Page 1

INDUSTRIAL
TRAINING REPORT
ON
H.P.P.W.D. Mechanical SUB. Division Parel (CHAMBA)

Submitted by:
Shadab Wani
Sr. No.: - 33
Board Roll No.: - 180710609047
Semester: - 5th
Year: - 3rd
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE SUNDERNAGAR
Affiliated To
H.P. Takniki Shiksha Board, Dharamshala
 Page 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is indeed a great pleasure and privilege to present this report on training at HPPWD.
I am extremely grateful to my training and placement officer for issuing Training
Letter, which made my training possible at HPPWD, CHAMBA.

I would like to express my gratitude to ‘Er Rishi Thakur’ J.E. HPPWD, CHAMBA for
his invaluable Suggestions, motivation, guidance and support throughout the training.
His methodology to start from simple ant then deepen through made me to bring out
this project report without anxiety.

Thanks to all other HPPWD officials, operators and all other members of HPPWD, yet
uncounted for their help in completing the project and see the light of success.
I also wish to express my gratitude to my teachers for their constant support and
guidance.

I also wish to express my indebtedness to my parents as well all family member

whose blessings and support always helped me to face the challenges ahead.

I am very thankful to friends, colleagues and all other persons who rendered their
assistance directly or indirectly to complete this project work successfully.
 Page 3

PREFACE

The objectives of the practical training are to learn something about industries
practically and to be familiar with the working style of a technical person to adjust
simply according to the industrial environment.

It is rightly said practical life is far away from theoretical one. We learn in the
classroom that the practical exposure or real-life experience help in improving the
personality of the student in long run of life and will able to implement the theoretical
knowledge. As a part of academic syllabus of three-year diploma course in
Mechanical Engineering, every student is required to undergo a practical training.

I am student of the 3rd Mechanical Engineering and this report is written on the basis
of practical knowledge acquired by me during the period of practical training taken at
H.P.P.W.D. PAREL (CHAMBA).

This report is presented in very simple and understanding language on the basis of
Primary and Secondary data
 Page 4

INTRODUCTION

This industrial training is done at MECHANICAL SUB-DIVISION H.P.P.W.D.

PAREL (CHAMBA) which come under the EXECUTIVE ENGINEER
MECHANICAL DIVISION DHARAMSHALA. These divisional workshops
undertake the major repair of Truck-Tipper, Bulldozer, EXCAVATOR cum loader
and Road Roller.

This industrial training is described under syllabus and required for experience
and practical knowledge. We had studied all kind of theoretical things about the
different element, parts, machine and their material of required use in repairing work
and all the things related to our ‘Mechanical Branch’.

In this workshop the repair work is done by different worker under the guidance of all
the respective Junior engineer present there. Here different departments were also
made for the repair and maintenance purpose. Here during this training, I had seen all
thing and done practically which has helped to enrich my knowledge greatly.

This project report is all what I had seen in the H.P.P.W.D. workshop and done
practically with my hand. I am really thankful to all staff member of P.W.D and the
workers, with whose helpful nature and guidance I completed my industrial training
and project report.
 Page 5

TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr.no. Title Page no.

1. ACKNOWELDGEMENT 2

2. PREFACE 3

3. INTRODUCTION 4

4. TABLE OF CONTENT 5

5. INTRODUCTION OF H.P.P.W.D. 6-8

6. STAFF INFORMATION OF H.P.P.W.D PAREL 9

(CHAMBA)

7. TYPES OF VEHICLE USED IN H.P.P.W.D 10-31

8. VARIOUS MACHINE USED IN WORSHOP 32-39

9. VARIOUS TOOLS USED IN WORKSHOP

39-52

10. INTERACTION WITH VARIOUS PARTS OF TRUCK 53-66

DURING TRAINING

11. CONCLUSION 67

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY 68
 Page 6

H.P.P.W.D MECHANICAL SUB-DIVISION PAREL (CHAMBA)

 Page 7

INTROUCTION TO H.P.P.W.D.

Himachal Pradesh Public Works Department is headed by the Engineer-in-Chief with

Headquarters at Shimla. Works and matters regarding Codes, Specifications, Planning
& Monitoring, Inter-State Connectivity for the entire State and also the entire
establishments of PWD are controlled by the Engineer-in-Chief.

On administrative and functional considerations, the department has been divided into
four zones namely Mandi Zone, Hamirpur Zone, Shimla Zone and Kangra Zone at
Dharmshala. All the four zones are headed by Chief Engineers. Headquarters of Shimla
Zone is at Shimla, Mandi zone at Mandi, Hamirpur Zone at Hamirpur and Kangra zone
at Dharamshala.

Chief Engineer (National Highways) with headquarters at Shimla controls the Planning
and Execution of works of National Highways traversing through the State.

Engineer-in-Chief (Project)acts as State Level Quality Coordinator for achieving quality

parameters of works in the State. Material Testing Laboratories at State level and Zonal
Laboratories are under his control. He conducts quality control checks throughout the
State. He is the in-charge for Standardization of Designs and Drawings for Buildings,
Bridges and Assurance of common Technical Instructions, Manual of Order, Codes &
Specifications, Schedule of Rates, Training Programs, Workshops and allied fields etc.

Chief Engineer (PMGSY)is monitoring, planning and having day-to-day interaction

with Govt. of India (MORD) for the works of PMGSY and PMGSY (world bank)
funded projects through National Rural Road Development Agency (NRRDA).
Superintending Engineer (Electrical)controls the works related to electrical installation,
central heating, air conditioning, lifts, fire-fighting, fire alarm system, L.T. Sub-Station,
Public Address system and CCTV systems in all Govt. residential & non-residential
buildings.
Chief Architect is heading Architectural Wing at Shimla. This wing deals with all
Architectural planning for buildings undertaken by PWD under Shimla, Kangra, Mandi
and Hamirpur Zones. In addition, this wing also undertakes consultancy jobs for
corporate bodies and institutions, such as Regional Engineering College Hamirpur
Railways etc. Superintending Engineer Arbitration Circle Solan deals with the entire
arbitration cases of the Department.
 Page 8

STAFF INFORMATION OF H.P.P.W.D. MECHANICAL SUB-

DIVISION PAREL (CHAMBA)

Sr. no. Category Name

1. S.D.O(Assistant Engineer) Er. Ankush Thakur

2. Junior engineers Er. Rishi Thakur

Er. Satish Kumar

Er. Vishal Thakur

Er. Anil Sharma

OTHER STAFF

Sr.no. Category No. of person

1. Junior Technician 11

2. Beldar 6

3. Welder 2

4. Electrician 1
 Page 9

TYPES OF VEHICLE USED IN H.P.P.W.D

1) TATA SE 1613 TRUCK

SPECIFICATION
Engine and Performance

Fuel Type Diesel

Brand Tata

Model Name/Number SE 1613

6 Years / 6 Lakh km on Driveline, 3 Years / 3 Lakh

Warranty
km On Vehicle

Max. Power 136 hp@2400 rpm

Max. Torque 490 Nm@1400-1800 rpm

Clutch 352 mm dia, Organic

Electricals / Battery 2 x 12 V, 100 Ah, Alternator: 75 A

Emission Norms
BSIV
Compliance

Engine Tata 697 TCIC CRDI BSIV, EGR Technology

Fuel Injection System Common Rail

 Page 10

Fuel Tank Capacity 225 Litres

Gearbox GBS 600 OD

Max Speed 80 kmph

Transmission 6 speed manual (6F+1R), Cable shift

Design and Configuration

Gross Vehicle
16200 kg
Weight

Load Body
Fixed Side Deck, High Side Deck
Options

Axle
4x2
Configuration

Cabin Type Semi-forward cab

Chassis Depth 223 mm

Chassis Flange
60 mm
width

Chassis Frame Ladder type with cross members

Chassis Thickness 7 mm

Engine Cylinders 6

Front Axle Forged I Beam, Reverse Elliot Type

Front Suspension Semi elliptical leaf springs

Front Track 1964 mm

Grade ability 26%

Ground Clearance 239 mm

Loading Span 15.5 ft.

