Unit-II

Transducers
Introduction to Transducers - Classification - Primary - Secondary and Tertiary -
Mechanical - Bellows - Bourdon's Tube - Springs Proving Rings - Diaphragm - Monometer
- Bimetals Electrical- Resistance - Inductance and Capacitance - Strain Gauges and its
Orientation for Measurement - Vibration and Acceleration Measurement - Advantages
and Limitation. Measurement of Force - Torque - Power-Temperature and Flow.
Broad definition of a transducer is as follows:
• "A transducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to
another", Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy into
mechanical displacement and for convert some non-electrical physical
quantity (e.g.. force, sound, temperature etc.) to an electrical signal.
• A transducer performs the following functions in an electronic
instrumentation system:
1. Detects or senses the presence, magnitude and changes in physical quantity
being measured
2. Provides a proportional electrical output signal (see Fig. 5.1.)
• A transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts an non-
electrical quantity into anelectrical quantity.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
A Transducers are broadly classified into two groups as follows:
1. Active transducers. They are also known as self-generating type transducers. These
transducers develop their own voltage or current. The energy required for
production of an output signal is obtained from the physical phenomenon being
measured.
Examples. Thermocouples and thermopiles, piezoelectric pick-up, photovoltaic cell.
2. Passive transducers. They are known as externally-powered transducer. These
transducers derive the power required for the energy conversion from an external
power source. However, they may absorb some energy from the physical phenomenon
under study.
Examples. Resistance thermometers and thermistors, potentiometric devices,
differential transformer photoemission cell etc.
• B. Classification based on the type of output:
• 1. Analogue transducers. These transducers convert the input physical
phenomenon into an analogous output which is a continuous function
of time.
Examples. Strain gauge, a thermocouple, a thermistor or an LVDT
(linear voltage differential transformer)
• 2. Digital transducers. These transducers convert the input physical
phenomenon into an electrical output which may be in form of pulse.
C. Classification based on electrical principle
involved:
• 1. Variable-resistance type:
(i) Strain and pressure gauges
(ii) Thermistors, resistance thermometers
(iii) Photoconductive cell etc.
• 2. Variable-inductance type:
(i) Linear variable transformer (LVDT)
(ii) Reluctance pick-up
(iii) Eddy current gauge.
• 3. Variable-capacitance type:
(i) Capacitor microphone
(ii) Pressure gauge
(iii) Dielectric gauge.
• 4. Voltage-generating type:
(i) Thermocouple
(ii) Photovoltaic cell
(iii) Rotational motion tachometer
(iv) Piezoelectric pick-up.
• 5. Voltage-divider type:
(i) Potentiometer position censor
(ii) Pressure-actuated voltage divider.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical device. The
mechanical device converts the physical quantity to be measured into a
mechanical signal. Such mechanical device are called as the primary
transducers, because they deal with the physical quantity to be measured.

• The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical device are known as secondary transducers
• Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary transducer. It convert
pressure (the quantity to be measured) into displacement(the
mechanical signal).

• The displacement is then converted into change in resistance using

strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as the secondary transducer.
Mechanical Transducers:

