DOODLES IN THE MEMBRANE INTRODUCTRRY CHEMISTRY INTRODUCTION TO THE FUNDAMENTALS OF GENEZAL CHEMISTRY: VOLUME | VSEPR, c ONoDROGEN KNGEN SueIR £402 SULFURIC ACID M1504 puospHoRAN PENTACHLORIDE — :c4 MOLECULAR WeiGHT: 98.079 grams He=cH Le Bon. a ce c n SUBATOMIC PRETICLES: ¥ AN ATOM, H of “Seca " pete _ 4 +o m5 4 ATOMIC ORBITALS = @ g a G9 s Pp d € 0.1302: ( Amoi CHa CH2NHa2 )F 3.0x10°9 mot cient, 7E0e5g CHZCHNH,) “Chg CH NH AUTHOR: TORGE D. CALDERIN: \UWUSTRATOR: JORGE D. CALDERIN:NTFORUGTION WWITAL, THOMAS LE STUDYING oxyaent sutra PREFACE 7 © ANDROGEN WHEN WE FigST START STUDYING CHEMISTRN IT CAN COME OFF VERM OVERWHELMING (NO wena FELT THIS WAM ANO SOMETIMES STILLDO), EVEN THOUGH ITCAN BE CHALLENGING AT TIMES THE REMARK ABLE THING ABOUT STUDYING CHEMISTRN I THAT ERCH CHAPTER, TOPIC, AND LESSON BUILDS TO CREATE THE LANG- WAGE OF cHeMicTEN AND OUR FURTHER UNDERSTANDING MOLECULE: DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE THEDUGHOUT OWE TIME STUDNING CHEMISTAN WE HAVE [D CONSTANTIN REMINO DUISELVES {SA CONSTANT MOUEMENT TOWARDS GUEATER STABILITY AND WILL BEHAUE "COO WNIGHT) F RESEARCHING ANO WUTING THIS BOOK t FOUND MYSELF LEARNING EAIAG MAIEUALS CLERLINIG UP MISCOMGERTIONS | HAD | WANTED OKIEDIN THE FIRST PARAGRAPH , THROUGHOUT JEMISON CAND OIHER SCENCE COURCES) YOU ARE RLWANS GOING TD DEGREE, INTHE PERSPECTIUE OF THE STUDENT (MO MATTER. YOUR DEGREE OR ACADEMIC STANDING) SINCE THE TOPICS WE ARE STUDYING ALE NOT PAINTING AN ENTIRE PICTURE, YET INCHING US CLOSER AND CLOSER TO A CLERLEZ IMAGE, ONE MORE IMPORTANT NOTE: PACE. EVERNONE HAS THE CAPABILITY TO COMPREHEND: THE MATEQIAL THROUGHOUT THIS BOOM (OR ANY SUBJECT), e NET THE PACE OF GOUIE EACH STUDENT TANES TO FAMIUARIZE THEMSEWES AND GOASP (NOT JUST DEUUEGITAIE) THE INFORMATION IS DIFFERENT- BNO THERE IS NOTHING WONG WITH THAT. INSTEAD COMPRGING YOURSELF WITH SOMEONE ELEIS PACE TEN ANO EMBRACE YOURS AND CELEBRATE THE SMALL VICTORIES OF EPIPHANIES AT AREA DIRECT RESULT OF WOUR HARD WORK © QINGEN, ' © PHOSPHATE PHOSPHATE LP0,43-) DOODLES in THE met NE JES WE ALLee PNCATIONDL, BPREC DEE ROUGHOUT THis BOON 1s PORTRANED BUTANE, VOU HAVE PROBABW ALEEROV NOTICED THAT THiS BOON DOES WOT WOM LINE NOUR TYPICAL EDUCATIONAL EVIE W BOON WHILE ALSO BEI WRITTEN (HOW STRANGE). TH VD UNE TO DESeCIBE MV APPROACH THROUGHOUT IUASTBATING RMD DESCRIBING DIFFERENT CHEMICTEN fi 1AM A VISUAL LEARNER. WHEN | FIRST ENTERED COUEGE | GULCH RERUZED HOW IMPOLTANT IT Ws ‘ORME TOFIND RESOULCES THAT FOCUSED TEXT ALOUND HLUSTRATIONS 01 ANIMATIONS WHILE STUDYING FoR. EXAMS.AS @ TUMDE, | FOUND IT EASIEST [0 PORTRAN AND ACH TOPICS BASED ‘ON ETS DF ILLUSTRATIONS, AND SOON, CHaCH2 CH, CHs WERTED STUDN GUIDES THAT FOCUSED ON A COWECTION OF | DRAWINGS AND PEACTICE PEOBLEMS. TH ROUUH YEARS OF TUTORING, | FOUND ENYONMENT iN TEACHING CHEMISTEN THRDUGH SETS OF EXTENSIVE IWUSTLATIONS AND SHETCHS FUNCTIONING AS THE BUILDING BLOCKS SLOWING BUILDING A FOUNDATION OF THE INFORMATION | WAS TEMING TD DISPLAY, EVER SINCE HIGH SCHOOL, 1 FOUND MUSELF ABLE TO CONSUME INFORMATION AND RECALL iT WITH MORE EASE WHEN IT WAS WRITTEN IN MU HANDWETING VERSUS TEXT AND NOT FEEL AS INTIMIDATED BY THE AMOUNT OF INFOR- PHOSPHINE (eng) MATION PUESENTED. HENCE WHY THE TEXT IN THIS BOON is HAND -WRITEN, IN AN ATTEMPT TO MANE IT MOLE PERSONAGLE. TAMING ALL THAT INTO ACCOUNT-ALL THESE LiFe ExPec- TENCES HAVE INFLUENCED HOW THE INFORMATION IN THIS BOOK 1S STYUSTICRUN PORTRAYED. | AM AWARE THIS APPROOCH MAYBE NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERN- ONE, VET 1 TRULY HOPE IT HELPS WITH YOUR STUDIES. | DO HPUE PLANS IN THE FUTURE TO CLEATE ALTERNATE © PHOSPHORUS: TNPED VERSIONS FOX STUDENT ONE DAY, HOWTO APPROACH NEW INFORMATION ONEACH. DAKE: CALCULATION O@ VISUAL FOCUSED? * ANOTHER IMPORTANT THING | LEARNED TH@OUGHOUT STUDYING CHEMISTRY, THAT I HONESTY WISH | ANEW PRIOK, 16 THA 11S THAT SOME QUESTIONS E\THIER REQUIRE You fo THI CRITICALLY TO UISURUZE THE INFORMATION Of NK K THROUGH A MATHEMATICAL LENS FOR. FINDING SOLUTIONS THROUGH CALCULATIONS THIS METHOD HELPED Me BREAK DOWN PROBLEMS BAYED ON WHAT MIND OF APPROACH THEN REGUITLE ME TO TAKE IN OLDER TO BAWEE THE GUEITION ALGANG. CHEN THOUGH THEEE | WiKL BE PENT OF LUpIcs THAT t Re *SOUIE CALCULATIONS PROVIDING YOUR UNO EESTANOING OF PINSICAL CAMTACTERISTIOS ~ ASHING YOURSELF " WHAT MIND OF LENS SHOULD | BE LOOMING THROUGH TO UNDERSTAND Tis" WOLNS ASA GOOD TECHMIGUE WHEN SOLVING PROBLEM SETS OL STUDVING NEW INFORMATION. REVIEW QUESTIONS: AFTER EACH CHAPTER, 02 COUMECTION OF TOPICS, THERE WILL BE A HANDFUL OF QUESTIONS FOUOWED BY DETAILED ANSWERS ARNO EXPLANATIONS OIN ORDER TO STRENGTHEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING DOODLES in THE met NEC oDRUSE CRYSTAL —* — > ~ CENTRAL VAQMOLE ~ © Opgprive crustaL — ° IDE CRUSTAL. ANIMAL CELL. a MITOCHONORIA PYRUVATE —> ACEDVL-CoA PRYLATION ( Net careat ye INNER MEMBRANE C0, OUTER MEMBRANE. DOODLES IN THE MEMBE FLOM ATOMS TO THE SCALE WHEN STUDVING GENERAL CHEMISTEN THROUGHOUT THIS BOOK WE ARE. GOING TD BE LEARNING ABOUT THE SMALL BUILDING BLOCKS OF UFE~ ATOMS. TO DO SO, WEARE GOING TO HAVE To INTENSIVELY 200M IN tO BETTER UNDER STAMO HOW ATOMS INTELACT WITH EACH OTHER, SUCH A TO CREATE THE MILUONS OF DIFFEREN MOLECULES IN EACH OF YOUR THIWUON OF CELLS. THROUGHOUT TIME, RS WE LEARN MORE, WEILL BE ABLE TO SLOWLN 200MM OUT ANO GRIN A’ BETTER PERSPECTIVE OF TOW MOLECULES INTERACT AND FUNCTION ~ BUILDING UPON THE CORE FUNDAMENTALS: WE HAVE LEARNED. :0- OKNGEN ATOM a- R-0 P03 COVALENT BOND puaye GWCOUPID EXAMPLE OF A LidiD FOUND WITHIN CELLS RrOMS * OXYGEN © CHosPriORUS * CARBON C/O) C- CARBON * ATOM ACYL CHAIN CNL CHAIN,PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS PERIODS HORIZONTAL) NEUTRONS (0) PROTONS (1) ELECTRONS (-) em ETALS METALLOIDS: UNIT ONE i @ ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND STOICHIOMETRN CHAPTER. ONE * ATOMIC THEORY : PROTONS, NEUTRONS, ELECTLONS , CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC ORBITALS AND ELECTRON CONFIGURATION CHAPTER THREE: PERIODIC LAW, PERIODIC TREMOS, AND THE UNIQUENESS PUINCIDLE CHAPIER FOUR: IONIC BONDING, COVALENT BONDING, AND ELERTRONEGATINITY CHAPTER FINE: STOICHIOMETRY THE FIRSTUNIT THROUGHOUT THiS BOOK FOCUSES ON INTRODUCING TOPICS OF CHEMISTRM AND PAUING THE WAN TO ESTABUSH RELATIONSHIPS IN ATOMS, MOLE- CULES, ANID MORE. (T MAY COME OFF AS VAGUE AT TIMES “AND WOUILL SEE THE PHEASE " we'll DINE INTO THIS MORE IN UNIT 2" MENTIONED A FEW TIMES — NO WORLIES THE PURPOSE OF UNIT I is TO BUILD A PEUABLE FOUNDATION To BUILD UPON THROUGHOUT UNIT 2, SO THROUGHOUT THIS CHAPTER NEED AN ENE OUT FOR REOCCUTING THEMES AND PRINCIPLES TINE CHAPTER END QUESTIONS OF UNIT! WILL ALSO HUGHUGHT THE IM PURTANIT CONCEPTS FROM ENCH UNIT TWO . INTRAMDLEGULAR + INTERMOLECULAR FORCES CHAPTER SIX: INTZODUCTION TD LGHT AND WAVE CHAPTER SEVEN: ATOMIC ORBITALS, UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE, CHAPTER