Rear Axle RA 109 RR, Single reduction hypoid gears

 Page 11

Rear Suspension Semi elliptical leaf springs

Rear Track 1817 mm

Tyres 10R20-16 PR, Radial tyres

Vehicle Semi-forward control cowl and chassis, Cabin and chassis,

Configuration Cabin with load body options

Wheelbase 4225 mm
Features and Comfort

Air Conditioning No

Automatic Transmission No

Cruise Control No

Driver Seat Type 6 way adjustable

Engine Displacement 5675 cc

Instrument Cluster Digital

Music System No

Openable Quarter Ventilation Glass No

Power Windows No

Steering Adjustment No

Steering Type Power Steering

Telematics / GPS Tracking Optional

Safety

ABS Yes

Differential Lock No

Fog Light No
 Page 12

Graduated valve controlled spring break, Acting on

Parking Brakes
rear axle

Reverse Parking
Yes
Buzzer

Seat Belts Yes

Service Brakes Air brakes

2) TATA 1612 TRUCK

SPECIFICATION
Engine and Performance

Fuel Type Diesel

Brand Tata

Model Name/Number LPT 1612

6 Years / 6 Lakh km On Driveline, 3 Years / 3 Lakh

Warranty
km On Vehicle

Max. Power 136 hp@2400 rpm

Max. Torque 490 Nm@1400-1800 rpm

Clutch 352 mm dia, Organic

Electricals / Battery 2 x 12 V, 100 Ah, Alternator: 75 A

 Page 13

Emission Norms
BSIV
Compliance

Engine Tata 697 TCIC CRDi, EGR Technology

Fuel Injection System Common Rail

Fuel Tank Capacity 225 Litres

Gearbox GBS 600 OD

Max Speed 80 kmph

6 speed manual (6F+1R), With Cable shift

Transmission
mechanism
Design and Configuration

Gross Vehicle
16200 kg
Weight

Load Body Options Fixed Side Deck, High Side Deck, Drop Side Deck

Axle Configuration 4x2

Cabin Tilt
Hydraulically tilt able
mechanism

Cabin Type Sleeper cabin

Chassis Depth 223 mm

Chassis Flange width 60 mm

Chassis Frame Ladder type with cross members

Chassis Thickness 7 mm

Engine Cylinders 6

Front Axle Forged I Beam, Reverse Elliot Type

Front Overhang 1185 mm

Front Suspension Semi elliptical leaf springs

 Page 14

Front Track 1964 mm

Grade ability 23%

Ground Clearance 259 mm

Kerb Weight 4500 kg

Loading Span 18 ft., 20 ft., 24 ft., 32 ft.

Overall Length 7380 mm (4225 wb), 8325 mm (4855 wb)

Overall Width 2440 mm

Rear Axle RA 109 RR, Single reduction hypoid gears

Rear Overhang 1970 mm (4225 wb), 2285 mm (4855 wb)

Rear Suspension Semi elliptical leaf springs

Rear Track 1817 mm

Turning Circle
16.8 m (4225 wb), 19 m (4855 wb)
Diameter

Tyres 10R20-16 PR, Radial tyres, 6+1 tyres

Vehicle Face Cowl and chassis, Cabin and chassis, Cabin with
Configuration load body options

Wheelbase 4225 mm, 4855 mm, 5195 mm

Features and Comfort

Air Conditioning Optional

Automatic Transmission No

Cabin Suspension Semi suspended

Cruise Control No

Driver Seat Type 6 way adjustable

Engine Displacement 5675 cc

 Page 15

Instrument Cluster Digital

Music System No

Openable Quarter Ventilation Glass No

Power Windows No

Steering Adjustment No

Steering Type Power Steering

Telematics / GPS Tracking Optional

Safety

ABS Yes

Differential Lock No

Fog Light No

Graduated valve controlled spring brake, Acting on

Parking Brakes
rear axle

Reverse Parking
Yes
Buzzer

Seat Belts Yes

Service Brakes Air brakes

Tubeless Tyres No
 Page 16

3) Tata SFC 407 Pickup Ex Truck

SPECIFICATION
Engine and Performance

Fuel Type Diesel

Brand Tata

Model Name/Number SFC 407 Pickup Ex

Warranty 3 years / 3 lakh km on driveline

Max. Power 85 hp@ 2800 rpm

Max. Torque 250 Nm@1400-2400 rpm

Clutch 280 mm dia

Electricals / Battery 12V, 75 Ah, Alternator: 75 Amps

Emission Norms Compliance BSIV

Engine 4SP CR, Turbo Intercooled

Fuel Injection System Common Rail, Electronic Delhpi

Fuel Tank Capacity 60 Litres

Gearbox G 380, Synchromesh type

 Page 17

Max Speed 80 kmph

Transmission 5 speed manual (5F+1R)

Design and Configuration

Gross Vehicle Weight 4450 kg

Load Body Options Fixed Side Deck

Anti-Roll Bar Front only

Axle Configuration 4x2

Cabin Type Semi-forward day cab

Chassis Frame Ladder type with cross members

Engine Cylinders 4

Front Axle Forged I Beam, Reverse Elliot Type

Semi-elliptical leaf springs, With telescopic shock

Front Suspension
absorbers

Front Track 1630 mm

Grade ability 28%

Ground Clearance 207 mm

Kerb Weight 2000 Kg (CBC), 2250 Kg (FSD)

Loading Span 8.3 ft.

Overall Height 2270 mm

Overall Length 4700 mm

Overall Width 1980 mm

Rear Axle Fully Floating, Single reduction hypoid gears

Semi-elliptical leaf springs, With telescopic shock

Rear Suspension
absorbers
 Page 18

Rear Track 1610 mm

Turning Circle
11.9 m
Diameter

Tyres 7.00 R 16 -12PR, Radial tyres, 4+1 tyres

Vehicle Configuration Cabin and chassis, Cabin with load body

Wheelbase 2955 mm
Features and Comfort

Air Conditioning No

Automatic Transmission No

Bottle Holder Yes

Cabin Suspension No

Cruise Control No

Driver Seat Type 6 way adjustable

Engine Displacement 2956 cc

Instrument Cluster Analog, With LED display

Mobile Charging Point No

Music System No

Openable Quarter Ventilation Glass Yes

Power Windows No

Steering Adjustment No

Steering Type Mechanical type

Telematics / GPS Tracking No

Safety
 Page 19

ABS No

Differential Lock No

Exhaust Brake Yes

Fog Light Yes

Parking Brakes Cable operated Acting on rear axle

Reverse Parking Buzzer Yes

Seat Belts Yes

Service Brakes Hydraulic brakes

Tubeless Tyres No

4) JCB 3CX 17FT (217) LOADER BACKHOE

SPECIFICATION
DIMENSIONS
BACKHOE

LOAD HEIGHT - STD

13FT IN
 Page 20

REACH FROM SWIVEL - STD

20.94FT IN

DIG DEPTH - STD

17.59FT IN

REACH AT LOAD HEIGHT - STD

7.16FT IN
LOAD HEIGHT - EXT
14.67FT IN
BUCKET DIG FORCE - EXT
12202.59LB
BUCKET DIG FORCE - STD
12202.59LB
DIG DEPTH - EXT
21.49FT IN
REACH AT LOAD HEIGHT - EXT
10.83FT IN
LOAD AT MAX LIFT - EXT
3240.8LB
LOAD AT MAX LIFT - STD
5121.34LB
REACH FROM SWIVEL - EXT
24.68FT IN
DIMENSIONS