• The mechanical transducers are the mechanical elements

that are used for converting one form of energy into other
form that can be measured easily.
• There are number of mechanical transducers, some of the
commonly used ones are described below:
Bellows:
• These are the
elastic elements
that convert the
air pressure
into
displacement,
and it is
commonly used
for the
measurement
of pressure.
• Bellows is a longitudinally expansible and collapsible member
consisting of several turns (convolutions) or folds.
• Thus, the bellows is a series of circular parts resembling the folds.
• Bellows has long length and it is made up of metal alloy, which is
ductile and retains its properties over long use.
• Commonly used materials are brass, bronze, beryllium, copper alloy,
steel, alloy of nickel etc.
• They are formed in such a way that, they expand or contract axially
with the change in pressure.
• Advantages of bellows pressure gauge
1. Moderate cost.
2. Suitable for absolute pressure as well as gauge pressure.
3. It can be used for measuring low and moderate pressure.
• Disadvantages of Bellows Pressure Gauge
1. It requires ambient temperature compensation.
2. It is not suitable for high pressure measurement.
Selection of Material for Bellows
• Factors affecting selection of Material for bellows:
• 1. Strength,
• 2. Pressure range.
• 3. Hysteresis,
• 4. Corrosiveness due to environmental impacts, and
• 5. Ease of fabrication etc.
 Bourdon’s Tube
• Bourdon tube pressure gauge consists of
bourdon tube bent into an arc of circle.
• Cross-section of the tube is elliptical.
• One end of tube is con nected to the point,
whose pressure is to be measured.
• Other end is con nected to the rack and pinion
through mechanical linkage.
• The pointer is pivoted on the pinion.
Working of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
• When the fluid (either liquid or air or gas), whose pressure is to be
mea sured, is made to flow through bourdon tube, its original
elliptical cross section tends to become circular.
• This makes the tube straighten itself out with an increase in radius of
curvature. This causes the free end of the tube to move/displace.
• This displacement of free end of tube creates angular movement in
rack and pinion through mechanical linkage.
• The pointer, which is pivoted on the pinion, moves over a calibrated
scale, which directly indicates pressure in terms of N/rn2 or 'm' head
of mercury.
• Advantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
1. Low cost.
2. Simple construction.
3. Available in wide variety of range.
4. High accuracy as compared with cost.
• Disadvantages of Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
1. Low spring gradient.
2. Highly sensitive to shock, vibration and Hysteresis.
Factors to be Considered, While selecting
Material for Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
• 1. Elastic characteristics suitable for pressure measurement.
• 2. Range of measurement.
• 3. Pressure of medium.
• 4. Temperature of medium.
• 5. Corrosive resistance of medium
Springs
• Here the pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses
the spring.
• The position of the piston is directly related to the pressure.
• A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be
indicated.
• This type is usually used in hydraulics where the ability to
withstand shock, vibration and sudden pressure changes is
needed (shock proof gauge).
Diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a thin plate of circular shape clamped firmly around its
periphery. Also, it can be called as very thin membrane under radial tension.
• Working Principle of Diaphragm Gauge
Diaphragm gets deflected towards the low pressure applied (because of pressure
difference) and this deflection produced is directly propor tional (straight line
relationship) to the applied pressure.
• Uses:
1. For low pressure range measurement due to its ability to detect very small
pressure variations.
2. As Capacitive or Inductive transducer, which produces the electrical out put
proportional to the pressure measured.
Metallic diaphragm gauge
• Metallic diaphragm gauge consists of corrugated or
flat plate flexible diaphragm depending on the
deflection desired.
• It is made from a full hard, cold rolled nickel,
chromium or iron alloy, which have elastic limit of
560 MN/m².
• Operation of Metallic diaphragm depends upon its
own resilience.
• A pointer is attached to the diaphragm. The applied
pressure causes deflection of the diaphragm.
• The motion of the diaphragm operates an indicating
or recording type display device or output read-out
device.
• Pressure rage: 125 mm of water gauge to 1.05
MN/m² with an accuracy of 0.5 to 19%.
• Application of Diaphragm gauges.
It is used for indication of the boiler draught in a chimney stack.

• Advantages of Diaphragm gauges

1. Small size and moderate cost.
2. Capability to withstand high pressures.
3. Good linearity over a wide range of pressures.
4. Available for absolute and differential pressure measurement.
5. Low hysteresis and no permanent zero drift.

