Module 7

Sensors and Transducers

 Resistive Sensors
• In such material, the resistances of the transducer get varied according to the
measured
• The resistance of any metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation,
R = ρ L/A
where, L = length of the conductor, A = Cross Section area of the conductor,
ρ= resitivity of conductor
• Thus, any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above
relationship can be the design basic of electrical resistive transducer

• Mechanically varied resistance – Potentiometer

• Thermal resistance change – Resistance thermometers
• Resistivity change – Resistance strain gauge
• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
 Potentiometer - Mechanically varied
resistance
Linear and Angular Motion potentiometers
Linear motion
Such potentiometers convert the linear motion or potentiometer
angular motion of a translatory or rotating shaft into
changes in resistance.

Due to arm movement, the slider moves over the

resistance element and thus shorts out a portion of the
resistance.

These potentiometers are connected to the arm of a Angular motion

bridge circuit whose output voltage is changed by the potentiometer
slider position.

They are used in many transducers to measure:

1. Pressure
2. Acceleration
3. Force
4. Liquid level
 Potentiometer - Mechanically varied
resistance
Advantages:
1. High output
2. Less expensive
3. Available in different shapes and sizes
4. Simple to operate
5. Electrical efficiency is high
6. Rugged construction
7. Insensitive towards vibration and temperature

Disadvantages:
1. Limited life due to early wear of the sliding ram
2. Output tends to be noisy and eratic during high speed operation
3. Resolution is limted for wire wound potentiometers

Materials used:
Wire wound type: Platinum, Nickel chromium, Nickel copper, etc
Non-wire wound: Cermet, Carbon film, Thin metal film, etc
 Thermal resistance change - Resistance
thermometers
• Sir Humphry Davy had noted as early as 1821 that electrical resistances of
various metals depend on temperature
• Sir William Siemens, in 1871, first outlined the use of a platinum resistance
thermometer
• In 1887, Hugh Callendar published an article in which he described how to
practically use platinum temperature sensors
• The advantages of thermoresistive sensors are in the simplicity of interface
circuits, sensitivity, and long-term stability.
• All such sensors can be divided into three groups: RTDs and thermistors
 Resistance Temperature Detectors/Devices (RTD)
• Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as resistance
temperature devices (or RTDs), rely on the principle that the resistance of a
metal varies with temperature according to the relationship:

• This equation is non-linear and so is inconvenient for measurement purposes

• The equation becomes linear if all the higher powers of T are negligible such
that:

Where the constants a1, a2, a3 are determined by the properties of platinum
used in the construction of the sensor

• This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for

some metals, notably platinum, copper and nickel
 Resistance Temperature Detectors/Devices (RTD)
• Platinum has the most linear resistance–temperature characteristic, and it
also has good chemical inertness, making it the preferred type of resistance
thermometer in most applications

• Besides having a less linear characteristic, both nickel and copper are inferior
to platinum in terms of their greater susceptibility to oxidation and corrosion.
This seriously limits their accuracy and longevity. However, because platinum
is very expensive compared with nickel and copper, the latter are used in
resistance thermometers when cost is important

• Tungsten, is also used in resistance thermometers in some circumstances,

particularly for high temperature measurements.
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are manufactured from beads of semiconductor material
prepared from oxides of the iron group of metals such as chromium, cobalt,
iron, manganese and nickel
• Normally, thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. the
resistance decreases as the temperature increases, according to:

• However, alternative forms of heavily doped thermistors are now available (at
greater cost) that have a positive temperature coefficient.
• It is not possible to make a linear approximation to the curve over even a
small temperature range, and hence the thermistor is very definitely a non-
linear sensor
• However, the major advantages of thermistors are their relatively low cost and
their small size
 Resistivity change – Resistance
strain gauge
• Strain is expressed as the ratio of total deformation to the initial dimension
of the material body in which the forces are being applied. Mathematically,
strain (e) is given by:

where L = the original length of the material body, l = Final length and ΔL =
Change in length.
• A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. It
consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil
pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as
cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its
electrical resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured
using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as
the gauge factor
Resistivity change – Resistance
strain gauge
 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• A photoresistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to
light
• When light falls upon it then the resistance changes
• Values of the resistance of the LDR may change over many orders of
magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases
• LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their
light sensitive properties eg cadmium sulphide, CdS.
 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Resistance of an LDR or photoresistor to be several megohms in
darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in bright light

• This uses a semiconducting material whose resistance changes with the

radiant energy received
• Resistivity of materials like, selenium, cadmium sulphide, lead sulphide, etc
is decreased when irradiated
• Here there are two electrodes attached to the semiconductor material
• As soon as the cell is illuminated, its resistance decreases and current
through the circuit becomes large
• The electrodes are designed to have a large ‘dark-to-light’ resistance, eg by
using an inter-digital pattern
• They are used in detection of ships and aircrafts by the radiation given out
by them
 Capacitive sensors
• Capacitive sensing (sometimes capacitance sensing) is a technology
based on capacitive coupling, that can detect and measure anything
that is conductive or has a dielectric different from air
• Many types of sensors use capacitive sensing, including sensors to
detect and measure proximity, pressure, position and displacement,
force, humidity, fluid level, and acceleration.
• Capacitive sensor is primarily used to measure the linear displacements
from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor
and the lower pair another. The linear displacement might take in two
forms:
one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate
separation changes
area of overlap changes due to the displacement
Capacitive sensors
 Capacitive sensors
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

• where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates,

εo is the permittivity of free space, A is the area of overlap between two
plates and d is the plate separation
• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element/workpiece of which displacement is to be
measured, separation in between the plate changes. This can be given
as
 Capacitive sensors
• When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the
resulting out-of-balance voltage would be in proportional to
displacement x
• Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor
• The approach of the object towards the sensor plate is used for
induction of change in plate separation
• This changes the capacitance which is used to detect the object
 Applications of capacitive sensors
• Feed hopper level monitoring
• Small vessel pump control
• Grease level monitoring
• Level control of liquids
• Metrology applications
To measure shape errors in the part being produced
To analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such
as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by
measuring errors in the machine tools themselves
• Assembly line testing
To test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
To detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.