applications; strain gauge as displacement & pressure transducers, RTD materials &range, Characteristics,

thermistor characteristics, biomedical applications of Temperature sensorsCapacitive transducer,

Inductive transducer, LVDT, Active type: Thermocouple –characteristics.

UNIT II
Transducers
Resistive Transducers: Strain Gauge: Gauge factor,
sensing elements, configuration, biomedical
applications; strain gauge as displacement &
pressure transducers,
RTD materials &range, Characteristics,
thermistor characteristics,
biomedical applications of Temperature sensors
Capacitive transducer,
Inductive transducer, LVDT,
Active type: Thermocouple –characteristics. 1
 Transducer Types

• Analog and digital transducers.

• Primary and secondary transducer.

• On the basis of transduction principle

used.

•  Active and Passive Transducers

2
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
on the basis of nature of output signal
• Analog transducers
• converts input signal into output signal, which is a
continuous function of time such as THERMISTOR ,
strain gauge, LVDT , thermocouple etc
• Digital transducers
• converts input signal into output signal in the form of
pulses e.g. it gives discrete output.
• In digital transmission

3
 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
on the basis of application methods
• Primary transducers
– changes “real world” parameter into physical
measurable form

• Secondary transducers
– second stage of transduction- converts the
output of primary transducer to analogous voltage

4
5
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Active transducers
– Do not require an external power source to
produce their output
– self generating type
– Thermocouple
• Passive transducers
– Derive power required for transduction from an
external power source.
– resistive, capacitive and inductive transducers

6
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Unknown variable Change in resistance
Potentiometer
(Resistive displacement Transducer)

liquid level (in petrol-tank level

indicator)
Rotary Potentiometer

8
 Resistive Transducers
Strain Gauges
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer,
both changes resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end.
The resistance of a metal conductor
is expressed by a simple equation.

R = ρL/A
Where
R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ωm

• Note R increases with

– Increased material resistivity (Piezoresistive effect)
– Increased length of conductor (wire)
– Decreased cross-sectional area (or diameter)
– Increased temperatures (can bias results if not accounted for)
 Strain Gauges
• Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
• Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire.
The wire has the dimensions ;
• length=L, area= A, diameter=D before being strained.
The material of the wire has a resistivity ρ.
• The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given as
R = ρL/A
• Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This
produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease.
• Under strained condition, resistance of conductor
changes by ΔR because of Δl, ΔA, and/or Δρ
 Strain Gauges
R = ρL/
To find the change inAresistance ΔR, due to stress

Dividing both sides by R, we get the fractional change as

 A = π (D/2)2, for circular wire
Δ A/ Δ D= 2 π D/4 = πD/2
ΔA/A =2 ΔD/D

Poisson’s ratio, ν : relates change in diameter D to

change in length L : ν= − ΔD/D / ΔL/L
 Then, Gauge Factor, G is defined as

• G is also known as Strain-Sensitivity factor; rearranging terms,

we get

Where is the Piezoresistive term

For most metals, the Piezoresistive term is about 0.4 and

0.2 < ν < 0.5
Thus, Gauge factor for metallic stain gauges is in the range
2.0–2.5 (not sensitive)
 Types of strain gauges
• Unbonded
• Bonded
•
Unbonded strain gauges
• This gauge consist of a wire
stretched between two point in
an insulating medium such as air.
• The wires may be made of various
copper, nickel, chromium nickel or
nickel iron alloys.
• The element is connected via a rod
to diaphragm which is used for
sensing the pressure. The wire are
tensioned to avoid buckling when
they experience the compressive
force.
 Bonded strain Gauges
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge
are used for both stress analysis and
for construction of transducer.
• A resistance wire strain gauge consists
of a grid of fine resistance wire of 25
μm diameter.
• The grid is cemented to carrier
which may be a thin sheet of paper
bakelite or teflon.
• The wire is covered on top with a thin
sheet of material so as to prevent it
from any mechanical damage.
• The carrier is bonded with an
adhesive material to the specimen
which permit a good transfer of
strain from carrier to grid of wires.
 Types of bonded strain
gauges
Wire Strain Gauge Torque gauge Helical gauge