• Disadvantages of Diaphragm gauges

1. They need protection from shocks and vibrations.
2. Difficult to repair.
3. Not suitable for very high-pressure measurements.
Proving Ring
• When a steel ring is subjected to
a force across its diameter, it
deflects. This deflection is
proportional to the applied force
when calibrated.
• A steel ring attached with
external bosses to apply force.
A precision micrometer with one
of its ends mounted on a
vibrating reed.
Working
• The force to be measured is applied to the external bosses of the
proving ring. Due to the applied force, the ring changes in diameter.
This deflection of the ring is proportional to the applied force.
• At this stage, the reed is plucked to obtain a vibrating motion. When
the reed is vibrating, the micrometer wheel is turned until the
micrometer contact moves forward and makes a noticeable
damping of the vibrating reed.
• Now the micrometer reading is noted which is a measure of
deflection of the ring. The device is calibrated to get a measure of
force in terms of deflection of the proving ring.
Manometer
• A simple U-tube
manometer made from
easily obtained materials
can be used to calibrate
pressure transducers over
the range of a few inches
of water to a few psi.
• This application note
describes how to construct
a manometer and
determine the accuracy
that can be expected.
Bimetals (Bimetallic Thermometer)
• The bimetallic
thermometer uses the
bimetallic strip which
converts the temperature
into the mechanical
displacement.
• The working of the
bimetallic strip depends
on the thermal expansion
property of the metal.
• The bimetallic strip is constructed by
bonding together the two thin strips
of different metals.
• The metals are joined together at one
end with the help of the welding.
• The bonding is kept in such a way
that there is no relative motion
between the two metals.
• The physical dimension of the metals
varies with the variation in
temperature.
Advantages
• The thermometer is simple in construction, robust and less expensive.
Disadvantages
• The thermometer gives the less accurate result while measuring the
low temperature.
Applications of Bimetallic Thermometer
• The bimetallic thermometer is used in household devices likes oven,
air conditioner, and in industrial apparatus like refineries, hot wires,
heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring the temperature.
Electrical Transducer
• An electrical transducer is a sensing device by which the physical, mechanical or optical
quantity to be measured is transformed directly by a suitable mechanism into an electrical
voltage/current proportional to the input measured.
• Advantages of Electrical Transducers
The main advantages of electrical transducers (conversion of physical quantity into electrical
quantities) are as follows:
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
2. Mass-inertia effects are minimised.
3. Effects of friction are minimised.
4. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
5. The output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling unit
Resistive Transducers
• A resistive transducer is an electronic device that is capable of
measuring various physical quantities like temperature, pressure,
vibration, force, etc.
• These physical quantities are otherwise extremely difficult to measure
as they can change easily.
• However, using this transducer, you can easily calculate the values of
these quantities.
• The resistance of this transducer changes concerning the change in
the physical quantities.
• A resistive transducer is mainly used in
the calculation of temperature,
displacement, pressure, force.
• The working of a resistive transducer can
be explained by considering a conductor
rod as the transducer.
• The transducer works on the principle of
the length of the conductor.
• The length of the conductor is directly
proportional to its resistance and is
inversely proportional to its cross-
sectional area. 
Advantages
• The main advantages of the resistive transducer are as follows:
• The resistive transducer can be used to give very quick results.
• The resistive transducers are available in various sizes and they have a considerably
high amount of resistance.
• We can use both AC or DC for calculating the change in resistance.
• They are quite affordable and can be easily available in the market.
• W can use this transducer in various applications even when they are not a necessity.
• It can be used to give accurate results.

Disadvantages
• Some of the major disadvantages of resistive transducers are:
• A lot of power is wasted in moving the sliding contacts.
• The sliding contacts can produce a lot of noise.
Applications of a Resistive Transducer
• A resistive transducer is mainly used to measure the temperature in
various kinds of applications. When there is a change in temperature,
the temperature coefficient of the resistive transducer changes which
can be used to determine the change in temperature.
• The resistive transducer can function as a potentiometer where the
resistance of the transducer can be varied by changing the length of
the conductor.
• A resistive transducer can be used in the calculation of the
displacement. When we apply strain on the resistor, the resistance
changes. This characteristic can be used in the measurement of
displacement, force, and pressure.
Inductive Transducer
• A transducer that works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction or transduction mechanism is called an inductive
transducer.
• A self-inductance or mutual inductance is varied to measure
required physical quantities like displacement (rotary or linear),
force, pressure, velocity, torque, acceleration, etc. These physical
quantities are noted as measurands. 
• Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) is an example of an
inductive transducer. Using LVDT, displacement is measured in
terms of the voltage induced in the winding by moving the core in
one direction.
Simple Inductance Type
• In this type of transducer, a single coil
is used to measure the required
parameter.
• The change in displacement changes
the permeability of the flux produced
in the circuit results in a change in the
inductance of the coil and the output.
• The output can be calibrated in terms
of the measurand, which is to be
measured. The circuit of a simple
inductance type is shown below.
Mutual Inductance Transducers (two coils)
• In this type, two coils are used for mutual
induction. One for generating excitation
and another for output.
• The voltage difference between the two
coils depends on the movement of the
armature.
• When the armature position is changed by
connecting to the movable mechanical
element, then the inductance changes.
• The air gap between the armature and the
magnetic material and also voltage
induced in the coil depends on the change
in the armature position.
• This type is also called a differential
mutual inductive transducer.
The advantages of the inductive transducer include the following.
• The inductive transducers can work in any environmental conditions like
humidity and high temperatures. These can give high performance in the
industrial environment also.
• These have high accuracy and stable operating range with good life-
span
• These can be operated in high switching rates in industrial applications.
• These type transducers can be operated in wide ranges used in various
applications

The disadvantages of the inductive transducer include the following.