TRANSPORT LENGTH
24.58FT IN

TRANSPORT WIDTH
8.01FT IN
 Page 21

TRANSPORT HEIGHT
13.59FT IN

WHEELBASE
7.42FT IN

GROUND CLEARANCE
1.09FT IN
HEIGHT TO TOP OF SUSPENDED CAB
9.42FT IN
LOADER

CLEARANCE AT MAX DUMP HEIGHT

8.83FT IN

REACH AT MAX DUMP HEIGHT

2.66FT IN

DIG DEPTH
1.97IN
BUCKET BREAKOUT FORCE
14560LB
BUCKET WIDTH
96IN
BUCKET CAPACITY
1.6YD3
LIFT CAPACITY AT FULL HEIGHT
9046LB
 Page 22

SPECIFICATIONS
ENGINE
NUMBER OF CYLINDERS
4
ENGINE MAKE
2257
ENGINE MODEL
444
NET POWER
97.6HP
GROSS POWER
100HP
POWER MEASURED @
2200RPM
TORQUE MEASURED @
1300RPM
ASPIRATION
TURBO
DISPLACEMENT
268.6CU IN
OPERATIONAL
FUEL CAPACITY
42.3GAL
OPERATING WEIGHT 4WD
17515LB
MAX WEIGHT
18701LB
 Page 23

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM FLUID CAPACITY

33.6GAL
OIL SYSTEM FLUID CAPACITY
4GAL
COOLING SYSTEM FLUID CAPACITY
6.1GAL
TRANSMISSION FLUID CAPACITY
4.3GAL
FRONT AXLE FLUID CAPACITY
4.3GAL
REAR AXLE FLUID CAPACITY
4.3GAL
TURNING RADIUS
13.8FT IN
TIRE SIZE FRONT - 2WD / 4WD
14-17.5 FWD 10 PLY
REAR TIRES SIZE 2WD/4WD
19.5L-24 R4 10 PLY
OPERATING VOLTAGE
12V
ALTERNATOR SUPPLIED AMPERAGE
95AMPS
TRANSMISSION
TRANSMISSION TYPE
JCB AUTOSHIFT
NUMBER OF FORWARD GEARS
4
NUMBER OF REVERSE GEARS
4
 Page 24

MAX SPEED - FORWARD

22.5MPH
MAX SPEED REVERSE
22.5MPH
HYDRAULIC
PUMP TYPE
DUAL GEAR PUMPS
PUMP FLOW CAPACITY
41GAL/MIN
5) CASE 770 BACKHOE LOADER

SPECIFICATION

ENGINE

Make Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd.

Mode 4R1040TC BS-III

No. of Cylinders 4Cylinders, Inline

Displacement 4160 cc

Type 4 Stoke, Turbo charged Water Cooled, Diesel Engine

Gross Power 76 hp@2200 RPM as per ISO 3046

 Page 25

Electrical System 12 V DC

Battery 130 Ah rating

Alternator 65 A rated output

TRANSMISSION

Single stage hydrokinetic type torque converter Shuttle ranger with 4 speed synchromesh gearbox

Travel Speeds with 16.9X28 rear tyres

Gear Forward/Reverse

1 4.8/5.8

2 7.8/9.3

3 16.6/ Not Recommended

4 29.7/ Not Recommended

AXLES & BRAKES

Front Axle Heavy Duty oscillating 20 Deg type Steering axle

Rear Axle Rigid with planetary drives

Wheel Base 2200 mm (2WD) / 2175 mm (4WD)

Tread width

– Front 1880 mm

– Rear 1760 mm

Brakes Oil immersed wet disc brakes on rear wheels hydraulically actuate

SERVICE REFILL CAPACITIES

Hydraulic system capacity

(Main) 142 Litres

Fuel Tank 122 Litres

Engine Coolant Water 18 Litres

 Page 26

Engine Oil 9.5 Litres

Transmission 16 Litres

Axle 22 Litres

STEERING

Steering Hydraulic actuation with independent Hydraulic Circuit

Steering Gear Pump Max.

output @2200 RPM 22 LPM

Turning Radius with

brake 3217 mm Outside Tyre

Turning Radius without

brake 4488 mm Outside Tyre

Turning Radius without

brake 5500 mm Outside Bucket

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Gear Pump Max. output

@2200 RPM 123 LPM

System Pressure 190 Bar

BACKHOE

Max. reach from a centre line of machine

Side Shift 6126 mm

Swing arc 180 Deg

Bucket Rotation 204 Deg

Loading reach at max.

height 2357 mm

Max. height 5386 mm

Max. dump height 3550 mm

 Page 27

Max. reach from pivot @

ground level 5582 mm

Max. dig depth 4335 mm

Max. lift capacity (No

bucket fitted as per SAE
J31) 1315 kgs

Breakout force

Dipper 3725 kgf

Bucket 5093 kgf

OVERALL DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS

Overall operating weight 7500 kgs

Ground clearance 333 mm

Overall width of side shift

machine for transport 2320 mm

Overall height, transport

position 3887 mm

Overall length transport

position with standard
Bucket without teeth 5884 mm

BOTTOM DUMP BUCKET

This multipurpose bucket is ideal for digging, loading, dozing, backfi lling, grading and grab
operation.

Bucket width Outside 2265 mm

Width of dozer blade 2280 mm

Maximum Clamp
Opening 977 mm

Bucket capacity (SAE

HEAPED) 1.0 Cu.m
 Page 28

Dump height 2710 mm

LOADER

Bucket reach flat on

ground 1518 mm

Grading angle 115 deg

Digging depth bucket flat

on ground 39 mm

Dumping angle 43° Deg

Max. Loader Break Out

Force 6807 kg

Lift Capacity @Max.

height 3425 kg

Max. Payload 1760 kg

6) BULLDOZER

SPECIFICATION
Dimensions

Ground Clearance 1 ft. (0 m)

 Page 29

Height - Top of Cab 11 ft. (3 m)

Length of Track on Ground 10 ft. (3 m)

Length w/ Blade 25 ft. (8 m)

Engine

Displacement 854 cu in (0 m)

Engine Model CQNTA855-C280

Gross Power 217 hp (162 kw)

Max Torque 738 lbs/ft.