EIGHT + INTEDOUCTION TO BONDING TYPES, GHAPIE? MINE > DEDITAL TNBRIDIZATION BNO MOLEC CHAPTE? TEN: LESONANCE AND DELOCAL DOODLES in THE met NE FUAORO BUTANE. PARTICLE DUALITY A NODES ANDO PHASES NSEBR, AND BOND ORDER LAC SLBITAL DEED DIVE. OF ELECTRONSPARTS OF Flt ATOM WHAT ALE PROTONS, NEUTEONS, ANID ELECTRONS THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCAS OF CHEMISTRY, ANO MATTER is THE ATOM. ERCH AND EVEEN AlOM is COMPOSED OF THREE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, THAT WELL CONSTANTIN REFER TO, WHICH ALE PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS. EVEN THOUGH THE MAJOMITY OF THE AioMs TOTAL VOLUME is EMPTY SPACE ITS THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE SUBRIOMIC PALTICLES THAT ALLOW RIOMS TO BEHAVE NUCLEUS AS UFES BUILDING BLOCnS OVERALL POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CriA\ ~PNINNATE PRODERIV OF PROTONS @ NEUTRONS ALE ALSO LOCATED IN THE DENSE CENTRAL NUCLEUS, VET WHILE, THEN HAVE A SIMILAR MASS TO PROTONS NUETRONS LACK ANU ELECTRICAL CHARGE ®@ PROTON G@ NEUTRON: © PROTOS ARE LOCATED INTHE Dense @ CENTDAL NUeCEUS AND CONTAIN AN) MARGE © ELECTRON Mi PROTONS.Cr) MASS: 1.0072BAMU >, THE PROTON AND NEUTRON FORM NEUTRONSCO) MASS: 1.00B0TAMU~ THE DENSE NUCLEUS LOCATED IN THE, CENTER OF AN RIOM CONTRIBUTING 10 THE OVERALL MASS OF THE ATOM. THE REMAINING SUBATOMIC PARTICLE, THE ELECTRON, HAS SUCH A SMALL MASS IN COMPARISON THAT IT WILL NOT IMPACT THE MASS OF THE ATOM. CARBON ATOM. @ M@ ELECTRONS ARE NEGATIVELY CHARGED SUBATOMIC PARTICLES THAT ALE FOUND OUTSIDE THE NUCLEUS, THEY AME "HELO" BY THEIR ATTRACTION 10 THE. POSITIUEW CHARGED PROTONS IN THE NUCLEUS MASS OF ELECTRON : 5.4850x 10"4 Amu © porns ALL ATOMS CONTAIN PROTONS, IN THENUCLEUS NEUTRONS, RAND ELECTRONS WET THE DIFFEZENT ATOMS SUCH AS m™ PROTON HYDROGEN, NITROUWEN, OXNGEN, AND G@ NEWTON MOLE RANGE 1M THE NUMBER oF cue- @ ELECTRON RIOMIC PARTICLES THEIR ATOMS HAVE WITH THE MOST JIGNIFICANCE GIVEN TOTHE NUMBER OF PROTONS INTHENUCLEUS. THROUGHOUT THE NEXT SET OF PAGES WE WIL LERRN HOW AND NEUTZONS MAN VARY VET THE AMOUNT OF PUDTONS IN THE NUCLEUS I THE DEFINING TRAIT ‘OF A SPECIFIC ATOM. FSINGLE ATOM WITH A SPECIFIC NUMBER OF PROTONS IS THE MOST BASIC UNIT OF A CHEMICAL ELEMENT. DOODLES in THE met NE AMU = ATOMIC MASS UNITPERIQDIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION TD THE PERIODIC TABLE AND ATOMIC NUMBER PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS HOW ELEMENITS ARE LISTED ON THE TABLE: PERIODS LHORIZONTAL) ag ATOMIC NUMBER (2) ELEMENT SYMBOL ({~2 LETTERS) OXNUEN-— ELEMENT NAME. 15.999 —— ATOMIC MASS OF ELEMENT GRours LveRTicAL) PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS USTS ENTS SEQUENTIAL ATOMIC NUMBER. AN R REPRESENTS THE T SPECAFICAULN ENT cUcH AS: on gt! : 2, UTHIUM : 3,AND METALLOIDS: ACH ELEMENT LUSTING LSO REPRESENT _ NONMETALS: IE ELEMENTS SYMBOL: AQ (THE FIRST LETTER OF THE UNKNOWN SUMBDL SHOULD ALWAUS BE CAPITALIZED) AND THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT. THE ATOMIC MASS UNIT REPRESENTS THE MASS DF THE SPECIFIC ELEMENTS ATOM CITS BUILT OFF AN AVERAGE BUT WE'LL EXPLORE THAT LATER), Tamu = 1.0005 x10" grams oR ©.00000000000000000000000 10005 grams THERE'S STILL MORE WE CAN LEARN ABOUT ATOMS AS THEN ARE USTED, EVEN iF ITIS NOT SPECIFICAUN WRITTEN ON THe PEMODIC TABLE. SINCE THE ELEMENTS ON THE TABLE ARE USTED IN A NEUTRAL STATE, MEANING THAT THEY CACK AN OVERALL ELEC- TRUCAL CHARGE, THENUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELEC- TRONS ARE EQUAL. FOR EXAMPLE, IN THE CASE OF HNDROGEN HAVING AN ATOMIC NUMBER OF LIN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT THE ATOM iS NUETRAL THE NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS SHOULO BE EQUAL TO CANCEL ERCH OTHER OUT- SO IN HYOROGENS CASE IT WILL HAVE | PROTON AND | ELECTRON INA NEUTRAL STATE. JUST BECAUSE THE AIOMS ON THE BLE ARE USTED iN A NEUTRAL STAIE , THAT. oT MEAN THAT IS HOW THEY BEHAVE OF IN THEIR NATURAL STAIE AS WE WILL COON LEREN SOME ELEMENTS PREFER TO HAVE AN OVERALL CHARGE T EM IN 1869 PROPOSED THE DERN PERIODIC TPERIQDIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS INTRODUCTION TD THE PERIODIC TABLE AND ATOMIC NUMBER PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS q 8 PERIODS LHORIZONTAL) N (o} NITROGEN OXVUEN 14.0 15.994, 1S to P Ss PHOSPHOMS SULFUR 3097 “32 0t 33 a As Se AUSEMC SELENIUM maa 6. GRours LVERTICAL) /4q = }-— Atomic wumeee (2) Au ~— Element sumpor (1-2 Lerters) \| Goto = —— ELEMENT NAME. S28; | — ftbmve mage bE ELemenT THERE ARE W® ELEMENTS LISTED 01 8% Peniovic TABLE, FROM HYDROGEN CI) TO ORAANESSON (18) 00 Nar HALE ED MEMORIZE THE ATOMICNUMBEE TOMNCH ARRAS UNIT OF EACH ONE “INSTEAD FAMILIARIZE VO WITH THe ELEMENTAL: Gummo Oe DEWNGING -TDERCH ELEMENT ( SOME CLEMENTS ALE NA- MED AFIEG THEIL EDOTS SO THE SYMBOLS DO NOT MATCH WITH THE NBME, SUCH AS GOLD (Au) ) SINCE NOL AU TABLES WILL HALE | Tee NAMES Usted. ADDIMUNKUN WE'LL NLD be LeFE RANE Th OLS WHEN WRITING MOLECULAR FORMULA SUCH AS 120, H3PO4,AND INSTERD OF FOCUSING ON MEMORIZING THE ENTIRE PERIODIC TABLE, ITS MOLE IMPORTANT To RELATE PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ELEMENTS BASED ON THEI POSITIONING AND RELATION TO OTHER FABIMENTS ON THE TABLE, AS WE'N LEARN MOLE ABOUT INTIME, THOUGH PRACTICE PROBLEMS AND STUDYING YOU WILL BECOME MORE FAMILIAR WITH THE TABLE, AND EVEN MNOW SOME COMMON ELEMENTS VALUES suctt AS HYDROGEN , CAZBON, OKNGEN, ... ere.THE NEUTROW SUMMARY AND THE FUNCTION OFTHE NEUTEONI => te 4.003 Lets summarize UP UNTIL THIS POINT, WE HAVE BEEN LEARNING ABOUT ATOMIC THEORY, THE THEORY PROPOSING THAT ITER. 1S MADE UP OF ATOMS. AN ATOM iS BUILT FROM. 3 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, THE DENSE NUCLEUS AT THE CENTER 1S COMPOSED OF PEOTONS, WHICH ARE POS- TIVELN CHARGED, AND NEUTRONS WHICH ARE NEUTRAL THESE TWO SUBATOMIC PARTICLES CONTRIBUTE TO 99°l0 OF THE RTOMS MASS ( WITH NEUTRONS BEING JUST A TAD HEAVIER THAN PROTONS) WHERERS ELECTRONS, WHICH ARE NEGRTINELN CHARGED, EXSIST OUTSIDE THE NUCKEUS HELD BY ATTRACTIUE WE'VE ALREADY SEEN THAT A CHANGE IN AN ATOMS PROTONS WILL CHANGE THE ELEMENT THAT SPECIFIC ATOM REPRESENTS HYDROGEN WIL ALWAYS HAUE | PROTON, MEUUM ATOMS PROTON - PROTON INTERACTIONS — WILL ALWANS HAVE TWO, ANID SO ON. ARE REPULSIVE SINCE THEY ARE BOTH POSITIVELY CHARGED VET WHAT HAPPENS IF WE CHANGE THE Nu- MBER OF NEUTRONS? NEUTRONS ARE IMPORTANT — SINCE THEN RUOW ATOMS WITH MULTIPLE PROTONS @& IN THEIR NUCLEI TO FORM THROUGH NEUTRON ~ PROTON INTERACTIONS CALLED A STRONG FORCE CHAT We WIKL NOT DINE INTO TOO MUCH) WHIEH HELP NEGATES REPULSIVE FORCES BETWEEN PROTONS ~ THiS IS TOW WE CAN HAUE A FDRO- GEN ATOM WITH NO NEUTRONS. ADDITIONALLY, NEUTRONS IMPACT THE WEIGHT OF THE ATOMS ANO ATOMS WITH THE SAME AMOUNT DF PROTONS z BUT WITH A LANGING NUMBER OF NEUTRONS VET NEUTRON -PROTON INTERACTIONS RILE CALLED iSOTOPES. RULOW FOR NUCLEUS TD FORM WITH . MULTIPLE PROTONS SINCE AS WE WILL SOON LERRAL, CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND GERCTIUITY AREINFULENCED BY THE NUMBER OF PLOTONS AND DOODLES in THE met ELECTRONS ~ SO ISOTOPES ONUN DIFFERIN THEIR WEIGHT. INE STRONG FORCE IS BETWEEN ALL NUCLEONS (PROTONS AND NEUTONS)LSOTOPES NATURAL ABUNDANCE AND AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT ISOTOPES FoR ELEMENTS CAN BE ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN: COMMON AND NATURAL REUA- DANT DEPENDING ON THEIz STA- BILITY AND CAN BE VERN HELPFUL PROTIUM: H = TOWALDS DIFFERENT STUDIES TELECTRON OF SCIENCE. FOR EXAMPLE, ” 1 PROTON OXGEN HRs NATURAL ABU | DAAIT STABLE ISOTOPES RANGING A e ‘el FROM © 10 10 NEUTROALS. THE 1S0- ' TOPES THAT ARE THE MOsT COMMON ARE OXVGEN-l0 (8 NEUTRONS) WITH 94.76% ABUNDANCE AND 1.0078 amu OXNGEN-18 (10 NEUT@ONS) WITH A 0.20%0 REUN- DANCE. SINCE WATER CONTAINING HEAVIER ABUNDANCE’ 99.98% ISOTOPES OF WATER WiLL BE THE FIRST TO FALL FROM GRINFALL AND UNTER isoTopes WiLL BE CARRIED FURTHER , PALEO CLIMATOLOGICAL SCIEN- TISTS CAN STUDY THE PERCENTAGE OF OXIGEN ISOTOPES IN SEDIMENITS, FOSSILS AND MORE To LEARN ABOUT PAST CUMATE COAIDITIONS. THE TWO METHODS OF NOTATION WE USE TO DiFFERENIATE ISOTOPES. 2X Ke oe RE MASS (ROUNDED) ELEMENT SumBoL ATOMIC NUMBER 20141 AMU X-A ABUNDANCE: 0.011 %o CARBON-I2 AND -1B, 2. STABLE %C 8G ISOTOPES IN NATURE AND 99.89% LW % THEIR ABUNDANCE && AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF ELEMENTS USTED ON THE TABLE 1S NOT OF THE MOST COMMON ISOTOPE, BuT IS AN AUEZAGE BASED ON THEIR NATUZAL ABUNDANCE -To ENSURE WE 3.0\WORAMU TARE INTO ACCOUNT THE Yo OF UAHTER OR HEAVIER ISOTOPES IN ANY GINEN SAMPLE. NQUOBLE AW: RUERAGE WEIGHT AUG. AW J URW) = %) + CAW2x %o,)+. .. LAWN Zon) SOURCE: EARTHOBSERVATORY. NASA. GOV/ FEATURES / PRLEDCUMATOLOGN _ OXYGEN BALANCE DOODLES in THE met NE_ GROUPS LVERTICAL) AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT ACCOUNTING STABLE ISOTOPES AND AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Lers CALCULATE THE AVECAGE 2 RToMUe WEIri OF OXYGEN PERIODS (HORIZONTAL) 8 o 8O 80 % OWWUEN = 15.9949 gaat 17.9991 1994 _AAAL% = .04%/o0.20%Jo MA.AUY= (mun 64) 4 (Hwa 0a)... ANGAW= Scmernssoneysue 9a91x 0.0004) + 4.0991 x 0.0020) = AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT: 15.999. Amu ASIMILAR PROCESS, DF FINDING THE AVERAGE WEIGHT | Be NAT UL ACCUMULATING ISOTOPES 16 DONE FOR ENCH ELEMENT LISTED ON THE DERIODIC TABLE. DIFFEGENT ELEMENTS STABLE ISOTOPES AVERAGED HAVE A DIFFERENT ANGE OF NATURAL INTO AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT = isotopes: 1A GA OZ 99.98% 0.011% NEGLIGIBLE Sti EL +50%0 Q250%o 7Na 100°%o0 7 HVDROGEN = BROMINE. 1.008 19.904 aq 40 4 14) 44 aK IN FUTURE CHAPTERS, WHEN We ARE 42.26% 0.010% 23% — LENUNING ABOUT sro ISMETEN WE ARE GOING TO LEFER TO THE RUERRGE ATOMIC WetiT TO WEL MeL us Us DELWE QUANTITIES AMMONIA (NHa)ERIDDIC TS Teeter cmon HOW ELEMENTS ARE USTED ON THE PERIODS HORIZONTAL) a “9 nromic numeer (2) O—— etement sumpor (1-2 Lerters) OXNGEN — ELEMENT Wi 15999. — BIDMIE MISS OF ELEMENT FLOTON POSITIVELY CHAKGED G). GRours LvERTiCAL) INES SPECIFIC ELEMENT. INTHE NUCLEUS, IMPACTS THE MASS Recarett CHARGED) EXIST OUFSIDE THE MUCLEUS AT DIFFERENT DIST CeMeGN LEVELS) Neaccieue PR THE MASS OF THE Hou ne usteos INTHE TABLE, RIOMS HAVE THE si MOCL oF PEDIONS RUD ELEC ONS am ee Ke A j & aear. a 42 Te oi si 4M a j Os 5S Cs Se es ane nan AN ene DOODLES iN THE metPERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS THE PERIODIC TABLE IS NOT BE MEMORIZED AND THEN HE TABLE NEEDS TO BE PERIODS (HORIZONTAL) BEUSED EFFECTIVELY, IGHT ON THE Groups LverTicAL) ATOMIC MASSES CAMU: ARE AVERAGES BUILT FRO! OF EACH ELEMENT AND THE! @meracs ABOUT HOw CERTAIN METALLOIDS. iC PERIODS BEAVE NONMETALS CHARACTERISTICS pave mu mm ATTZACTIUE INTERACTIONS: =| e a ween N 0 F UNKNOWN BORON CALBON NITROGEN) OXNUEN FLUORINE: 10.81 1201 1401 15.994 19.00 5 te 1% Pp s co PHOSPHOMS SULFUR CHLORINE BS SUMO CHORINE 33 aA a As Se Gr ARSENIC SELENIUM MINE Coe cea) Aira SEBO Onatae. SI S2 63 Sbjite; £ ANTIMONY TELLUZIUM ODINE TOMA Tere TORN 25 At AStAEINE WVATHE ELECTEON NUCLEAR CHARGE, ELECTRONS, AND OUR PERSPECTIVE ELECTRON e x ELECTRON CLOUD NUCLEMS (NUCLEAR CHARGE) THE NUMBER OF PROTONS THE TVPE OF ATOM WE ARE NEUTRONS (0) WHERERS CHANGING THE NUM: PROTONS (4) NEUTRONS ONLY IMPACTS THE 0 ELECTRONS ©) WEIGHT OF THE ATOM ABOUT ELECTRONS 7 AITRACTIVE ELECTROSTATIC INTERACTION. ELECTZONS ene PROTON ELECTRON HNDROGEN ATOM HNDROGEN ATOM FORMATION OF Hz MOLECULE PROTONS IN AL NEUTRAL STAIE THERE + WILLAISO BE 2% ELECTRONS: FeORIS CHANGE wit ‘ABOUT PERSPECTIUE. HuDRoGeN HWDROGEN «THE NU AAO ELECTRONS IMPACT 1,005 1.008 THE REACTIUI Ss WE CONTINUE Oud STUDIES IN CHEM ISTES ARE GOING TO PAN CLOSE ATIENTION TO HOW ELECTRONS ARE BEHAVING BETWEEN ATOMS i ORMATION OF MOLE- CULES 02 THROUGH OUT CHEMICAL ZERCTIONS - UNDERSTAND DETAILS BEHIND ELe- CTRON BEHAWIOR 1S CRUCIAL, SO THROUGHOUT STUDYING KEEP OR AITRIBUTES THAT CAN iM DOODLES in THE met NE OUT FOR PROPERTIES PRCT HOW AN ELECTRON COULD BEHAUE.CHUORDETHANE ' HVDROGEN rooe” | AEN + cl CALORINE, 2545 FLOM val SENSE OF THEM BEHAVING AS BUILDING BLOCKS. ACC ATOMS: essee \S REPRESENTED BY SPECIFIC ATOMS AND ALL ATOMS OF UWWALEAIT - VET DAUION PROPOSED THAT THE ATOM ITSEt NOT BE SEPALATED FURTHER INTO CMALER PARTS BUILDING ON THAT PEDPOGAL. IN, 1G39 Sig dose, JOHN THOMSON, GASCOVERED THAT THERE WEE PAI fe HIDM PROPOSING THE ELECIUDAL RE ae Nene CHARGED SEGMENT DF THE STRUCTURE. TD ELECTRICALLY NEUTeAL y THOMGONL PLOPOIED IAT ELECTQON EXISTS INTHE POSITIVELY CHARGED Marre OF THE ATOM. THIS MODEL WAS SOON! LABELED AL “PLUM. PUDDING MODEL OF THE ATOM. PROTONI- NEUTROAI PLANETARN MODEL NEUTRON UCLEUS HISTORN OF THE ATOM THE DISCOUERIES ABOUT THE ATOM THROUGH TIME TO GAIN A BETTER UUDERSTANDING OF qe FLECTRON, AND THE IDM. WE HAVE Jp Gir nova HOW OUL CUEEEKT MODEL CAME TO BE ~ SINCE SQENTISTS MOLE WITH EACH DISCOVERY AVE LEARNED A LITTLE BIT IN 1902, JOHN. ALTON PROPOSED THATIRG MhAIEL ts 1S BUILT FROM ATOMS, AMD DIFFERENT COMPOUNDS ARE CONSTEUCT MING. ED WATIOS OF THESE ATOMS - our FiRsT. ORDING TO HIS THEORY, RAL ELEMENT, THE SAME ELEMENT AGE AF AS AN INDIVISBLE UNIT THAT COl PLUM PUDDING MODEL ELECTRONS ~ “o Ye POSITIVELY CHARGED |\_ MATTER. \ SMAUER THAN THE ATOM ITSELE- WHERE CLERK ELECTRONS ORBITED THE NUCLEU: GUNA UEFFEEUS MOS SUM, HEN BUSHED THis MODEL WITH CONF! FLOM THE PROTONS, WITHIN THE ISSUE iF ELECTRONS WERE HAUE HIGHER ENERGY UALUES TI WOUSLY MEASURED £20 BEING CONFINED INTHE UNITED, EXPEQIMENTATION 6N JAMES CHADWICK, THE NEUTEAL SupAToMic Pau CLES THAT BUILD EACH ELECTRON ATOM. ® PROTON DOODLES in THE met NE INTHE | Sul Or puoIOKS WHS BEING FUciHEe PUSHED, AUD soon THE WERE PRESENTED LEMOUING THE PREVIOUS IDEAS OF IN’ He