Rosette
Base (Carrier) Materials
• Epoxy: -200⁰C to 150 ⁰C .
• Bakelite impregnated cellulose or glass fiber filled
materials :
• up to 200 ⁰'C for continuous operation, and
• up to 300 ⁰ C for limited operation.
Adhesives. The adhesives act as bonding materials.
• Ethyl cellulose cement, nitro cellulose cement,
Bakelite cement and epoxy cement
Strain gauge with signal conditioning
circuit
Semiconductor strain gauges
• Sensitive measurements require very high Gauge factors in
the range of 100-300
• Such factor can be obtained from semiconductor strain
gauges
• Piezoresistive strain gauges are a semiconductor material
which changes in resistance when the material stretched or
compressed.
• Piezoresistors can be fabricated using wide variety of
piezoresistive materials.
The simplest form of piezoresistive
silicon sensors are diffused resistors.
 Self assessment questions
• A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of
small diameter. The gauge factor is +4'2. Neglecting
the piezoresistive effects, calculate the Poisson's ratio.
(1.6)

• A resistance. wire strain gauge with a gauge factor of

2 is bonded to a steel structural member subjected to
a stress of 100 MN/m2. The modulus of elasticity of
steel is 200 GN/m2 . Calculate the percentage change
in the value of the gauge resistance due to the applied
stress. Coment upon the results. (0'1%. )
 Resistive Sensors –
Temperature Dependent
Resistors
When the temperature varies the resistance varies ……

• Two classes of thermal resistors are

– Metallic element (RTD)

– Semiconductor (Thermistor)
 RTD (Resistance Temperature
Detector)
Metals
For most metals, the resistance increases with increase
in temperature
Construction
The wire is wound on a form (in a coil)
on notched mica cross frame to
achieve
• small size,
• improving the thermal conductivity to
decrease the response time
• a high rate of heat transfer is
obtained.
• In the industrial RTD’s, the coil is
protected by a stainless steel sheath
or a protective tube.
 RTD

– Where α is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as

R = R0[1 + α(T – T0)]

Where R0 is the resistance at T=T0 and
α is the temperature coefficient of the device.
• Example: Platinum
– Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
– Reproducible over a wide range of temperature
– Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement
– Metals : platinum, Nickel and copper
 RTD
• The temperature coefficient of resistance is
given as
• α =(R100 –R0)/ (1000C.R0)
• Where R0and R100 are the resistance of the
sensor at temperature 00C and 1000C
respectively.
 RTD Characteristics
• It has good linear characteristics over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Applications
• Due to their accuracy and stability it is used in
industries
• RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the
engine temperature, an oil level sensor, intake air
temperature sensors.
• In communication and instrumentation for sensing the
over the temperature of amplifiers, transistor
gain stabilizers, etc…
• RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer
electronics, food handling and processing, industrial
electronics, medical electronics, military, and aerospace.
 Thermistors
• Semiconductor based resistance thermometers
elements
– The resistance of such elements decreases with
increasing temperature
• The resistance-temperature relationship is non-
linear and governed by

– Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin)

and β is material constant expressed in degree Kelvin
• Most semiconductor materials used for
thermometry possess high resistivity and high
negative temperature coefficients
Thermistor
diameter of 0.15 mm to 1.25 mm
32
 Self Assessment questions
1. The thermistor has a resistance temperature co-
efficient of - 5 % over a temperature range of 25⁰C to
50⁰C. If the resistance of the thermistor is 100 Ω at
25°C, what is the resistance at 35°C.
(50 ohm)
• 2. A 10 Ω copper resistor at,20°C is to be used to
indicate the temperature of bearings of a machine.
What resistance should not be exceeded if the
maximum bearing temperature is not to exceed 150°C
. The resistance temperature co efficient of copper is
0 .00393 Ω/ Ω°C at 20°C . (15.11 Ω)
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