Number of Cylinders 6

Power Measured @ 2,100 rpm

Torque Measured @ 1,450 rpm

Operating Specifications

Operating Weight 52,470 lbs (23,800 kg)

Standard Blade

Capacity 8 cu yds. (6 m)
 Page 30

Height 50 in (128 cm)

Width 13 ft. (4 m)

Transmission

Max Speed - Forward 7 mph (11 kph)

Max Speed - Reverse 8 mph (13 kph)

Number of Forward Gears 3

Number of Reverse Gears 3

Transmission Type Power shift

6) MAHINDRA BOLERO CAMPER

 Page 31

SPECIFICATION

PICKUP SPECIFICATION

BOLERO CAMPER BOLERO CAMPER

VARIANT DESCRIPTION
GOLD ZX/VX 2WD/4WD
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Engine m2DiCR 4 Cyl 2.5L TB

Engine Type DI Turbo charged

Engine Capacity 2523 cm3

Max output 56 kW @ 3200 r/min

Max torque 200 Nm @ 1400 - 2200 r/min

Clutch Single Plate Dry Clutch

Transmission
& Driveline 5 Speed, All Synchro meshed 5 Forward, 1
Gearbox
Reverse

Steering Type Power

Front (with Rigid axle with leaf

Coil Springs
spring stiffness) spring
Suspension
Rear (with
Rigid axle with leaf spring
spring stiffness)

Shock
Hydraulic Double Acting, Telescopic Type
Absorbers

Front Disc brakes

Brakes
Rear Drum brakes

Radial with tube (Radial tubeless for Cash Van

Tyre Type
Wheels & variant)
Tyres
Rim Size 6.0 J X 15
 Page 32

Tyre Size P235/75 R15

Fuel Tank
57
Capacity (litre)

Wheel Base
3014
(mm)

Front track
1443
(mm)

Rear track
1335
(mm)

Dimension Overall L x W
4859 x 1670 x 1855
x H (mm)

Outer Cargo
box dimensions 1481 X 1532 X 750
(mm)

Minimum
ground 185 (191 mm for Cash Van variant)
clearance (mm)

Kerb Weight 2WD - 1700

1735
(kg) 4WD - 1770

Weight GVW (kg) 2735 2735

2WD - 1035
Payload (kg) 1000
4WD - 940

Seating
D+4
Capacity

PICKUP FEATURES
Features Camper ZX Camper 2WD/4WD
Front seat Faux Leather Fabric

Rear seat Faux Leather Fabric

 Page 33

VARIOUS MACHINE USED IN WORKSHOP

1) ARC WELDING MACHINE

Arc Welding Definition:

Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity
to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when the cool result in a
binding of the metals.

Arc Welding Introduction:

Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense
heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix directly, or
more commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and
solidification, a metallurgical bond is created.

Since the joining is an intermixture of metals the final weldment potentially has the
same strength properties as the metals of the parts.

A problem that arises in arc welding is the contamination of the metal with elements in
the atmosphere (O, H, N, etc.). There can also be a problem with the surface that is not
clean.

The solution to this Includes,

1. Gas shields: An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away other
atmospheric gases.
2. Flux: A material that is added to clean the surface may also give off a gas to
drive away unwanted gases.
 Page 34

Arc welding working or circuit diagram:

An AC or DC power sources, fitted with whatever controls may be needed, is

connected by work cable to the work piece and by an electrode cable to electrode
holder of some type,

which makes electrical contact with the welding electrode.

An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit and

The electrode tip touches the work piece and is withdrawn yet still within close
contact.

The arc produces a temperature of about 6500-degree centigrade at the tip.

This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode producing a pool of molten metal
sometimes called a creator.

The creator solidifies behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. This result is
a fusion bond.

Arc Welding Parts or Basic Equipment:

Arc Welding

From the Diagram Some equipment or parts used in the Arc welding process you can
see and Some are not shown in the diagram which also I am going to explain. So,

The main parts are:

 Page 35

1. Welding Machine (Power Supply)

2. Cable
3. Holder
4. Electrode
5. Cable
6. Hand Gloves
7. Goggles
8. Aprons
9. Chipping Hammers
10.Wire Brush

Welding Machine (Power Supply):

Electric or Power is supplying from Direct Board to Welding Machine to Electrode

cable to Electrode Holder.

Cable:

The main function is to deliver the current to the electrode holder from the machine.

Holder:

The function is to hold the Electrode.

Electrode:

This electrode creates a spark when contacting the work.

Hand Gloves:

While performing welding operation safety comes first so for the hand we use here
Hand gloves.

Goggles:

As the welding operation temperature is too high we can see the operation with the
naked eye but after some time the eye gets damaged.

The eye cannot sustain with high temperature therefor here we use Goggles.

Aprons:

Aprons are like clothes. We wear this for safety purposes.

Chipping Hammers:
 Page 36

This instrument is for holding the work piece whenever required.

Wire Brush:

To remove unwanted material from the welded work piece that is slag we use a wire
brush.

Arc Welding Working Principle:

The Arc welding temperature ranges from a minimum 3000-degree centigrade to up to

20000-degree centigrade. So as the Diagram is shown above in which set up has been
shown.

Now supplying the power from the machine to the electrodes by the electrode cable
and holder.

The work piece is mounted there than before the electrode touches the work piece we
have to maintain a 2 to 3 mm gap because when you directly touch it, it might get
sticks and do vibrates.

Arc Welding Advantages:

1. The process gives high deposition rates.

2. Welding speed is high.
3. Wire consumption is low.
4. The consumption of electrical energy is low, as a maximum of 97 % of heat
energy can be utilized.
5. Any length can be welded without any interruption.
6. High-quality Welds are achieved with no fusion defects, no porosity and slag
inclusions.

Arc Welding Disadvantages:

1. High skilled operator required to perform an operation.

2. Arc is invisible, it can be controlled only by measuring arc voltage and current.
3. It can be used only in the down hand welding position.

Arc Welding Application:

1. The application of Arc welding in the various department like:

2. Industries Construction
3. Shipbuilding
4. Farm equipment
5. Lawn and Garden
 Page 37

6. Highway Equipment
7. Institutional Equipment
8. Railways Department
9. and There are various other places there also this arc welding is used

2) PEDESTAL GRINDING MACHINE

DEFINATION
Grinding is the process of removing material by the cutting action of the
countless hard and sharp abrasive particles of a revolving grinding wheel as they
come in contact with the surface to be ground.
Grinding machines are made in a variety of types and sizes, depending upon the
class of work for which they are to be used.
Pedestal grinders are used to sharpen high-speed steel cutting tools used on the
lathes and milling machines, deburr, or used to remove surface imperfections and
to work extremely hard materials.
Dressing a Grinding Wheel
Dressing is the process of restoring the sharpness of the grinding wheel by
breaking away the dulled abrasive crystals or by removing the glazed or loaded
surface of the wheel, thus presenting new sharp cutting edges of the abrasive
grains. This breaking away is caused by the pressure of the dresser crushing the
bond and releasing the dull abrasive.
This process should not be confused with treeing, which refers to the shaping of
any part of the wheel to run true or to alter it to some desired shape.
The tools used for dressing are made in a variety of types and are
called dressers. The more commonly used off-hand dressers are: the star type and
the diamond stick
 Page 38

Dressing Cont.
Slowly press the dresser against the face of the revolving wheel until it "bites."
Then move it back and forth to obtain a straight surface, and at the same time,
hold the dresser rigidly enough on the tool rest to maintain trueness while
dressing.
Wheel Loading is caused by:
1) metal too soft and/or
2) wheel bond too strong (Figure
5). When self-sharpening the
wheel, the pressure of grinding
will either fracture the grain or
pull it out of the bond when it becomes dull.
This action exposes new, sharp-cutting
edges.
 Page 39

VARIOUS TOOL USED IN WORKSHOP

1) TOOL BOX

A toolbox (also called toolkit, tool chest or workbox) is a box to organize,

carry, and protect the owner's tools. They could be used for trade, a hobby
or DIY, and their contents vary with the craft of the owner.