PLANETS AROUND THE STUDIES FURTHER, ESTA- NAT POSITIVE CHARGES, tem CLE US UCLEUS THING THAT WAS PREU — THE 1920S wiitt FUCIHER, PARTICLE WITH EQUAL MASS NEMTEON NUCLEUS MODELS ELECTRONS. TRON ui ONT PRISED VET THEGE WRS WAL THEN WOULD THEORETICALLYPROTONI- MEUTROAI PLANETARN MODEL = ELECTRON @uuceus HISTORN OF THE ATOM THE BON MODEL OF THE ATOM VET, THERE WAS A FUNDAMENTAL Issue With THE PLANETARY MODEL OF ELECTIONS: ORBITING THE PROTON - NEUTZON NUCLEUS ACCORDING To CLASSICAL MECHANICS: AS THE ELECTRON ORBITS IT SHOULD GRAD - WAU USE ENECON OUER TIME SPIZAUNG WWEE AND LOWER, INTO THE POSITIVELN CHARGED NUCLEUS UNTIL IT CLASHES INTO IT MARKING THE ATOM UNSTABLE. THIN BOUT. HOW SATELLITES Of OTHER SPACE DEBRIS IN OWEIT OVERTIME GETS PULLED CLOSER INTO THE EARIHG ATMOSPHERE -THE MODELS OF THE ATOM WERE AT A PROBLEMATIC STANOSTILL UNTIL NIELS -BOhr, BUILDING ON THE RUTHEZFORD DEDION NEUTLON NUCLEUS ANID CULLEN GURNTUM MECHANICAL STUDIES OF MAK PLA PROPOJED THAT THE ENE@GY OF THE ELECTWON EXISTS IN SPECIFIC GUANTUM EN! te WAN ATTEMPT To FIXTHE ELECTEONS SPIRALING ISSUE. FIGURE II QUANTUM MECHANICS SOUNDS SCARY - AND iT CAN BE AT TIMES, DUT AS AN INTRODUCTION TO SSiCAL MECHANICS: THE IDERS BENING THIS THEORY RNAWZE FiQuRE UANTUM MECHANICS © ss | AT HOW BOTH CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM Mt * WITH THE CLASSICAL MODEL THERE WOULD —ANICS DESCRIBE TRANSITIONS UCLASSICAL MECH- BEUALUES BETWEEN NUMBERS, VET THE ANICS STATES THATTCANSITIONS ARE CONTIN- QUANTUM MODEL ONLY HAS SPECIFIC WOUS, VET WITH QUANTUM MECHANICS VAWES VAWES, ONL ExisT AT DISCEETE INSTANCES ~ THERE ALE NO. BETWEEN” THis 1S WHAT BOnYS MODEL INTRODUCED TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATOM -THAT THE ELECTRON'S ANGULA MOMEN- IM WAS QUANTIZED Of ONIM EXISTED AT SPE va 46 SPEGIFIC AND DISCRETE ENERGY LEUELS (n) THE ELECTRONS COULD POSSIBLY JUMP TO THE NEXT QUANTIZED "SHELLY THROUGH ABSORDING THE CEQUIRED ENERGY. LETS SUMMARIZE ALLTHAT WE HAVE LEARNED Bone- RUTHERFORD MoDEL AND PROTGANED NOW WITH THE BON MODEL. PROTONS AND NEUTZONS BUILD THE KIUCLEUS OF THE ATOM, WHICH IS APPROXIMATELY 10, 000% SMALLER THAN THE ATOMS SIZE. THE ELECTION ELECTRON EXISTS AT SPECIFIC QUANTIZED ENERGY LEVELS ORBITING THE NW ~THE FURTHER AWAY QUANTIZED —- THE QUANTIZED Shell THE Moke EXERGY ELECTION, WE: NET HOW ABE THESE ‘SHELLS ue THIN HEL? PROTON-NEUIZON, inetd THE Fi EMOTY SPACE. Ines rare GREATER DISTANCE FLOM NUCLEUS rea meneTHE VALENCE SHELL THE IMPORTANCE OF THE VALENCE Net ENERGY LEVEL @Merncs n=? ENERGV LEVEL, | METALLOIDS NONMETALS, ' @ H i nen INTHE SHELL WHECE SINCE ITS OCCUPANCY, FORWARD TO LEARN ABOUT BONDIA TWEEN ATOMS ~ IT THE ELECTRONS Iki ANO MORE so ITs IMPORTANT THe URUENGE she Movies FOROED, DOODLES in THE met NEWTLODUCTION TO iOWS CLASSIFICATION OF IONS * CATIONS AND ANIONS REPULSIVE FORCES THROUGHOUT THE PRST CHAPTER LERENING ABOUT THE TOM, WE HAVE BEDERTED TIME AND TIME RGAIAS THAT THE Lf NUMBER OF PROTONS, SIGNIFIED BV THE ATOMIC NUMBER, + @ REPRESENTS A DISTINCT ELEMENT, AND iF THE NUM BER. OF PIOTONS ARE CHANGED -WE SHIFT [HE ELEMENT WE ARE EXAMINING. | WANIEO TO REPHEASE THIS POINT AGAIN BE - CAUSE THROUGH DUT THIS PAGE WE ARE GOING TO LEARN WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN AN AION INCREASES OF DECREASES WHILE THE NUMBER OF PROTONS REMAINS CONSISTENT. THE PERIODIC TABLE LISTS ELEMENTS IN A NEUTRAL STATE, AND SINCE THE ELECTLON AND PROTON PROTON-NEUTRON NUCLEUS HAVE AN EQUAL BUT OPPOSITE MAGAIITUDE OF THEIR. CHARGES, UF THERE Io” RN \L NUMBER OF EACH - THE ENTIRE ATOM WILL BE ELECTICRUN NUETRAL. ATTRACTIUE FORCES 37 ATOMIC NUMBER (2) eoxae [ 3 PROTONS (1) + 3 ELECTRONS L-) = 0 | CHARGES ARE BALANCED So THE ATOM 1S UTHIUM) ELECTEICAUY NEUTRAL, =1.00 x10"'9 couLomes: +160 x 10-14 COULOMBS OUECAU. ELECTRICAL CHARGE GN +CD=6 ELECTRON PROTON IALTIME WE WILL LEARN MAKIN WAYS IND WHICH AA ATOM CAN CRIN 02 LOSE AN ELECTION IF THE ATOM HAS A NET OVERALL CHARGE THROUGH A CHANGE OF ELECTRONS ITS LEFERZED TD AS AN IONCS), ARE IONS THAT HAVE LOST ELECTRONS AND HAVE AN OVERALL NET POSITIVE CHARGE (Moe PI THAN ELECT@ ONS). ARE IONS THAT HAVE GRINED ELECTRONS AND HAVE AN OUERALL NET NEGRTUE CHARGE (MORE ELECTRONS THAN PROTONS) UTHiUM ATOM CLI) LITHIUM CATION CLIT) 3 PROTONS Cr) Z ELECTIONS (-) INE x COULOMES iS A UNIT USED TO MERSURE ELECTRICAL CHARGECATIONS AUD ANIONS MORE DETAILS ABOUT IONS ALTHOUGH ATOMS CAN CHANGE THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS THEN CONTAIN THE CHANGE OF ELEC TRONS WILL ONLY HAPPEN IN THE VALENCE STEN FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN AN ELECTEON GETS ADDED, WH BE ADDED TOTHE VALENCE SHELLOR IF THE ATOM LOSES AN ELECTRON - THAT ELECT@ON WILL BE LOST FROM THAT RIOMS VALENCE SHELL. LATER ON, WHEN WE START TD LEARN ABOUT IONIGATION Eteecy or numiom ued AN eeCeM cee Roseey EL Be RouE To CHREAEICEIUS Mites ROMS FRUDE GAINING {FORMING BKITON OE LOSING { FORMING A CHTIOND CLECTEON GS). VALENCE SHELL BeERVLUM ATOM (Be) GeRVULIUM CATION (Be2*) @ @ a ELECTRON + @° ay ® ® FONLS Ur) 4 peor TELECTRONSC) Fluorine ATOM (F) FLUORINE ANION CF) @@.o Q PROTONS (1) IO ELECTRONS C)OS Qe ee Tee EVEN THOUGH WE HAVE BEEN STRESSING THROUGHOUT THIS CHAPTER THAT IF WE InUaNan Gpeciric CLEMENT WE EEO eavioncrive MOLE STABLE EMISSION TD KEEP THE NUMBEL OF DROTONIS WITHIN, NUCLEUS, NUCLEUS \sIE, ATOM COUSTANIT WHEN EXAMING CHANGES INTHE NUMBEL OF NEUTRONS 0% ELECTLONS, YETTHERE ARE SITUMTIONS WHERE AN RIUM OF A SPECI ISOTOPIC. SYMBOL EMENT CHANGES INTO ANOTHER EITHE? THEDUGH A, CONVERTING TO A PROTON OF VICE VERSA: LEADING UP 10 OUR X= ELEMENT SYMBOL SHOET INTRODUCTION SUMMREN ON EADIOREMUENT AND A= MASS (2OUNDED) NUCtERR CHEMIST 2= ATOMIC NUMBER wre NING RBOUTTHE NUCLEUS, WE N> NUMBSE-OF NEUTRONS DiscUSseD THATTHEN REC BuItt POM PEDIONG AND Kl A-2=N) /A BALANCING ACT BETWEEN REDULSINE FORCES FZOM AD- "JACENIT PROTONS ANLO THE RITRACTIVE FORCES (STRONG FORCE) ‘4 15 BETWEEN ALL , UCLEONS (NUCLEONS BEING BOTH PROTONS: + ANO NEUTRONS } WHICH IN LIGHTER ELEMENTS (2220) 40. 