• The working and operating range of inductive transducer depends on the
construction and temperature conditions
• It depends on the magnetic field of the coil.
Applications of the Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers are used in,
• Proximity sensors to measure position, dynamic motion, touchpads, etc.
• Detection of metals and missing parts
• Counting the no.of objects.
• Accelerometers
• Linear and Rotary Motor
• Galvanometers
• LVDT and RVDT
• Pressure and airflow sensors
• Electroactive polymers
• Potential meters
• Micro-electro-mechanical systems
• Powered generators etc.
• Sequential counters
• PB monitors, heart monitors, etc
Capacitive Transducer
• A passive transducer which is used to measure
the pressure, displacement, and other physical
quantities is called a capacitive transducer.
• So this kind of transducer needs additional
power for its operation.
• The working principle of the capacitive
transducer is variable capacitances.
• This transducer’s capacitance will be changed
due to several reasons such as overlapping of
capacitor plates, distance change in between
the two plates & dielectric constant.
The advantages of capacitive transducer include the following.

• The loading effects exhibited by a capacitive transducer are less because it

provides very high input impedance.
• This transducer’s frequency response is outstanding.
• Very sensitive
• It gives high resolution
• These transducers use less power
• This transducer works with less force & thus used in small systems.
• These transducers are extremely responsive, so their accuracy is 0.005%.
• By using these transducers, the order of 2.5×10-3 resolution can be easily attained
• This transducer measurement
• Measurement of this transducer can be affected through the stray magnetic field
but this transducer is not affected.
The disadvantages of capacitive transducer include the following.

• A complex measuring circuit is necessary at the output is needed because of the high output
impedance.
• To decrease the pickup chances, electrostatic screening should be specified to these kinds of
transducers.
• The change within exterior factors such as humidity, temperature, it holds back the
capacitance for the transducers.
• The capacitance of this transducer may change because of moisture, dust, etc.
• These are temperature sensitive, so any modification within temperature can affect their
performance badly.
• This transducer shows non-linear performance many times because of the effect of edges.
So to eliminate this effect, guard rings are used.
• When the cable is connected to the transducer while measuring small physical changes then
it is a source of error.
• The output impedance of this transducer is fairly high because of less capacitance value
which leads to a loading effect. Here, the output impedance mainly depends on the signal’s
frequency used for the capacitance measurement.
The applications of capacitive transducers include the following.

• These transducers measure both linear as well as angular displacements

through high sensitivity.
• These are mainly used to measure pressure and force. These are first
changed into linear displacement first & after that, the displacement can be
measured through this transducer.
• This transducer is used to gauge the level of volume, liquid, density, etc. But,
these parameters can be measured through a mechanical modifier.
• This transducer is directly used for measurement of pressure wherever
change within pressure results in equivalent change within dielectric medium
constant among the two plates of the capacitor.
• The gases of dielectric constant modify through humidity. So, this transducer
can gauge the humidity within gases by using the change within capacitance
because of the change within the principle of dielectric constant.
What is strain
• Strain is the amount of deformation due to an applied
force. More specifically strain is defined as the
fractional change in length.
• Strain can be negative (compressive) or positive
(tensile) whereas dimensionless strain is sometime
expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm.
• In practice magnitude of strain is very small therefore
it is expressed as microstrain.
 Strain Gauge
•A strain gauge (or strain gage) is a device used
to measure strain on an object. It is also termed
as Load cell
•Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C.
Ruge in 1938
•The most common type of strain gauge consists
of an insulating flexible backing which supports
a metallic foil pattern.
 Tension
Strain Gauge
Compression

=>

Resistance

Property of material
Length of wire

Effective cross sectional area of wire

 Strain Gauge Applications
•Measurement of pressure
•Measurement of force
•Measurement of small displacement
•Measurement of Torque
•Measurement of Load etc.
 Principle
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its
resistance changes on account of the fact that both
length and diameter of the conductor changes.

Metal conductor

Tensile force
F D ΔD
R=ρ is a resistance of unstrained conductor
L
L ΔL
 Types of Strain gauge
•Unbounded Strain Gauge
•Bonded wire Strain Gauge
•Bonded Metal Foil Strain gauge
•Vacuum Deposit Strain Gauge
•Semiconductor strain gauge
•Diffused metal strain gauge
Unbonded strain gauge
•Wire Diameter 0.003mm
•Length of wire 25mm
•Resistance of each arm 120-1000 ohms
•Input Voltage 5-10V DC
Bonded Wire Strain Gauge
•Fine wire with diameter about .025 mm
•Grid of wire is cemented to the carrier (Base)-
sheet of paper, thin sheet of Bakelite or Teflon
•Small as 3X3mm, larger 25X12.5mm
 Materials used for wire Strain
Gauge
Materials Composition Gauge Factor Resistivity
ohm m
Nichrome Ni: 80% 2.0 100 X10-8
Cr:20%
Constantan Ni:45% 2.1 48 X10-8
Cu:55%
Isoelastic Ni:36% 3.6 105 X10-8
Cr:8%
Mo:05%
Nickel -12.1 6.5 X10-8