Types
Simple wooden toolbox
A toolbox could refer to several types of storage to hold tools. It could mean a small
portable box that can carry a few tools to a project location or a large storage system
set on casters. Modern toolboxes are predominantly metal or plastic. Wood was the
material of choice for toolboxes built beginning in the early 19th century.
Toolboxes can be mainly divided as 5 types. They are:

• Plastic
• Steel
• Aluminium
• Waterproof
• Cantilever
 Page 40

Cantilever toolbox
Small portable toolboxes are sometimes called hand boxes or portable tool storage.
Most portable toolboxes have one handle on top and a lid that opens on a hinge. Many
have a removable tote tray that sits on a flange inside the lip of the box, with a single
larger compartment below. The tote tray helps organize smaller parts and accessories.
Portable toolboxes sometimes use slide-out trays or cantilever trays in lieu of the
removable tote tray. Metal toolboxes (typically steel) weigh more than plastic ones. A
plastic toolbox laden with tools can weigh the same as a comparable steel box does
when empty. Metal boxes are also subject to rusting and their sharp edges can mark
the surfaces of things they are banged against. Metal is, however, known for being
stronger than plastic, so one should balance its disadvantages against the need to
withstand abuse and support the weight of many tools.

Portable chest with a carrying handle

Portable chests are a type of tool storage that is small enough to carry, but has drawers
to organize contents. Portable chests have a handle on top for portability and a top lid
that opens on hinges. Portable chests typically have 3-4 drawers. Most are made from
metal, but some have a plastic shell with metal drawers in order to help lighten the
piece.
A toolbox can also refer to a large tool storage system, or tool chest combos, that
includes multiple pieces. These systems are almost always made from metal. Most
tool storage systems are painted steel, but some are stainless steel and aluminium.
They include a top chest that has drawers and a top lid that opens on a hinge. The top
chest is designed to sit on a cabinet, also called a rolling cabinet (roll cab) or rollaway.
 Page 41

The cabinet sits on four or more casters and has drawers to organize tools. Other
pieces can be added to the system or combo. A middle chest, also called an
intermediate chest, can be placed between the top chest and cabinet for extra storage.
A side cabinet with more drawers can be hung from the side of a cabinet. A side
locker can also be hung from the side of a cabinet; usually with a door that protects
shelves or small drawers.

Tool chest with wheels

Tool carts (also known as roll cabs) are commonly used in the transportation industry
for maintenance and repair of vehicles on location. Used as portable work stations,
some of the larger types are self-powered and propelled, for example, pit carts in
automobile racing.
After several decades of decline in popularity, today a resurgence in use is underway.
Viewed by many as intended primarily for specialized craftsmanship, such as
machinists, tool and die makers, jewellers and other specialized craftsmen, they are
also sought after by average tradesman and collectors as working heirloom. Many
toolboxes and chests from a variety of trades can be seen at the Smithsonian Museum
of American History.
Material
Tool chests are primarily made of metal, though some expensive models are made of
hardwoods.
 Page 42

2) MECHANICAL SCREW JACK

A screw jack is a gearbox assembly (either worm gear or bevel gear) and a
transmission product (lead screw, ball screw or roller screw) which through use of a
motor is used to convert rotary into linear motion. They can be used to push, pull,
tension, lock, unlock, tilt, pivot, roll, slide and lift or lower loads, anything from a few
kilos to thousands of tonnes.

Screw jacks are essential components in automated machinery. Safety and legislative
concerns drive the automation of handling and lifting of heavy loads, particularly in
regions which have developed workplace and health and safety legislation.
The trend to electromechanical actuation from hydraulic actuation.
Screw jacks usually operate in high-load applications. The competing technology at
high loads tends to be hydraulics; however, hydraulics is less energy-efficient than
electro-mechanical actuation provided by screw jacks. Hydraulic systems waste
energy as the fluid circulates at constant pressure, regardless of the amount of work
required to be carried out by hydraulic positioning. A hydraulic jack or ram requires a
constant pressure to maintain its position when holding a load in place. By contrast, an
electric motor used to power a screw jack uses energy only when it drives the load to a
required position.
 Page 43

The advantages of electro-mechanical over hydraulic can be summarized by:

• Demand for increased safety, in the event of power loss, screw jacks can be
self-locking
• Demand for machinery that operates with better energy efficiency
• Demand for machinery that operates greater levels of precision
• Machinery that requires less maintenance
• Machinery that requires less manual intervention to set up processes
• Increased range of actuation in terms of variable positioning
• Accurate and smooth delivery of force
• Cleaner machinery

3) WRENCH
DEFINATION
A wrench or spanner is a tool used to provide grip and mechanical
advantage in applying torque to turn objects—usually rotary fasteners,
such as nuts and bolts—or keep them from turning.
Types

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

A double-ended tool
with one end being
like an open-end
wrench or open-
ended spanner, and
combinati combination spanner commo
the other end being
on wrench open-ring spanner n
like a box-end
wrench or ring
spanner. Both ends
generally fit the same
size of bolt.
 Page 44

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

A wrench that is
used for gripping the
nuts on the ends of
tubes. It is similar to
a box-end wrench
but, instead of
encircling the nut
completely, it has a
narrow opening just
flare-nut
wide enough to allow
wrench flare spanner
the wrench to fit over
tube flare nut spanner commo
the tube, and thick
wrench brake spanner n
jaws to increase the
line crow's-foot spanner
contact area with the
wrench
nut. This allows for
maximum contact on
plumbing nuts,
which are typically
softer metals and
therefore more prone
to damage from
open-ended
wrenches.

An old type of
adjustable wrench
with a straight handle
monkey gas grips historica
and smooth jaws
wrench King Dick l
whose gripping faces
are perpendicular to
the handle.
 Page 45

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

A tool that is similar

in design and
appearance to a
monkey wrench, but
with self-tightening
properties and
pipe
Stillson wrench hardened, serrated
wrench adjustab
Stillsons jaws that securely
monkey le
Pipe wrench grip soft iron pipe
wrench
and pipe fittings.
Sometimes known
by the original patent
holder's brand name
as a "Stillson
wrench" or a "Stilly".

A hollow cylinder
that fits over one end
of a nut or bolt head.
It may include a
handle, if it does not
then it is often just
referred to as a
socket and is usually
socket socket wrench used with various socket
wrench socket spanner drive tools to make it
a wrench or spanner
such as a ratchet
handle, a tee bar
(sliding tommy bar)
bar or a knuckle bar
(single axis pivot). It
generally has a six-
point, eight-point or
 Page 46

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

twelve-point recess,
may be shallow or
deep, and may have a
built-in universal
joint.

An open-ended
multi-size ratchet
wrench.
The ratcheting mech
anism allows the nut
to be clamped-on or
loosened with a
reciprocating motion;
flip the wrench to
clamp change direction of
clamp ratchet adjustab
ratchet the drive. The
spanner le
wrench wrench takes the
advantage of the
clamp action to allow
multiple sizes in
both SAE and metric
standards. Each
wrench typically will
allow up to 3 non-
metric sizes and 3
metric sizes.

Allen A wrench used to

wrench turn screw or bolt
Allen key Allen key heads designed with keys
hex key a hexagonal socket
L wrench (recess) to receive
the wrench. The
 Page 47

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

wrenches come in
two common forms:
L-shaped and T-
handles. The L-
shaped wrenches are
formed from
hexagonal wire
stock, while the T-
handles are the same
hex wire stock with a
metal or plastic
handle attached to
the end. There are
also index able-
driver-bits that can
be used in index able
screwdrivers.

