is not found in the table, the frame is flooded to all other ports of the bridge,
flooding the frame to all segments except the one from which it was received. By means of these flooded
frames, a host on the destination network will respond and a forwarding database entry will be created.

• Forwarding: All frames must be correctly forwarded through transparent bridge.

• Learning: Learning is the process of obtaining the MAC address of connected devices. When a frame
reaches into the port of a bridge, the bridge reads the MAC address of the source device from Ethernet frame
and compares it to its MAC address table. If the bridge cannot find a corresponding entry in MAC address table,
the bridge will add the address to the table with the port number via the Ethernet frame arrived.
If the MAC address is already available in the MAC address table, the bridge compares the incoming port
with the port already available in the MAC table. If the port numbers are different, the bridge updates the
MAC address table new port number. This will normally happen when network administrators remove the
cable from one port and attach it to another port.
• Loop Problem: A network loop is a network configuration where there is more than one path between
two networks, which causes packets to be constantly repeated. This is due to the fact that a hub will blindly
transmit everything it receives to all connections.
Figure : A learning bridge and the process of learning
Spanning Tree is a graph in which there is no loop. In bridged LAN this means creating a topology in
which each LAN can be reaced from any other LAN through one path only (no loop).

• Forwarding ports, which forward a frame that the bridgr receives.

• Blocking ports, which block the frames received by the bridge.

Figure : A system of connected LANs and its graph representation

B1 Here B1 is the Root bridge

Note: Hop count from bridge to LAN is 1

and it is 0 in reverse direction.
Figure : Finding the shortest paths and the spanning tree in a system of bridges
Figure : Forwarding and blocking ports after using spanning tree algorithm