63%10 0.37°l0 THERE 1S BEL RATIO BETWEEN NEUTEONS ANID PROTONS TO ABUNDANT — REUNDANT ENSUCE A STABLE NUCLEUS YET, WHEN THE SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS GLOWS FLOM THE INCLEASING NUMBER oF PRO- C1 Cl TOMS THE NUMBEZ. OF NEUTRONS GLOWS BEYOND A IU 13 TOCOMPENSRTE FOR THE G2OWINIG BEPULSINE FORRES. B ABUNDALIT ROUKDANT CAINS 2 RAUNT GD, 209, N NH MUCUS TOPES ONWAZD HAVING A RADIOACTIVE NUCLEUS” VAWEN OF — 1 C135 LSTABLE) £1733 Ceapionctive) STRONY OF ISOTOPES =» «-15.97°%/o ABUNDANT = 24.23% ABUNDANT wiz THE PHRASE " STABLE |SOTOPES" HAS BEEN USED A Few TIMES WE LEFERZED TO THE FACT THAT THE: Mizel og. © — RNELRGE AIOMIC. WEIGHT OF AN ELEMENT IS BUiCT JES 4.32 FLOM THE REUN DANCE OF ALL NATUI ABUNDANT ISOTOPES, VET THIS DOES NOT MEAN THEGE ARE NOT : OLE POSSIBLE ISOTOPES OF ELEM: EXAMPLE \ODINE-131 EXISTS JUST 1S NuMmpen OF UNSTABLE ISOTOPES ARE REFERLED TORS Bei PROTONS RADIOACTIVE MEANING THEN, TO Emr GN SUBATOMIC PARTICLES TO ACHIEVE STAI NUCLEUS IN UREIOUS WRKS WHAT DETERMINES IF ANLLCOTOPE 1S CTRBLE OF LADIORCANE ¢ THE Puce THER THE RATIO OF N/ 2% (NUMBER OF NEUTEONS / NUM PROTONS) IN A NUCLEUS DUIFIS FLOM A Enno ber Ad THE 4% PROTONS INCLENES wag INCREASED TENDENCN OF Mae. ISOTOPE BEING RADIO- ACTIVE AND DECAY ING ( BREAKING DOWN) TD A Mi THON, 92 FIT WITHIN THE: SUPE GME OF 1 ee WUD INCTABIUN, VE NuMBER OF NeUTeOUS = ‘Ss ISOTOPES BECOME SO Hg UNRIREAE TRA MOCT ALE NOT ROUNOMKIT IN NORE” Sy Be ) WEIOHTS USTED ON THE. PER DD ELEMENTS ARE DETERMINED 1c OF VERN UNSTABLE Wid Wott Conte GveED WoTOPE DOODLES in THE met NEWL RATIO (IZ) oS" RADIOACTIVE DECAY aa PROTONS AND NEUTZONS IN THE NUCLEUS JTROLE ISOTOPES OF BIN ELEMENT Will EVER Je FEWER NEUTLONS THAR PROTONS WAM ~ DORCTINE) NUMBER OF NEUIEDS = sees Numper or 1° PROTONS ° REPULSINE FORCES @e~ ee HeuuM-4 2 PROTONS NEUTRONS 49.08 a ABUNDANT (ee PROTON - NEUTRON NUCLEUS NUCLEUS MOLE NEUTEOAIS BEvON D2) bSTONIS THE POSSIBILITY FOR MOLE STABLE Ol SUGHTUY STABLE VAIRTIONS WES MOLE MEUTEONS TO COMPENSATE GROWING FORCES, FOR EXAMPLE, Wore Any 24 Yeoropes wneue ONiuY TWO ARE STABLE COPPER -03 AND COPPER sou CU copper copper 09.17% 30.83% 20 PROTONS 24 PROTONS S4 NEUTRONS 36 NEUTRONS YELAT SOME POINT, ALDUND B2 PROTONS THE REPULSIVE FORCES DECOM: CARBON 12. URANiUM-238 UbEnt To COMPENSRIE ANG no SRELE @ PROTONS 42 PROTONS ISOTOPE CAN BE ARKANGED - MAKING TRONS, He NEUTEONS: The RloM WaDIonciive SECrING A aa. even ROUNDANT — 99.00% ABUNDANT MORE STABLE ALEANGEMENT THROUGH AS SEEN WITH UANIUM-23@RADIOACTINE DECAY ALPHA (A) AND BETA (B) DECAY IN THE DISCUSSION OF CA BIOACTIUIN We REFER S . TOR SOECIFIC ISOTOPE OF AN ELEMENTAS A PRCENT NUCLIDE DAUGHTER NUCDE+ $e — NUCLIDE ANID REPRESENT THE SUBRTOMIC PART: ICLES IN ASIMILAT MANNER TO THE ISOTOPE. NOMENCLATUCE AMO NOTATION NOTATION THAT WEAZE WED TO. THE PALENT NUCLIDE: 1s THE ATOM BEFOLE RADIONCANE EMISSION AND. EXAMPLE OF A NUCLEAR EQUATION THE RESUCING ISOTOPE, THE NEW ELEMENT, 1S. 230)) 5 24 4 Saar eieme Rie etek Mutec MruMeeE SS Ree y i 3uU zn + THe UNSTABLE BASED ON THEIL RATIO OF NEUTRONS AND PRCENT DAUGHTER PROTONS (Nie) NET ELEMENTS LESS THAN 82 CAN Wuctbe NUCLIDE OrPARTICLE ALCO HAVE GADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AND APPEAL IN ERI YAGUING AMOUNTS 1A NATUEE Our waiTHl TLE TO MOTATION OF SUBATOMIC PRLTICLES | DECADES Ou EVEN CEAITULIES TD DECAY ie ba fe IS MEASURED IN THE ISOIOPES HALE-GFE WHICH RE- FEZS TO THE TIME IT TAKES FOR HALE OF A GIVEN RMOUNT, PROTON NEUTRON ELECTRON. OF W PAVEMT NUCLIDE TO DECAY TO PUT INTD PERSPECTIVE How IT's COMPLETELY NIATU@AL AND NOT CONCERN ING THAT, E HAE RADIORCTIUE NSOTOPES OF COMMON ELEMEAITS IN| UE EANILONMENT RADIONCTINE CHEBON 4 HAS A HALE-UFE OF 5,100 VEARS WHEREAS HEAVIER ISOTOPES SUCH AY IODINE. JE A HALF-OFE OF SDAUS, AND ZADON-220, A HALF DF 55.0 SECONDS THEDUGHOUT THIS PROE LET'S ANALYZE JIT TWO EXAMPLES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY OF PAZENT NUCLIDES "ALPHA (A) AND PETA LB) DECAY. A_DECAY REFERS TO THE PROCESS WHEN AN UNSTABLE EADIOACTIVE, EMITS A PARTICLE: FEOM ITS NUCLEUS COMPOSED OF TWO PROTONS AND TO NEUTZONS (AM ARZANGEM ENT |DENTICAL TO A HEUUM-4 NUCLEUS) REFERED 10 IN AN A~ PARTICLE, THROUGHOUT THIS TYPE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAV THE PAZENT NUCLIDE WILL LOSE TWO PROTONS, DECRERS- ING ITS ATOMIC NUMBER EN2, CHANGING INTO A NEW ELEMENT- WE CAN SEE THIS WITH UCANIUM ZBB DECAVING INTO THORIUM 234 THOUGH ALPHA (A) DECAV. PARENT NUCUDE DAUGHTER NUCLIDE = NEUTEON TO f PROION WESULTING IN AN ELECTRON BEING EMITTED FROM THE > &: % PARTICLE NUCLEUS THIS RESULTING UGH TER NUCLIDE INCREASES IN ATOMIC NUMBER, FORMING A NEW NUCLEUS OFA DIFFERENT eee : ; e ACTINIUM - 226, BRa-— > BRAG + feRADIOACTINE DECAY WDENTIFVING STABLE OR RADIOACTIVE 1<0TOPES: DRIFTS RAND OF STRRAUTY Vt COMPENSATE FOR THE INCREASED REPULSIVE. OF ISOTOPES: FORCES. BEVONID ©3 PROTONS THE KOTOPES FALL BEVOND THE 15:1 UNE RESULTING 1A) UNSTABLE RADIOACTIVE NUCLE: THAT DECAY TO ZEACH A MORE. STABLE STATE. ALPHA (ot BEYOND 83 PROTONS We SEE AK IN jED DEGREE OF NUCLEI THAT DECAY THOUGH AHA DECAY MIAUMIZINIG THE REPULSIUE FORCE STRENGTH WITHIN THE NUCLEUS BY REMOVINIG PROTONS.(Z PROIONS AND 2 NEUTRONS WHEREAS ISOTOPES THAT FALL IM THE BETA (B) DECAY QANGE ARE NEUTRON RICH HAVING AN OVERWHEUMING INCREASED NUMBER OF NEUTRONS COMPARED TO THE STBAE KOTORES "THE TENDENCIES To Bela (B) DECI, CTABIUZE THE NUCLEUS BV CONVERTING NEUTRONS TO PROTONS FORA MOLE ENERGETICALLY STABLE BALANCE. IDENTIFICATION HOWTO IDENTIFY UNSTABLE NUCLEL MOVING FORWARD, WHAT WOULD WE NEED TO 00 IF AVE CONFRONTED WITHLAM ISOTOPE AND NOT SURE 1F ITS STABLE OR WADIORCINE. UMD STABLE ISOTOPES WILL HAVE FEWER NEUTRONIS THAKL SIWER-107 PROTONS (BESIDES HYDROGEN 1), ‘STABLE ZAP THE ELEMENT IS K> 20 PROTONS AT THE VERN miMimu- MM WE NEED TO EASURE ITHAS AN EQUAL NUMBER OF PRO- TONS AND NEUTRONS 1F THERE ne MORE NEUTRONS THAN Re NUMBER OF NEUTRONS & °, NUMBER OF PROTONS too Blo PILOIONS SOWE THE RATIO ANID EASULE THE ISOTOPE FALLS WITHIN THE 1:1 = 16°) MANGE - WITHIN) THIS RANGE WWO- Rn TOPES ARE STABLE, 3. FOR ELEMENTS 21-3 SOWE FOR THE RATIO TO CHECK IF THE RADON ISOTOPE FAULS WITHIN THE STABLE LATIO RANGE OFT I- 1S: U2L.0% 4. BEYOND 65 PROTONS NO STABLE ISOTOPES CAN FORM Is FRM OVEEWHELMIALG REPULSIUE FORLES -AUL WK RADON- 222, RADIOACTIVE. NEAcumen cane MCOTDPES ALLISOTOPES ARE PADIORCIINE. Groups LveRTicAL) ; Parte AIM IC OFAN ATC RADIOACTING DECAY FINAL THOUGHTS ON RADIOACTIVITY. NO NEED TO FRET THE PAST TWO PAGES WERE FOL SURE TEXT HEAUY AND FILED WITT NEW INFORMATION, BUT LUST. WANTED To INT A SURFACE LEVEL AMOUNIT OF BADLONCTVITY AND NUCLeAE CHEMSTEN WITHIN THs CHAPTER OF ATOMIC THESLY, SO VOU REE WAGE, A cai P PONENT at C4 067) WHILE RODITION INES IF ae o ee Pb 82 Street oe tAonen Q989%0 LN LOI. Stee” Sineke —_eapionetive: HALFUFE S700y06. NUCLEAR FUSION ANDROGEN? HN DEDLEN-S Peden cornet — ABSORB SOLAR ENERGV TO JUMP START PHOTOSYNTHESIS DOODLES IN THE MI NE ORT RECAP, AS THE NUMBER PROTONS GROW WITH HEAVIER CE BETWEEN THE TAO PART VOLES BUILOING THE NUCLEUS BECOMES MORE AND MOE UNSTABLE RESULTING IN HIGHER PROBABILITIES OF INSTABIUIY LRBEUNG THE 16 TOPE AS RADIOACTIVE. WHEZERS UGHTER. MENS HAVE fi MORE FAVORABLE BI Oe CHEATING HHUHCE: RBUNDA Ni NOE STABLE ISOTOPES THAT WILL NOT UNDERGO DECAY THROUGH TIME yeu 4 TENEZAN aa 1 CONCLASIOAL, wneanay RACAL Hopes HERE ALE OTHER, FORMS OF DECAY AND MUCLEAL. ~) PEACTIONS sikeHt As GAMMA DECAY, ELECTRON CAPTURE, ... TC EVEN OUR SUN IS POWERED / ENERGIZED BN THE INTERACTIONS OF AIDMS FORMING DAUAHTER NUCUDE Writ MORE Peo: NS THAN THE PAGEAT NUCUDES THILOUGT A Wrenn caves NUCcenm PUSIOKL A ee ACHON THAT FUSES TWO ATOMS, NEGATING EX TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURES WITHIN THE SUNS CORE, SLAMMING Z TY OROGEN ATOMS: MAKES ITS WAY IN TIME TO EARTH AS VISIBLE UanT.CHAPTER COWCLUSION! SUBATDMIC PARTICLES, THE ATOM, ISOTOPES, AND iONS xw w KUT HUT PROTON, NEUTRON, AND ELECTRON TRACKING © 1 8 qa LEARNING REOUT THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM, AND HOW CHANGING THE NUMBER OF PROTONS NEU- Cc N oO FE TRONS AND ELECTRONS IN A GIVEN ATOM CAUSES THE FORMATION OF ISOTOPES AND IONS WILL BeE- NITROGEN OXNGEN FLUORINE COME CUM FOUNDATION TD STUDVING CHEMISTRN ‘CARBON (2.00 14.01 19.999 19.00 THROUGHOUT OUR TIME IN FUTURE CHAPTERS | WE LE GOING TD BE PLESEMTED Wit IONS, ASOToBES, Ri AMO DIFFELENT ELEMENTS TIME ANID TIME RAIN, AND THROUGH PRACTICE Ws TO QUICKLY IDENTIFY THEI PLOTON- ELECTRON COUNT ANID WHETHER O@ NOT THEY HAVE A Net Chaeoe. @ ELECTRON: 0.000547 AMU isoToPIc SYMBOL OF ELECTRON HAS UTILE TO AK BX Xr GteMeNT sumene, = A= MASS (ROUNDED) PROTON: 1oo7ZBAMU = TAMU = ATOMIC NUMBER © 2=NUMBER OF PROTONS NEUTRON: 1.00807 AMU = 1 AMU. © A-@= Number oF NEUTRONS IN AS AN EXAMPLE, LETS PUT ALL THAT WE HAUE. (ISOTOPE LEARNED THROUGHOUT THIS CHAPTER INTO BREAKING DOWN THE SPECIFICS OF OUR THREE CASES OF UTHIUM ZISOTOPES AND 1 10K oe x-A MASS #PROTONS 4NEUTRONS 4ELECTRONS CHARGE = = (92.50%) Lie 3 UO = = oe, CH REFER TO TABLE FOR AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT iF NOT ANALYZING A SPECIFIC ISOTOPE * FINDING THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS OF AN ELEMENT ON THE TABLE EQUALS ATOMIC MASS (ROUNDED TO NEAREST HMOLE NUMBER) - ATOMICAE DOODLES in THE met NEQUESTIONS weg hl PIES Tomi TER. QUESTIONS iC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS AND Moke. QUESTION 41 WHICH OF THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES INTHE ATOM HAVE AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE 7 QUESTION AZ WHICH OF THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES CONTRIBUTE THE MOST TO THE ATOMS MASS? QUESTIONS WHICH SUBATOMIC PARTICLE(S), THAT IF CHANGED, CHANGES THE SPECIFIC ELEMENT? QUESTION WHY CAN THE MOT ABUNDANT ISOTOPE OF HYDROGEN, |H ONLY CONTAIAI ONE PROTON AND AIO NEUTRONS? QUESTION 4¢5 WRITE THE NAME OF THE ELEMENT FOR EACH SYMBOL USTED BELOW? sr Co mn 2) @UESTION Hl WHITE EACH ISOTOPE LISTED IN THE ALTERNATE (A,2,x) ISOTOPE NOTATION. N-15, S-30 LT-12t = Ar-40 $130 Al-2% —-Be-10 c-l4 QUESTION #7 CALCULATE THE AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT FOR EACH SET 95 02°0 1B. 70 Kc aqua te SS ABUNDRAIT aMg ABUNDANT Nd ReUNDANT 23. 0.95% eM 10.13% 5 | 0.39%0 TOSS nounoant 12 MIG ReunoanT > Ni reunpant AS 4uto Ma ads 16S wounpant tf 1Q ReuntoanT 36. 0.02% ABUNDANT QUESTION AES: WONG THE Reporte TABLE AND INFORMATION PROVIDED FIL OUT JE FOLLOWING TAB AIOMIC 4 MASS +#PROTONS Ci-3t curtTER. QUESTIONS QUESTIONS eR, TOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID moge QUESTION: FOR ERGH is0IOPE UCT THE NUMBER OF PERTDALE, MENTEONS AND, ELECTRONS, THE WHOM HAY A MET CHARGE URT 4 ENMIER CANONIC NUD MALOM TO? Ca" Ber eur RCI 2 4F> cu" Li SNi GOT EN? Ba” UESTION AIO: FOR EACH PAIR OF ISOTOPES IDENTIFY WHICH ONE iS STABLE . ONE 1S RADIOACTIVE, BND WHINY Some CASES MAY BOL BE Teo te ont sehbue " 3ti SLi ° 4Mg Mg © 4P “Pe OBE SFr rt WHY ABE ALL ISOTOPES CONTRI ING MORE THAN QuESTON+ I a} ee isprores. Whi Re 83 PROTONS QuESTONAI2: 8} WHAT |S THE PeoDUeT OF RLPHAA) DECAY 8} HATS THE puooue oF Bern Cp) DECAY QUESTIONS: FILL INTHE BLAKINS FOR ENCH OF THE NOTATIONS ELEMENT ON ISOTOPE NOTATION, THE PEWODIC TABLE. v 1 1S 3x oa vw owQUESTIONS REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID MORE QUESTION #1 WHICH OF THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES INTHE ATOM HAVE AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE 7 MODEL OF THE ATOM % EVERY ATOM Is BUILT FROM A VARYING AMOUNT OF 3 SUBRTOMIC PARTICLES: fe ELECTEDN WHICH 1S MEGATIVEN CHARGED C2 THE PROTON WHICH Is POSITIVELY CHARGES Tite NEurbon whieh < cueetme NG NEATEAL ONL THE ELECTRONS ANDO PROTONS HAVE A NET CHARGE QUESTIONAZ WHICH DF THE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES CONTRIBUTE THE MOST TD THE ATOMS MASS? e ELECTRON : 0.000548% AMU ONL THE PROTONS AND f NEUTRONS HAVE A SIGN 4 ce FICANT IMPACT ON THE ATOMS MASS. @ PROTON: 1.00728AMU = 1 AMU SO, THE MASS OF THE AIOM is DEPENDENT ON THE NUMBER OF PLOTONS ‘) AND NEUTRONS IN THE NEUTRON: 1.00867 AMU ~ | AMY x NUCLEUS { PLUTON” NEUTRON NUCLEUS ) QUESTIONS WHICH SUBATOMIC PARTICLELS), THAT IF CHANGED, CHANGES THE SPECIFIC ELEMENT? ' 2 CHALGE OF AM ATOM) AND ACHANGE IN THE, KES THE OVERALL mans NDROGEN HeUUM | LITHIUM wepopes | bos NS I CERTAIN ATOM THAT REPRESENTS A SPECIFIC ELEMENT. ATOMIC NUMBER REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS BACHONGE IN THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IMPACTS. u He foe QUESTION WHY CAM THE MOCT ABUNDANT ISOTOPE OF HYDROGEN, 1H ONLY CONTAIN, ONE PROTON AND NO NEUTRONS’ ANEUTOONS ALLOW THERE TD RE MULTIPLE PI LOTONS IN THE NUCLEUS ACTING ASA "BUFFER" TO NEGATE REP- ULSINE FORCES BETWEEN RDINCENT PROIDNIS HYDROGEN ONLY FIRS | PROTON, £0 AN ISOTOPE CAN EXIST Witt ONLY A PROTON WiTH NO NEED OF A NEU DOODLES in THE met NEQUESTIONS REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID MORE QUESTION 475 WHITE THE NAME OF THE ELEMENT FOR EACH SYMBOL LISTED BELOW 7 Sr co m Pp A THIS PROBLEM | EXERCISE MAY SEEM SIMPLE, eur GETTING FAMILAR WITH SEARCHING AND USING THE PEI SO ee Wl eecoMe ADUENTAGEOUS INI TIN 7 coeRer UNC PHosPHOMUS 58.93, B38 30.9% MES WRITE EACH ISOTOPE LISTED 1 E ALTERNATE (A,2, x. QUESTION Ae WATE enc \soro ED IN THE A C ) N-15, S-30 T-12 — Ar-40 Si-30 Al-2% = Be-10 c-14 IE INTERCHANGING OF NOTATIONS USED TD NCE NTAL ISOTOPES AND THEI MASS mere ISOTOPE NOTATIONS. SN #S BI ®RAr 8 tX ccoemeouee, oc ant wpe 4 oe = 2 = ATOMIC NUMBER HSI BAL SBe oC x-A CALCULATE THE RUERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT FOR EACH Se QUESTION. #7 cnLeuLATE. WEIGHT FOR EACH seT AVERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT (AG AW i THe MASS RAI ARAORS Cee S10) OF STABLE ISOTOPE Tie, PAC REE rua AW Y (Rwy W)+ (Avogk 7a.) +... CAWaT Yon) THE ISOTOPE NOTATION ROUNDS THE MASS TO THE NEAZEST WHOLE HE Ens Ga GG AME OT ee SiMe DIC TABLE THAT AE CALCULAT Laie F (OM MORE PRECISE MASS VAR] a962% 15. Nj 0.39210 é aN pousonur ‘SAD saucer G28 Ss (14 K 0.9963) + (15 x 0.0039) = 14.0037 amu DOODLES in THE met NE A THUS QUESTION FoCMiES ON THQUESTIONS REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID MORE QUESTION. 4, CALCULATE THE AUERAGE ATOMIC WEIGHT FOR EACH SET F ISOTOPES. 