A thin open-end
wrench used to fit
narrow wrench flats
of adjustable
bearing bicycle hubs.
Called a "cone"
wrench because it
cone fits wrench flats of specialt
cone spanner the cone section of a y
wrench
"cup and cone" hub,
this tool is also used
with some other
adjustable hub
bearings. The wrench
is very thin so has
little strength; to
compensate, cone
 Page 48

Americ British/Commonw
Description Group
an name ealth name

wrenches typically
have a large head.
Most bicycle front
hubs use a 13 mm;
most rears use
15 mm.

A small, square-head
socket wrench used
drum key on drum (percussion
lug musical instrument)
specialt
wrench drum key tuning lugs and
y
drum fasteners. This key is
wrench often interchangeable
with radiator bleed
keys.

4-way lug
wrench
wheel lug
A socket wrench
cross
wheel brace used to turn lug nuts specialt
wrench
tyre spanner on automobile wheel y
cross rim
s.
wrench
spider
wrench
 Page 49

4) HAMMER

A hammer is a tool consisting of a weighted "head" fixed to a long handle that is

swung to deliver an impact to a small area of an object. This can be, for example, to
drive nails into wood, to shape metal (as with a forge), or to crush rock.[1][2] Hammers
are used for a wide range of driving, shaping, and breaking applications.
The modern hammer head is typically made of steel which has been heat treated for
hardness, and the handle (also known as a haft or helve) is typically made of wood
or plastic.
The claw hammer has a "claw" to pull nails out of wood, and is commonly found in an
inventory of household tools in North America. Other types of hammer vary in shape,
size, and structure, depending on their purposes. Hammers used in
many trades include sledgehammers, mallets, and ball-peen hammers. Although most
hammers are hand tools, powered hammers, such as steam hammers and trip hammers,
are used to deliver forces beyond the capacity of the human arm. There are over 40
different types of hammers that have many different types of uses.

5) PLIERS

Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, possibly developed from tongs used
to handle hot metal in Bronze Age Europe. [1] They are also useful for bending and
compressing a wide range of materials. Generally, pliers consist of a pair of metal
first-class levers joined at a fulcrum positioned closer to one end of the levers, creating
short jaws on one side of the fulcrum, and longer handles on the other side. [1] This
 Page 50

arrangement creates a mechanical advantage, allowing the force of the hand's grip to
be amplified and focused on an object with precision. The jaws can also be used to
manipulate objects too small or unwieldy to be manipulated with the fingers.
Diagonal pliers, also called side cutters, are a similarly-shaped tool for cutting rather
than holding, using a pair of stout blades, similar to scissors except that the cutting
surfaces meet parallel to each other rather than overlapping. Ordinary
(holding/squeezing) pliers may incorporate a small pair of such cutting blades. Pincers
are a similar tool with a different type of head used for cutting and pulling, rather than
squeezing. Tools designed for safely handling hot objects are usually called tongs.
Special tools for making crimp connections in electrical and electronic applications are
often called crimping pliers or crimpers; each type of connection uses its own
dedicated tool.
There are many kinds of pliers made for various general and specific purposes.

6) SCREWDRIVER

A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, used for screwing (installing) and

unscrewing (removing) screws. A typical simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft,
ending in a tip the user puts into the screw head before turning the handle. This form
of the screwdriver has been replaced in many workplaces and homes with a more
modern and versatile tool, a power drill, as they are quicker, easier, and also can drill
holes. The shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or twisting. The tip
may be hardened to resist wear, treated with a dark tip coating for improved visual
contrast between tip and screw—or ridged or treated for additional 'grip'. Handles are
typically wood, metal, or plastic[1] and usually hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-
section to improve grip and prevent the tool from rolling when set down. Some
manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a socket on the end of the
shaft and are held in mechanically or magnetically. These often have a hollow handle
that contains various types and sizes of tips, and a reversible ratchet action that allows
multiple full turns without repositioning the tip or the user's hand.
A screwdriver is classified by its tip, which is shaped to fit the driving surfaces—slots,
grooves, recesses, etc.—on the corresponding screw head. Proper use requires that the
 Page 51

screwdriver's tip engage the head of a screw of the same size and type designation as
the screwdriver tip. Screwdriver tips are available in a wide variety of types and sizes
(List of screw drives). The two most common are the simple 'blade'-type for slotted
screws, and Phillips, generically called "cross-recess", "cross-head", or "cross-point".
A wide variety of power screwdrivers ranges from a simple 'stick'-type with batteries,
a motor, and a tip holder all inline, to powerful "pistol" type VSR (variable-speed
reversible) cordless drills that also function as screwdrivers. This is particularly useful
as drilling a pilot hole before driving a screw is a common operation. Special
combination drill-driver bits and adapters let an operator rapidly alternate between the
two. Variations include impact drivers, which provide two types of 'hammering' force
for improved performance in certain situations, and "right-angle" drivers for use in
tight spaces. Many options and enhancements, such as built-in bubble levels, high/low
gear selection, magnetic screw holders, adjustable-torque clutches, keyless chucks,
'gyroscopic' control, etc., are available.
7) MEASURING TAPE

A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible ruler used to measure size or distance.
It consists of a ribbon of cloth, plastic, fibre glass, or metal strip with linear-
measurement markings. It is a common measuring tool. Its design allows for a
measure of great length to be easily carried in pocket or toolkit and permits one to
measure around curves or corners. Today it is ubiquitous, even appearing in miniature
form as a keychain fob, or novelty item. Surveyors use tape measures in lengths of
over 100 m.
 Page 52

8) SPIRITE LEVEL

A spirit level, bubble level, or simply a level, is an instrument designed to indicate

whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). Different types of spirit
levels may be used by carpenters, stonemasons, bricklayers, other building trades
workers, surveyors, millwrights and other metalworkers, and in
some photographic or video graphic work. Early tubular spirit levels had very slightly
curved glass vials with constant inner diameter at each viewing point. These vials are
incompletely filled with a liquid, usually a coloured spirit or alcohol, leaving
a bubble in the tube. They have a slight upward curve, so that the bubble naturally
rests in the centre, the highest point. At slight inclinations the bubble travels away
from the marked centre position. Where a spirit level must also be usable upside-down
or on its side, the curved constant-diameter tube is replaced by an incurved barrel-
shaped tube with a slightly larger diameter in its middle.

Alcohols such as ethanol are often used rather than water. Alcohols have
low viscosity and surface tension, which allows the bubble to travel the tube quickly
and settle accurately with minimal interference from the glass surface. Alcohols also
have a much wider liquid temperature range, and won't break the vial as water could
due to ice expansion. A colorant such as fluorescein, typically yellow or green, may be
added to increase the visibility of the bubble.
 Page 53

INTERACTION WITH VARIOUS PARTS OF TRUCK DURING

TRAINING
1). LEAF SPRING SUSPENSION

A leaf spring is a simple form of spring commonly used for

the suspension in wheeled vehicles. Originally called a laminated or carriage spring,
and sometimes referred to as a semi-elliptical spring, elliptical spring, or cart spring, it
is one of the oldest forms of springing, appearing on carriages in France in the mid-
17th century in the form of the two-part elbow spring (as the illustrated example from
Lisbon), and from there migrating to England and Germany.
A leaf spring takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring
steel of rectangular cross-section. In the most common configuration, the centre of the
arc provides location for the axle, while loops formed at either end provide for
attaching to the vehicle chassis. For very heavy vehicles, a leaf spring can be made
from several leaves stacked on top of each other in several layers, often with
progressively shorter leaves. Leaf springs can serve locating and to some extent
damping as well as springing functions. While the interleaf friction provides a
damping action, it is not well controlled and results in stiction in the motion of the
suspension. For this reason, some manufacturers have used mono-leaf springs.
A leaf spring can either be attached directly to the frame at both ends or attached
directly at one end, usually the front, with the other end attached through a shackle, a
short swinging arm. The shackle takes up the tendency of the leaf spring to elongate
when compressed and thus makes for softer springiness. Some springs terminated in a
concave end, called a spoon end (seldom used now), to carry a swivelling member.
 Page 54

The leaf spring has seen a modern development in cars. The 2016 Volvo XC90 has a
transverse leaf spring in high tech composite materials, a solution that is similar to the
latest Chevrolet Corvette. This means a straight leaf spring, that is tightly secured to
the chassis, and the ends of the spring bolted to the wheel suspension, to allow the
spring to work independently on each wheel. This means the suspension is smaller,
flatter and lighter than a traditional setup.
2). DRUM BRAKE AND ITS PARTS

A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press
outward against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.
The term drum brake usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner
surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called
a clasp brake. Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a
conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a pinch drum brake, though such
brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a flexible belt or
"band" wrapping around the outside of a drum.