34
 Capacitive Transducer
• The parallel plate capacitance is given by

– d= distance between plates

– A=overlapping area,
– ε0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m is the absolute permittivity,
– εr = relative permittivity, dielectric constant (εr =1 for air and
εr =3 for plastics)
Capacitance changes when…..
• Changing the distance between the two
parallel electrodes. D
• Changing the dielectric constant, permittivity,
of the dielectric medium ε
• Changing the area of the electrode. A
 Movable plate Fixed plate
Displacement
Capacitance Transducers Based on
Differential Arrangement
 Advantages
• These transducers offer high input impedance. So the
loading effects value will be too low.
• The frequency response of these transducers is
extremely high.
• highly sensitive.
• low power to operate.
• High resolution (2.5X10¯³mm)
• They require extremely small forces to operate them
and hence are very useful for use in small systems.
• The capacitive transducers can be used for
applications where stray magnetic fields
 LIMITATIONS
• The metallic parts of the transducers require
insulation.
• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for
reducing the effect of the stray magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear
behaviors because of the edge effect which is
controlled by using the guard ring.
• The cable connecting across the transducer
causes an error.
 Uses
• The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of
both the linear and angular displacement. It is
extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of
very small distance.
• It is used for the measurement of the force and
pressures. The force or pressure, which is to be
measured is first converted into a displacement, and
then the displacement changes the capacitances of the
transducer.
• It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where
the dielectric constant of the transducer changes with
the pressure.
• The humidity in gases is measured through the
capacitive transducer.
• The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for
measuring the volume, density, weight etc.
 Bio medical applications
Intra vascular pressure measurement
• Phono cardio Gram

• Blood Pressure

Arterial pressure waveform

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Inductance : It is the behaviour of a coil of wire
in resisting any change of electric current
through the coil.
• Arising from Faraday's law, the inductance L
may be defined in terms of the EMF generated
to oppose a given change in current:

50
 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
• For a coil of n turns, the inductance L is given by
• R=l/ μA
– Where
• N: Number: of turns of the coil
• l: Mean length of the magnetic path
• A: Area of the magnetic path
• μ: Permeability of the magnetic material
• R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit

• Inductance variation can be in the form of

– Self inductance or
– Mutual inductance: e.g., differential transformer
– Production of Eddy current
51
 Self Inductance
R=l/ μA

G =A/l - geometric form

factor
L = N² G μ μ -Permeability
• N: Number of turns of the coil
• R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit
• l: Mean length of the magnetic path
• A: Area of the magnetic path
• μ: Permeability of the magnetic material
 Change in inductance due to
change in no of turns
Inductance L = N² G μ

Inductance changes when no of turns changes

Change in Inductance due to change in
geometric form factor changes (G=A/l)
Change in inductance due to change in
permeability
Variable Inductive Transducer Working On
the Principle of Variation of Mutual
Inductance

The self-inductance of such an

arrangement varies between
L1+L2 -2M to L1+L2+2M .
 Inductive Transducers Working
one the Principle of Production of
Eddy Currents
• If a conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating
current, eddy currents are produced in the conducting plate.
 LVDT(Linear variable
differential transformer)
• It consists basically of a primary winding and two secondary
windings, wound over a hollow tube and positioned so that
the primary is between two of its secondaries.
 LVDT

• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the
magnetic coupling between the primary and two secondaries.

• The winding is connected ‘series opposing’ that is the polarities

of V1 and V2 oppose each other.

• When the core is in the centre , the voltage induced in the two
secondary is equal (V1=V2), Vo=V1-V2=0.
When the core is moved in one direction of centre, the
voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in the
other is decreased.

Movement in the opposite direction reverses this

effects.
 LVDT - Output Characteristics

A B

Core move towards A,

V2>V1;
Vo= negative voltage
Core at center O,
V1=V2; Vo=0
Core move towards B,
V1>V2; Vo= Positive
LVDT Characteristics
64
 Advantages of LVDT
1. Linearity ---- 1.25mm to 250 mm.
2. High Resolution ---- (l x 10¯³ mm.)
3. High output
4. High sensitivity -- The sensitivity range of the typical
LVDT sensor is recorded at 40V/mm.
5. Minimal hysteresis loss that in-turn increases the reliability and
offers excellent operating conditions.