0.75 °%0 BUG. AW = 32 & 95.02% ABUNDANT SULFUR 16S abutbanr FS 10 4.0 30S 0.02°%0 YS metvoanr TOS abauoANT Mg 18.70% 25 10.13% AVG. AW ABUNDANT 17 Mg A Mg adidiur QUESTIONAS USN THE FOLLOWING TA RIOMIC 4 MASS 4PLOTONS ci-gt ttt curt 29 5 ona ew ISOTOPE NOTATIONS. A & on x-—A ° OXVUEN 15.994 X= ELEMENT SYMBOL A= MASS (LOUNDED) Z= ATOMIC NUMBER OKIE THE ELEMENT DOES NOT HAVE AN OVERALL CHARGE, THEN THE ATOM 1S ELECTRICAL NEUTRAL CEQUAL AMOUNTS OF PROTONS AND ELECTEONS ) DOODLES in THE met NE (az x 0.9502) (34x 0.0421 BUNDANT MAGNESIUM + (gax 9.0085) + (30 X 0 0002 = 32.0925 AMU (24X 0.784) + (25 x 0.1013) (20K 0.7) = 24.4025 AMU Ga THE RERLOPIC TABLE AND INFORMATION PROVIDED FIL DUT ATOMIC. NUMBER.C2) =THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN THE ATOM. NAME OF ELEMENT ATOMIC MANS OF ELEMENT TDFIND AN ESTIMATE OF THE NUMBER DEARUTeLS Fok trie PERIODIC TABLE: RTOMIC. MASS (LOUNDED) SUBTRACTED FROMTHE ATOMIC. NUMBER. OXVGEN 15.990 AMU (e-O = ONUMBEROF NEUTRONSPERCTICE QUESTIONS REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID MORE JECTION. #4 FOL. ENGH iSOIOPE UCT THE NUMBER OF PROTONS. NEUTEONS AND, ELECTRONS fo JE THE ATOM HAS AL Bea serbieete CATIONIC AND ANION IC7 42.0 it nis Ca e728 NEUNEDNLS IO ELECTRONS: ND CATION +2 x) + 20 PROTONS SF, sas 13 PROTONS 29CAd ‘34 NEUTRONS HCl 2 NEUTRONS 29 ELECTRONS Te ELECTRONS Wy caTION TT () ANION =I 3 PROTONS 7 4 PROTONS we Oe Te Baas () ANION =H Sp, 2+ 24 paoons ij PROTONS ou” Wee SLi HU ER, Wi) CATION +2 ul WW) NeuTeAe Ni 30 PROTONS t 2 © PROTONS 30 24 NEUTRONS WO NEUTRONS 30 ELECTRONS 10 ELECTRONS (A) NEUTRAL, Winton 2 1S 3- 3 PROTONS 132 6 2+ 5b Peol SN S NEUTRONS tba “ONEUNEDNS, 10 ELECTRONS 5A ELECTRONS: (Y) ANION ~3 i CATION +2 QuesTION!#10° Fou EACH PAIL OF ISOTOPES IDENTIFY WHICH ONE 1S STRELE AND WHICH ONE 1S RADIOACTIVE, AND WHY < ‘cast ee s ad 2 PROTONS. 4 NEUTRONS. SL CANS Una thet RANGED SLi 3 PROTONS 2 NEUTRONS SLi Geared tine Peorons 2 PROTONS. 12, NEUTRON oY Mg CoRR ean Mase isorope) 40 Ma, NE PROTONS, 28 NEUTRONS 2 ag (BNL* 23 OUTSIDE STABIUTY RANGE)QUESTIONS REGARDING ATOMIC STRUCTURE, SUBATOMIC PARTICLES, ISOTOPES, IONS ANID moge QUESTION #10: Fou EACH PAIL OF ISOTOPES IDENTIFY WHICH ONE IS. STABLE AND wHiCH Cont ONE 1S RADIOACTIVE, AND WIN Z SOME cas N Bout Bs ©) 31 15 PROTONS Io NEUTRONS 19 CIG/1S= 1-0 WITHIN) STABILITY EANGED 15 PROTONS. 31 NEUTRON TEP (STAB oe bbrsie eteuTy cance) D) 232) 2 PEDTOUS. 45 MEUTEDAS HP K>83 PROTONS. TOO MUCH REDULSION RADIOACTIVE 1SOfDPE 8t |S AN BONS "SP XBR RBNG toMuen trun ——-enmnonemiue wso1Pe. QUESTIONAIL WHY ARE BLL ISPTOPES CONTAINING MORE THAN 62 PROTONS RADIOACTIVE AND * BENOND 83 PROTONS, THE. REPULSIVE FORCES FRbM AD- JACCATT PROTONS ARE TOO tent FOU NEUTRONS TO COMPENSATE - A NUCLEUS WIIH MOZE THAN 83 PROTONS WILL DECAY TO STABIU2E @ PARTICLE RADIORCTIUE DAUGHTER NUCLIDE |ESTION# 12> A.) WHAT 1S THE PeoDucT OF ALPHA (A) DECAY = ZK DRUGHIES NUCUDE 2 PROTON AMD 2 MEUTEONS LESS THA PAREAIT. MONG WITH BLOM PANICLE. ©) WHAT IS THE PRODUCT OF BETA CI RORUGHTER, NUCUDE I PLO GREATER THAN PARENT NUCLIDE AUNG WITH ELECTRON EMISSION, QUESTION AIS: FILL IN THE BLAKINS FOR EACH OF THE NOTATIONS: ELEMENT ON ISOTOPE NOTATION a 5 P___bementt sumpou. RIOMIc MASS —— 30.97BOHR RUTHERFORD PLANETARY MODEL EXAMPLE PROBABILITY DEN SITY FUNL + LANDOM VARIABLE CES FROM Oneins 0 OLeATALS BONL- RUTHERFORD TO SCHRODINGER THROUGH MIELS Bote TWEAI AMRUIZE THE it th LENELS WHERE THE aay or a ANG VerTne ONE eal THE ORBITS AND DISTANCES | WENT RGAIALET ONE OF THE CORE TQRINTY PUINICAI NCH STATED NERS inh eee reoret Mont Bia ERIN Sen DINGER PLODOSED THATTHE ATOM ATOMIC ORBITALS ARE. THAT PROBABILIN DENSITY RADIAL COMPONENT) ORBITALS ARE FORMED DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS FRDM MATHEMATICALLY DERINED PROBABILITIES Nove. 07 CHANCE OF FINDING @ PROBABILITY DENSITY RADIAL COMPONENT) DISTANCE FLOM NUCLEUS: * POSITION OF NUCLEUS DOODLES IN THE MI NE WING THE QUTHELFORD PLAKIELARY MODEL OF THE AIOM WE STARTED 10 HIRONS. RESIDE IAL POTENTIALLY MOVE BETWEEN THEM. STEDpI HE IDM WE STARED INCHING eRe AMOWE REGAL SHELLS AND ACKNOWLEDGED ARNTUM MECHANICA (C REPRESENTATION ‘ON CLASSICAL HECTIC WHEN DEFINING ISE CALCULATIONS ONO Re [UM AND POSITION OF A PRETICLE. CANNOT INTV, THUDUGH MERSUING ONE VAMIABLE (NFOEMATION ABOUT {outs Ge numer COMBLET EY MHKOUOH THE: SCOPE OF QUANTUM MECHANICS - IALTERD: Seay BELMIALG OR GUANTIZED / DEFINED CILCULAR, fone bor nack-benueD CubbREIIN eat igg fou. FINDING AN ELECTION AROUND THE NUCLEUS. BY SACRIFICING KNOWING THE EXACT LOCATION OF AN ELECTL.ON AT AN GIVEN TIME, THE PEOBABIUTY DENY HELA US Ns MERMALE THE UNELHOOD THAT A vei AN THIS CAGE THE ELECTION ) HEE AN SPACE AROUND THE NUCLEUS WHEAL THE PROBA: BIUTY If MAPPED IAI THE 3ED- DIMENSION IT FORMS GEOMETILIC REGIONS THAT CONTAIN THE POSsIB- IWIN OF FINDING THE. ELECTRON WITHIN A GIVEN ENERGY LEVEL - THESE DENSITIES FOL THE ELEC~ TRON ARE LEFERRED TO AS ATOMIC OLBITALS. BOHR RUTHERFORD ScHRODINGER DEFINED POSITION UNCERTAIN POSITION, AND ORBIT (PROBABILITY) OUND MCLE BOTH MODELS queunee THE ENERGY LEVELS MORE DETRILED INFOZMATION REOUTSCHRDDINGER AND HENEN BURG IN UNIT ZINTRODUCTION 10 Z,UAMIUM NUMBERS INTRODUCTION TD GUANTUM NUMBERS, S ORBITALS, AND P ORBITALS WITHTHE INTRODUCTION of ATOMIC. ORBITALS. AT EACH ENERGY VAWE (1)-1,2.3.4) We HAY POLORBILITN DEAISITIES A GIVEN ELECTRON (OULD BE | DESTEAINED® IN, ESSENTI HALON SPU (EVEL IANO SUG LEVERS" WHICH CONTAIN ALINE VALIOUS DRONE PLDI ECRONY CMAP: (IV OF FINDING THE ELECIEONL) FOUND WITHIALRGINER, SURNTIZED ENERAN STATE THE 1G THE ELECTRON " COUCD BE YESTEAINED IN VARIOUS Ai EN LEVEL THE PARTICULA SHAPE OF AN ORBITAL IS LENELGN LENEC Ln) THE PORIEIUTIES IS EGUIVALEALT TO, N-1. FOL EXAMD RON LEVEL N= (THE FIRST PERIOD) THE ONLY BIUTY) SHADE ESE SPHERICAL OWBITALS ALE FEPLESENTED EN THE Let ORBITALS ), WITH ” a>) DING THE GLE e O ist AUTee. SORBITAL =P ORBITAL NUCLEUS” AY WE SEE COMPARING THE RADIAL DISTANCE 2S ANID BS IN THLE PROBABILITY DERISITY X RADIAL COMPONT “POSITION OF THE NUCLEUS THE 4 ORBITAL SHAPES WE'LL BE FOCUSING OM ARE ONES THAT ALE FILLED PIM RLILY IN STRELE ALUCLEI WITH 2 VALLES CORRESPONDING WITH 0, 1,2, BND J. FE t zupL een se z g 2 8 z 5 i § RADIAL COMPONENT), DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS A EXAMINE HOW Much FURTHER THE ELECTRON DENSITY 1S PUSHED BETWEEN 2 AND BP. TP PROBABILITY DENSITY F CRADIAL COMPONENT) DISTANCE FLOM NUCLEUS *THE COLORS USED TD REPLESENT THE ORBITALS HAVE NO SIGNIIFICARICE, DOODLES IN THE MI NE THE IMPORTANCE 1S THE SHAPE.THE QUANTUM Ni THE 4 QUANTUM NUMBERS (1, ba mt BE gS WE'LL DIVE MORE THROUGHLY INTO HOW SOAEDOINGER SoWED FoR. THE. PDN EAI ENISITIES MADPING OUT THE SHAPE OF THE OWBITALS iN UNIT 2 WHEN! WE EXPLORE WRUE PARACLE DUAUIN THROUGHOUT THis CHAPTER LETS FOCUS ON HOW CHARACTERISTICS OF ORB HS RN Res anit eee Hi i + LRADIAL COMPONENT) MAND € REPRESENT WITH RIOMIC ORBITALS WE PAVED THE WAY FORTHE INTRODUCTION 10 AUPNTUM KUMBERS, RSET OF 4 LEERS THAT IRE WED TO DESCRIBE A SPECIFIC ELECTRON RROUND THE NUCLEUS - STATING ITS ENERGY OF THE ORBITAL, OLBITAL SHAPE, OVZITAL OBIEN- TATION, AND SPAY PROPERTIES: DER-UN). dUSCRIBES THE DARTICULAF. GUANTIZED ENELGN