Components
Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel cylinder,
and various springs and pins.
Backing plate
The backing plate provides a base for the other components. The back plate also
increases the rigidity of whole set-up, supports the housing, and protects it from
foreign materials like dust and other road debris. It absorbs the torque from the
braking action, and that is why back plate is also called the "Torque Plate". Since all
braking operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be strong and wear-
resistant. Levers for emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster
were also added in recent years.
 Page 55

Brake drum

The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-conductive
and wear-resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the
brakes, the lining pushes radially against the inner surface of the drum, and the
ensuing friction slows or stops rotation of the wheel and axle, and thus the vehicle.
This friction generates substantial heat.

Brake shoe
Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of steel welded together. The friction
material is either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-
shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for
return springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and self-adjusting
components. All the application force of the wheel cylinder is applied through the web
to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining table generally has three
“V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The nibs rest against the support
pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each brake assembly has
two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the front of
the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently from the secondary shoe. Quite
often, the two shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is
important.
 Page 56

Brake shoe assembly

Linings must be resistant to heat and wear and have a high friction
coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Materials that
make up the brake shoe lining include, friction modifiers (which can
include graphite and cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass,
aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders, curing agents and fillers
such as rubber chips to reduce brake noise.
Brake lining

Brake linings are composed of a relatively soft but tough and heat-resistant material
with a high coefficient of dynamic friction (and ideally an identical coefficient of
static friction) typically mounted to a solid metal backing using high-
temperature adhesives or rivets. The complete assembly (including lining and backing)
is then often called a brake pad or brake shoe. The dynamic friction coefficient "μ" for
most standard brake pads is usually in the range of 0.35 to 0.42. This means that a
force of 1000 Newton’s on the pad will give a resulting brake force close to 400
Newton’s. There are some racing pads that have a very high μ of 0.55 to 0.62 with
excellent high-temperature behaviour. These pads have high iron content and will
usually outperform any other pad used with iron discs. Unfortunately, nothing comes
for free, and these high μ pads wear fast and also wear down the discs at a rather fast
rate. However, they are a very cost effective alternative to more exotic/expensive
materials.
 Page 57

WHEEL HUB

We know how important a wheel hub is as it pertains to a properly functioning

vehicle, but there's a lot more to the automotive component than what may initially
meet the eye. A well-functioning wheel hub assembly doesn't just ensure the wheels
roll properly, but that they roll smoothly as well.
Wheel hubs are located in the centre of the car's wheels. Specifically, you can find
them situated between the drive axle and brake drums. Essentially, wheel hub
assemblies work to connect the wheel to the vehicle body. The assembly contains
bearings, which allow the wheels to roll quietly and efficiently. As you may have
guessed, wheel hubs are a mainstay on the vast majority of cars, light and heavy-duty
trucks, and passenger vehicles to boot.
Like most automotive components, however, wheel hubs don't last forever. And when
you notice signs of wheel hub assembly wear, it's important to act swiftly to avoid
potential serious issues. In the next section, we take a closer look at how to tell the
difference between a bad wheel hub and a good wheel hub.
 Page 58

Drum brake designs

Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing (also called "single
leading") or twin leading.
Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design (for non-servo systems), or
primary/secondary (for duo servo systems), the shoes being moved by a single double-
acting hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point. In this design, one of the brake
shoes always experiences the self-applying effect, irrespective of whether the vehicle
is moving forwards or backwards. This is particularly useful on the rear brakes, where
the parking brake (handbrake or footbrake) must exert enough force to stop the vehicle
from traveling backwards and hold it on a slope. Provided the contact area of the brake
shoes is large enough, which isn't always the case, the self-applying effect can
securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred to the rear brakes due to the
incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a
single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot may be made in the
form of a double-lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the parking brake system.
Front drum brakes may be of either design in practice, but the twin leading design is
more effective. This design uses two actuating cylinders arranged so that both shoes
use the self-applying characteristic when the vehicle is moving forwards. The brake
shoes pivot at opposite points to each other. This gives the maximum possible braking
when moving forwards, but is not so effective when the vehicle is traveling in reverse.
The optimum arrangement of twin leading front brakes with leading/trailing brakes on
the rear allows more braking force at the front of the vehicle when it is moving
forwards, with less at the rear. This helps prevent the rear wheels from locking up, but
still provides adequate braking at the rear.
The brake drum itself is frequently made of cast iron, though some vehicles have
used aluminium drums, particularly for front-wheel applications. Aluminium conducts
heat better than cast iron, which improves heat dissipation and reduces fade.
Aluminium drums are also lighter than iron drums, which reduces unsprang weight.
Because aluminium wears more easily than iron, aluminium drums frequently have an
iron or steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted to the aluminium
outer shell.
Advantages
Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, some medium and light duty trucks,
and few cars, dirt bikes, and ATVs. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels
since most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of the vehicle and
therefore the heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple
incorporation of a parking brake.
Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake even
when the rear wheels use disc brakes as the main brakes. Many rear disc braking
 Page 59

systems use a parking brake in which the piston in the calliper is actuated by a cam or
screw. This compresses the pads against the rotor. However, this type of system
becomes much more complicated when the rear disc brakes use fixed, multi-piston
callipers. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or as part of the brake
disc. This type of brake is also known as a banksia brake.
In hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle applications, wear on braking systems is greatly
reduced by energy recovering motor-generators (see regenerative braking), so some
hybrid vehicles such as the GMC Yukon Hybrid, Toyota Prius (except the third
generation) and Volkswagen ID.3 and ID.4 use drum brakes at the rear wheels.
Disc brakes rely on pliability of calliper seals and slight runout to release pads, leading
to drag, fuel mileage loss, and disc scoring. Drum brake return springs give more
positive action and, adjusted correctly, often have less drag when released. It is
however possible to design special seals that retract the piston on a disc brake.
Drum brakes emit less particulate matter (PM) than disc brakes, as the wear-particles
are mostly sealed in. They are not better in this regard than frictionless brakes though.
Certain heavier duty drum brake systems compensate for load when determining
wheel cylinder pressure; a feature rare when discs are employed (Hydro pneumatic
suspension systems as employed on Citroën vehicles adjust brake pressure depending
on load regardless of if drum or discs are used). One such vehicle is the Jeep
Comanche. The Comanche can automatically send more pressure to the rear drums
depending on the size of the load. Most other brands have used load sensing valves in
the hydraulics to the rear axle for decades.
Due to the fact that a drum brake's friction contact area is at the circumference of the
brake, a drum brake can provide more braking force than an equal diameter disc brake.
The increased friction contact area of drum brake shoes on the drum allows drum
brake shoes to last longer than disc brake pads used in a brake system of similar
dimensions and braking force. Drum brakes retain heat and are more complex than
disc brakes but are often the more economical and powerful brake type to use in rear
brake applications due to the low heat generation of rear brakes, a drum brake's self-
applying nature, larger friction surface contact area, and long life wear characteristics
(%life used/kW of braking power).
To list advantages of drum brakes:

• less expensive to produce

• slightly lower frequency of maintenance due to better corrosion resistance
compared to disks.
• built-in self-energizing effect requires less input force (such as hydraulic pressure).
• wheel cylinders are somewhat simpler to recondition compared to callipers.
• minor weight savings, primarily from much smaller and lighter hydraulic cylinders
vs. callipers.
 Page 60

Disadvantages
Drum brakes, like most other brakes, convert kinetic energy into heat by friction. This
heat should dissipate into the surrounding air, but can just as easily transfer to other
braking system components. Brake drums must be large to cope with the massive
forces involved, and must be able to absorb and dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to
air can be aided by incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive
heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which can cause the drum to
distort, leading to vibration under braking.
The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due to one of several
processes or more usually an accumulation of all of them.

1. When internally-expanding brake drums are heated by hard braking, the

diameter of the drum increases slightly due to thermal expansion, so the shoes
must move farther and the driver must press the brake pedal farther.
2. The properties of the friction material can change if heated, resulting in less
friction. This can be a much larger problem with drum brakes than disc brakes,
since the shoes are inside the drum and not exposed to cooling ambient air. The
loss of friction is usually only temporary and the material regains its efficiency
when cooled,[5] but if the surface overheats to the point where it becomes
glazed the reduction in braking efficiency is more permanent. Surface glazing
can be worn away with further use of the brakes, but that takes time.
3. Excessive brake drum heating can cause the brake fluid to vaporize, which
reduces the hydraulic pressure applied to the brake shoes. Therefore, the brakes
provide less deceleration for a given amount of pressure on the pedal. The
effect is worsened by poor maintenance. Brake fluid that is old and has
absorbed moisture has a lower boiling point, so brake fade occurs sooner.
Brake fade is not always due to overheating. Water between the friction surfaces and
the drum can act as a lubricant and reduce braking efficiency. The water tends to stay
until heated sufficiently to vaporize, at which point braking efficiency returns. All
friction braking systems have a maximum theoretical rate of energy conversion. Once
that rate is reached, applying greater pedal pressure doesn't change it—in fact, the
effects mentioned can substantially reduce it. Ultimately, this is what brake fade is,
regardless of the mechanisms of its causes. Disc brakes are not immune to any of these
processes, but they deal with heat and water more effectively than drums.
Drum brakes can be grabby if the drum surface gets light rust or if the brake is cold
and damp, giving the pad material greater friction. Grabbing can be so severe that the
tires skid and continue to skid even when the pedal is released. Grab is the opposite of
fade: when the pad friction goes up, the self-assisting nature of the brakes causes
application force to go up. If the pad friction and self-amplification are high enough,
the brake stay engaged due to self-application, even when the external application
force is released.
 Page 61

While disc brake rotors can be machined to clean the friction surface (i.e., 'turning'),
the same generally cannot be done with brake drums. Machining the friction surface of
a brake drum increases the diameter, which might require oversized shoes to maintain
proper contact with the drum. However, since oversized shoes are generally
unavailable for most applications, worn or damaged drums generally must be replaced.
and service.

AXLE

An axle or axletree is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles,
the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with
the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are
provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a
bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to
rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is
referred to as a spindle. Axles are an integral component of most practical wheeled
vehicles. In a live-axle suspension system, the axles serve to transmit driving torque to
the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and
to the vehicle body. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle
plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in heavy duty trucks
 Page 62

and some two-wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft, and serves only as
a suspension and steering component. Conversely, many front-wheel drive cars have a
solid rear beam axle.

In other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to
the wheels; the position and angle of the wheel hubs is an independent function of the
suspension system. This is typical of the independent suspensions found on most
newer cars and SUVs, and on the front of many light trucks. These systems still have
differentials, but will not have attached axle housing tubes. They may be attached to
the vehicle frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts (usually constant-
velocity type) then transmit driving torque to the wheels. Like a full floating axle
system, the drive shafts in a front-wheel drive independent suspension system do not
support any vehicle weight
Structural features and design

A straight axle is a single rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle
to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both
wheels. Such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can
therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains (that is, locomotives
and railway wagons), for the rear axles of commercial trucks, and on heavy duty off-
road vehicles. The axle can optionally be protected and further reinforced by enclosing
the length of the axle in a housing.

In split-axle designs, the wheel on each side is attached to a separate shaft. Modern
passenger cars have split drive axles. In some designs, this allows independent
suspension of the left and right wheels, and therefore a smoother ride. Even when the
suspension is not independent, split axles permit the use of a differential, allowing the
left and right drive wheels to be driven at different speeds as the automobile turns,
improving traction and extending tire life.

A tandem axle is a group of two or more axles situated close together. Truck designs
use such a configuration to provide a greater weight capacity than a single axle. Semi-
trailers usually have a tandem axle at the rear.
 Page 63

Axles are typically made from SAE grade 41xx steel or SAE grade 10xx steel. SAE
grade 41xx steel is commonly known as "chrome-molybdenum steel" (or "chrome-
moly") while SAE grade 10xx steel is known as "carbon steel". The primary
differences between the two are that chrome-moly steel is significantly more resistant
to bending or breaking, and is very difficult to weld with tools normally found outside
a professional welding shop.
ROLLER BEARING

Roller bearings — also known as rolling-element bearings — are similar to ball

bearings in that they are designed to carry a load while minimizing friction.
However, roller bearings transmit loads using cylinder rolling elements, rather than
balls, to maintain the separation between moving parts of the bearing. These versatile
bearings can contain single or multiple rows of rolling elements; multiple rows can
significantly improve radial load capacity. Also, the use of different roller shapes can
further reduce friction and support both radial and axial loads. While roller bearings
can handle higher loads than conventional ball bearings, their applications are
generally limited to low-speed operations.

Roller bearings come in a wide range of shapes and sizes, and can be customized for
specialized situations. Also, the use of flanges, cages, and multiple bearing rows can
allow for higher performance to meet specific application needs.
 Page 64

CONCLUSION

In my industrial training, I was introduced to industrial environment. I learned

discipline and cooperation during my industrial training and I felt good when I came
in contact with engineers and worker of workshop.

After the completion of industrial training I enhanced competencies and

competitiveness in our respective area of specialization. I tried to relate the experience
in the workplace with the knowledge learned in the institute and applied the
knowledge on the job under supervision.

Here, I gained the experience and knowledge that can be used for suitable job
without delay after studies.

I learned to hone soft skills appropriate to the work environment. Also get improvised
in communication skills. I assess career ability, knowledge and confidence as well as
enhanced our marketability to be more competitive.

With experience, knowledge and skills acquired during industrial

training I will be better prepared to face working world.
 Page 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY

➢ www.google.co.in
➢ www.wikipedia.org
➢ www.hppwd.hp.gov.in
➢ Under the guidance of: -
- Er. Rishi Thakur (Junior engineer)
- Er. Satish Kumar (Junior engineer)
- Er. Vishal Thakur (Junior engineer)
- Er. Anil Sharma (Junior engineer)