Platinum 4.8 10 X10-8

 Bonded metal foil strain gauge

Grater heat dissipating capacity

Formed from a sheet of metal less than 0.005mm thick
by photo-etching process

Easy manufacturing process

Can be apply in curved surface

10 million cycles at +- 1500 micro-strain can be applied
to foil gauge
 Vacuum Deposit Strain Gauge

• Thin film vacuum deposition process to bond

strain gauges directly to stainless steel etc
for 30 years.
• The process begins by preparing the surface
with remove all surface pinholes and cracks.
• The next step is the deposition of an oxide
layer to insulate the circuit from the metal
substrate.
• Following this, a thin film resistive alloy is
sputtered over the oxide layer.
• This film is laser trimmed under power to
produce the four resistors of the
Wheatstone bridge
 Semiconductor Strain gauge
• semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying
from 2 mm to 10 mm and thickness of 0.05 mm are
bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for
example Teflon).
• The gold leads are usually employed for making
electrical contacts.
• The electrodes are formed by vapour deposition.
• The assembly is placed in a protective box
 Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
• The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high,
about ±130.
•  Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis i.e., less
than 0.05%.
•  They are useful in measurement of very small strains of the order
of 0.01 micron
• The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output, but it is
as stable as metallic strain gauge.
• It has a large fatigue life i.e., 10 x 106 operations can be
performed.
• It possesses a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
• can be manufactured in very small sizes, their lengths ranging
from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
Diffused semiconductor Strain gauge
Thin film element molecularly bounded (no adhesive) into a
ceramic layer which is deposited directly onto the force
detector
INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION
• When any elastic body such a spring, shaft or Beam is displaced from
the equilibrium position by the application of external forces and then
released it commences cyclic motion. such cycle of motion of a body
or a system, due to elastic deformation under the action of external
forces is known as vibration.
• Vibration measuring instruments are used to know vibration due to
earthquake, fluctuating wind velocities on structure or buildings
random vibrations due to Ocean waves, etc.
BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF VIBRATION
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• The vibration measurement process start by sensing the vibratory
motion from vibrating machine of structure and converting it into an
electrical signal with the help of transducer or pickup.
• Output signal from transducer which is in the form of voltage or
current is too small to record it.
• Therefore the signal conversion unit is used to amplify the signal from
the transducer to the required value.
• The output signals from the signal conversion unit is displayed on
display unit for visual inspection.
• This information is recorded and stored into computer for later use.
• Finally, the data can be analyzed to know the vibration characteristics
of machine or structure
Classifications
 Vibration and Acceleration Transducer
An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion
of a structure. The force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration)
causes the mass to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which produces an
electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon it. Since the charge
is proportional to the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also
proportional to the acceleration.
 Piezoelectric Acceleration Transducer
• Piezoelectric accelerometers rely on the piezoelectric effect of quartz or ceramic
crystals to generate an electrical output that is proportional to applied acceleration.
The piezoelectric effect produces an opposed accumulation of charged particles on
the crystal. This charge is proportional to applied force or stress.

• A force applied to a quartz crystal lattice structure alters alignment of positive and
negative ions, which results in an accumulation of these charged ions on opposed
surfaces. These charged ions accumulate on an electrode that is ultimately
conditioned by transistor microelectronics.
Benefits or advantages of Accelerometer sensor
• It is simple to interface and rugged in design.
• It has high impedance.
• It offers higher sensitivity.
• It has high frequency response.
• It is available at lower cost due to advancement in MEMS technology
• It uses built-in signal conditioning circuit to measure capacitance.

Drawbacks or disadvantages of Accelerometer sensor

• An Accelerometer measures chance in velocity only. It does not measure a constant velocity.
• An Accelerometer can not measure rotation around its own axis of movement. Due to this, it
is used in conjunction with gyroscope to measure angular velocity.
• It is sensitive to temperature and operates over limited temperature range.
• Its efficiency degrades over time.
• It requires external power for its operation.
• The other disadvantages are less longevity and hysteresis error.