LEVEL OF AN NC ORBITAL: THIS VALUE t IS THE SIZE OF THE ORBITAL IN QUESTION AS WE SEE WITH COMPARING = 1S, 25, AMD 3S ORBITALS 9 % EACH PERIOD ONI THE PERIODIC TABLE REPRESENTS AU ATOMS THAT HAVE THEIZ VALENCE ELECTROAN IN ANPECIFIC. QUANTIZED SHELL, SO GOING DOWN A SPECIFIC GROUP Witt INCREALE THE PLANCIEAL, UAKTUM NUMBER CH SfesT ENERAY LeveL 1, U SECOND ENEREN LEVEL N=2 AND JO ON) IE ANGULAR DUBNA MUM BERLE) REPRESENTS ALL THE POSSIOLE | WSMNCHAPES IMI NaNeU enetay tevet THE e unions To 7. FIGURE OUTIHE NUMBER OF POSTEIUTIES IS EQUAL, 3s EXAMPLE, THE PEST ENEEGN LEUEUUIH1) WB ALE LIMITED 10 ust THE SPHEZICAL PLOBABIUTY DENSITY OF THE S OLBITALS, VETAS THE ENERGY LEVEL INCREASES SO DO THE POSSIBLE OCBITAL GHAPES. REPRESENTS THE 4FOF SUBSHEWLS, WITHIN A ENERGY LEVEL (ny Aw Pe THE NEXT 2 QUANTUM NUMI ARE NEW TD US - 7 Px THE ied QuAuiTUM WIMeeL iS THe ~ANLEXIENSION OF INE ZUALUE, ANID 1S ) <= IAC OUIENTNTION FOL AGPERIFIC TiGMIC- OLBIITL . RENEE THE ORBITALS ARE THD - DIMENSION AL GEOMETRIC ABILITY DEAISITIES SO WE WANT TO BE ABLE TO DESCRIBE THEM Qo Bat O-1 Oat GOANRUIN KAT? PLANES: FOU enon CEBIINL STIPE (2) THE PONTBLE Tie=o Mot mero met FEOIECTIONS iN Sonic A SPECIFIC OUELTAL CMLL BE IN is EQQUVRLENT 10 THE EQUATION ~L—r SENG ZERO), THRUN THIS TELLS US HOW TAN PARTICULAR ORBITALS, OF A GIVEN ORBITAL ALE AT EACH ENERGY LEVEL 0 THERE ALE ONLN 1 S OLENTAL, NO MAT- Tee we ealcean TeveU ANG RUDAUS 3 {nes “1,0,1) F OLENTACS IN CReH OF THe PLANES FOULING TS PATTERN, WE SEE 5d ORBITALS AND 9 FORBITALS. THE FINAL QUANTUM NUMBEL, FRE SEAL SUBMIT URIBE Un is NOTIMPACTED BN THE OTHER 2 Bur’ Ol ES NNINTEANSIC PROPERTY OF AN ELECTRON “IT'S SPINA PRODUCT OF THEIL ANGULAR MOMENTUM INTHE =“ OUBITAL. ELECTEONLS CAN ONLY HAUE | OF 2 SSPINLITRTES (EXPLAINING MAG NETIC PROPERTIES WE'W EXPUIRE LATER) ENHERTI2 OR -HI2. Now Ir MAY cee LIKE A LOT, BUT TH@DUGH BREAKING 17 DOWA THE ONLY TUMUMPEE THATIE NOTAW EXTENSION OF PLUCOMLEC N“PNIUN)- QNITRIN THE REMAINING S BUILD OFF EACH OTHER SIZECN), SHAPE (2) AND OWENTATION IN SPACE (mL), DOODLES IN THE me INE PROBABILITY DENSITY NUCLEUS RADIUS EXTENDING FROM THE NUCLEUSANTUM NUNIBERS IMD AIDMUC OREITALS SUMMARIZING HOU THE 4 ZUANTUM NUMBERS IMPACT/CHANGE ATOMIC z x THROUGHOUT THE PACT FEW PAGES WE HAVE LAID OUT THE FOUNDATION Feom = * 1 TRANSITIONING FROM ANALYZING ELECIZONS ALOUNOTHE NUCLEUS IN | DEFINED CIRCULAR ORBITS TO VARIOUS ZANGING ORBITALS THAT CON TRIAL } net H THE UREUTIOOD OF FINDING AKL ELECTRON AT ANY GIVEN TIME. LETS: OK SUMMAMIE ANID SOUDIFN THE INFORMATION BEFORE MOWING / HWDROGEN oy FORWARD. ahd LENS START BN EXPLAINING THE IMPACT OF THE MAGNETIC QUAKTUM NUMBER Am) WITH ORBITALS THAT GETS INTRODUCED INTHE SECOND ENERGY LEVEL. ATTHE 20D ENEROY LEVELLN=2) ALL ORBITAL POSSIBIUTIES WIL BE Zs (L=0) AND UP (2=1).Me=-2—> 2 INCLUDING ZERO), 2s ORBITAL 2PORBITALS by ee x a-0 2-1 Me-0 8 =md=--1,0,1 VOReITAL = S ORBITALE eNUCLENS, THE 2 VALUE QEceRIBES THE NAPE OF THE OLSITAL ANID THE md teins 10.08 LU HOW MANY " DF THAT SPECIFIC ORBITAL” AGE OMENTRIED IN SPACE, AS WITH POLBITALS WE'LL RWAYS HAUE 3 OF THEM. NOU LETS COMPALE HOW THE EN” ELON VALUE (PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER) CHANGES THE SIZE OF THE P ORBITALS - FOR ALL THESE CIES: THE 2 AND ML VALUES ARE CONSISTENT WITH WHAT WE SALW WITH ZP. ALL ATOMS WILL HAVE 3 PORBITALS FOR EACH ENERGY LEVEL X22 Wx 3Px Px 5Px OXNGEAIS ELECTRONS: COMPARING 20, 28.40, RAID SP. WE SEE THE INCRER- we SED DISTANCE FEOM'THE NUCLEUS ACTHEN VRWE as WN GQOWS-CORLESPONDING To THE INCZEASE IN ENERGN, is 2Px THE GROWING ORBITAL SIZES MATCH THE ENERGY INCREASE BECAWE IT TAKES ENERGY TD SEPARATE THE ELECTRON FUR- y THE® FOOM THE NUCLEAR CHARGE TO WHIGH ITI ATTEAC- "TED TOO. YET WHEWE THE GARKTUM NUMBELS DESCRIBE Ww THE ATOMIC DILBITALS, LETS MOVE FORWARD 10 LEARNING HOW WING ALL4 CAN HELP US DEFINE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GPECIFIC ELECTRON INI ANN ATOM - PAVING THE x a. ak i. —L (OUR WAY TD LEARNIALG ABOUT AUFDAU PUNCIPLE, PRUL EXCULSION PUINIGPLE, AID HUNDS BULE. DOODLES IN THE MIQUASTUN NI ‘How THI NUNIBEES ALD AID) MUG. OREITALS 4 ZUANTUM NUMBERS IMPACT/CHANGE ATOMIC ORE! 2 ORBITAL mo 4 OF ORBITALS PRINCIPAL «=ANGUIAR. = SUBSHELLS SPATIAL ORIENTATIONS OF: or TNPEIN ALLATOMS ° \s ° ‘ as ° 2p “1,0, ° 3s 3p 3d Bia ° 4s ° ° 44 He I, 2 2-1 aF <3 A811) 2,3 GR-0 p-e -o S ORBITAL, RETHE POIMCIORL. AUAKTUM NUMBER @ INCLEASES 5 JE UREMMDOD OF PAECIRON eine FROM, THe NUCLEUS COADINL DISTINEE ee ee, NUCLEUS PoORBITALS fucteus PROBABILITY DENSITIES OF FINDING THE ELECTRON WN SPACE AROUND THE MUCLEUS AT ANY GINEN TIME.a i i B @ @ 8 PRU EXC PLE ANID SPIN TORBITAL ZORBITALS SORBITALS TORENTALS TD DESCRIBE AN ELECTRON AROUND THE TLELECTRONS © ELECIHONS 10 ELECTRON I ELECTROAKS NUCLEUS WE'LL LELY ON USING ALL 4 NUMBERS IN OTHER WORDS A SET OF gunutum NUMBERS" HELDING US DESCRIBE ITS S12 LENERGY), SHADE (THE SHAPE DF ITS PROBABIUIN DENSITY ), ORIENTATION. (HOW THE DENSITIES ARE POSITIONED IN SPACE) AND THEN THE DIMECKION OF ITS INTWNSIC SPIN STATE. 2 ON PRANCLPLE CLARIFIES THIS STATEMENT BY : STATING NO TWO ELECTCONS CAN HAUE THE SAME SET OF QUAN - ae TUM NUMBERS LN 2m, Ms). WHAT DOES THIS TEL Us ABOUT HOW ELECTIONS OCCUPY THE SPACE AMLOUND THE NUCLEUS IM THESE, ORBITALS? EACH AIOMIC ORBITAL IS UMITED TD HOLOIAIG A MAXIMUM OF 2 ELECTRONS | LETS BREAK DOWN WHY BY ANAUIZIAIG THE SINGLE US ORBITAL. SETOF QUANTUM NUMBERS :(n.L,m2,.ms) SPIN STATES 10k BASED OFF THE UMITATIONS BELONGING TO EACH ®@ INCREASE IN ENERGY QUANTUM VALUE TN, 2= nt Me= <2 2 ARID SouTH ME COURUING CLIHER THd 08-112 FOR EACH SPECIFFC VALUE OF NZ, AND ML WE ARE UMITED TD ONLY TWO VALUES OF M2 REPRESENTING THE SPIN STATES OF THE ELECTEON NOW THE TWO ELECTRONS = Ik ARE STILL KEPELING ONE ANOTHER WITHIAS THE SAME ORBITAL, AND IT DOES TARE ENERGN TO PAIR THEM. \s A, IM REGAMOS To THE m & VALUES, WHEN THE ELecTeo AWE PAIRED THE SPIN STATES CANCEL OUT NEGATING THE MAGNETIC FIELDS FROM Bort (1/2 F12=0). ’ p AWIA ALL, ERCH ORBITAL IN SPACE Al 5 o> NSINES RELCLUNGIORGDOUMIE SEQUENCE OF HE ny umuied NUMBERS), FOLLOUD IAG THIS PATTE RAY WE INE THAT S ORBITACWILL ALWENS HOLD 2 L ELECTRONS, 0 ORBITALS HOLDING W SINCE THEY HAVE 3 ORBITALS, d HOLDING 1 ELECTRONS, ANO me FORBITALS HOLDING THE MAXIMUM OF 14 + -t fuen ze -_ - 2 2 BUT THIS iSM'T UKE A BUS ) LV ff WHERE PASSENGERS FILIN O 1 SEATS AT CANOOM AS THEN FIUE IM INTHE CANE FOR ATOMS, EVERN ADDITIONAL ELECTEON WiLL FILL A PREDICTABLE POSITION TO MINIMIZE THE OVERALL ENERGY Of THE AIOM STATED N THE RUCBRU PLINCAPLE: THE ATOMS WAKIT 10 MIALIMI2E THEIR EMEROY ANID SE THEIR STRBIUTY AS MUCH v - “ AAS THEN CAN, SO ELECTROMS WILL FILE INTO LOWER ENERGY VALUES: SOUTH = MUMAGNETIC: FIRST BEFORE FILUNG INTO MIGHER ENEDGU STATES- TAKING INTO FIELD ACCOUNT BOTH THE PANCIPAL SUANTUM NUMBER AND ANGULAR QUANTUM NUMBER TO DETERMINE WHICH ORBITALS TO FILL, DOODLES IN THE MI NE