6. Less Friction --due to the operation of the core is carried out

inside the hollow former.

7. Ruggednesss---- withstand with high degree shock and vibration

8. Low Power--- minimal power consumption of a range of 1w.

9. The output is obtained in terms of an electrical signal

 Limitations
1. Since LVDT works on the principle of the inductive
transducer, a stray magnetic field is generated around
the circuit. There is a requirement of an additional circuit
to overcome the stray magnetic field.
2. Vibrations and temperature variations inside the
electromagnetic device further inhibit the performance
of the system.

3. AC output.
 Applications
1. LVDT sensors are majorly used in industries to measure
the tension of spring, weight, displacement, and pressure

As a secondary transducer : The input factors achieved in the

form of physical parameters are initially converted into
displacement, followed by a corresponding electrical voltage
signal.

2. It is deployed in industries to extract positive feedback from

servomechanism.
3. It is used in machinery measurement tools, Aircraft industry,
hydraulics, Satellite, and Industrial
Automation.
 Thermocouples
(Active transducer)
• Two dissimilar metals induce voltage difference (few mV
per 10K) – electro-thermal or Seebeck effect

• Use op-amp to process/amplify the voltage

68
 Active Sensors - Thermocouple
• Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical
energy
– Application: To measure temperature
• Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together
at one end (sensing or hot junction) and terminated at
the other end (reference or cold junction)

• When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing

junction and the reference, an emf is produced

69
70
 Requirement for a reference junction
• To obtain the desired measurement of Temperature T, it is not sufficient
to just measure the voltage V.
The temperature at the reference junctions must be already known.

• Two strategies are often used here:

"Ice bath" method
• "Ice bath" method: The reference junction block is immersed in a semi-
frozen bath of distilled water at atmospheric pressure. to (0 °C).
cold junction compensation
• Reference junction sensor (known as "cold junction compensation"): The
reference junction block is allowed to vary in temperature, but the
temperature is measured at this block using a separate temperature
sensor.
• This secondary measurement is used to compensate for temperature
variation at the junction block. The thermocouple junction is often
exposed to extreme environments, while the reference junction is often
mounted near the instrument's location.
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
Typical material combinations used as thermocouples

Type Materials Temp. Range Output

voltage (mV)
T Copper-Constantan -200 0C to 3500C -5.6 to 17.82
J Iron-Constantan 0 to 7500C 0 to 42.28

E Chromel-Constantan -200 to 9000C -8.82 to 68.78

K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 12500C -5.97 to 50.63
R Platinum = 13% 0 to 1450 0C 0 to 16.74
Rhodium = 87%

72
To get higher output emf--Connect two or more Thermocouples in series
For measurement of average temperature--Connect Thermocouples in parallel

74
 Advantages &
Disadvantages of
Advantages
Thermocouple
• Accuracy is high
• It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high
vibration.
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Cost is low and extremely consistent

Disadvantages
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
 Thermocouple Applications
• These are used as the temperature sensors in
thermostats in offices, homes, offices & businesses.
• These are used in industries for monitoring
temperatures of metals in iron, aluminum, and metal.
• These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and
Low-temperature applications. Thermocouples are
used as a heat pump for performing thermoelectric
cooling.
• These are used to test temperature in the chemical
plants, petroleum plants.
• These are used in gas machines for detecting the pilot
flame.
• AUTOCLAVES, ENVIRONMENTAL CHAMBERS, AND
STERILIZERS
• Thermopile radiation sensors
Thermopilesare used for measuring the
intensity of incident radiation, typically visible or
infrared light, which heats the hot junctions,
while the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is
possible to measure radiative intensities of only a
few μW/cm2 with commercially available
thermopile sensors