Parents' Reports of Sexual Communication with Children in Kindergarten to Grade 8

Author(s): E. Sandra Byers, Heather A. Sears and Angela D. Weaver

Source: Journal of Marriage and Family , Feb., 2008, Vol. 70, No. 1 (Feb., 2008), pp. 86-
96
Published by: National Council on Family Relations

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40056254

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 E. Sandra Byers, Heather A. Sears, and Angela D. Weaver
University of New Brunswick

Parents' Reports of Sexual Communication With

Children in Kindergarten to Grade 8

We examined factors associated with parents'more adolescents are not satisfied with the quantity
reports of three aspects of parent-child sexual
of parent-child sexual communication or its qual-
communication, quality, frequency with whichity or both (Byers et al., 2003a, 2003b; Feldman
parents encouraged questions, and extent of
& Rosenthal, 2000; Weaver et al., 2002). This situ-
communication, on each of 10 sexual health ation highlights a need to identify characteristics
topics. Participants were 3,413 mothersofand better quality and more extensive parent-child
426 fathers with children in kindergarten communications
to about sexual health, especially
grade 8. Parents' demographic characteristics,
parents of younger children. Researchers have
own sexual health education, knowledgefocused and on parents' communication with their
comfort talking about sexuality with their adolescents
chil- even though sexuality educators
dren, and ratings of the importance of compre-
advise parents to start communicating with their
hensive school-based sex education plus children
child about sexual health from a young age.
gender and grade level were uniquely relatedInto this study, we examined factors associated
their self-reported sexual communication with
with parents' reports of the quality and extent of
their children, although different predictors
their communication about sexuality with their
were associated with various topics. Thesepreadolescent
re- (elementary school age, grades K
sults highlight the need to include characteris-
to 5) and young adolescent (middle school age,
tics of parents, their children, and the grades 6 to 8) children. Specifically, we drew
communication itself in research on parent- on Jaccard, Dodge, and Dittus's (2002) concep-
child sexual communication. tual framework, which identifies five components
that affect parent-child sexual communication:
the communication source (i.e., the parent), the
Most parents, adolescents, and sexuality educa-
tors in Canada and the United States believe that
communication recipient (i.e., the child), the
communication itself (e.g., message content),
parents and schools should share responsibility
the family context, and how the message is com-
for providing children with sexual health
municated. We assessed factors that represent the
education (Byers et al., 2003a, 2003b; Croft &
first three of these components.
Asmussen, 1992; Weaver, Byers, Sears, Cohen,
& Randall, 2002). Yet many parents and even
Parental Source Characteristics

Parents' experiences receiving sexual health edu-

Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick, cation from their own parents may influence their
P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, NB E3B 6E4, Canada (byers@ communication with their children. Although
unb.ca). parents hope to do better (Geasler, Dannison, &
Key Words: communication, parent-adolescent relations, Edlund, 1995), the sexuality education they pro-
parent-child relations, sexual attitudes, sexuality. vide resembles the level that they received from

86 Journal of Marriage and Family 70 (February 2008): 86-96

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Parents' Sexual Communication With Their Children 87

their parents (Fisher, 1990; Kniveton

the sexual & ofDay,
health education their children, par-
1999; Lehr, Demi, Dilorio,ticularly
& Facteau, 2005).
their daughters (Fisher, 1990; Meschke,
We examined two aspects of Bartholomae,
the sexual & Zentall, 2002; Raffaelli et al.,
health
education parents had received from
1998). Parents their
who own
are younger and have more
parents: their satisfaction with education
the also tend to be more
education they supportive of
received and whether they wished sexual healththeir
educationparents
in general (Marsman &
had talked more to them. Herold, 1986; Reddy, 1994).
Studies also have indicated that parents' per-
ceptions of their own sexual knowledge and CHILD RECIPIENT CHARACTERISTICS
comfort talking about sexuality influence their
communications about sexuality with their Researchers have shown that parents are more
children (Croft & Asmussen, 1992; Raffaelli, likely to talk about sexuality with adolescent
Bogenschneider, & Rood, 1998). For example, daughters than adolescent sons (Downie &
Jaccard, Dittus, and Gordon (2000) found that Coates, 1999; Raffaelli et al., 1998). In addition,
the two most important reservations mothers they may see it as more important to have such
had about discussing sexuality with their adoles- discussions with their young adolescent (grades
cent were related to knowledge and comfort: fear 6-8) children than their preadolescent (grades
that they would be asked something that they do K - 5) children, particularly their children in
not know and embarrassment when talking to grades K to 3. Many young adolescents show ini-
their adolescent about sexuality. Further, parents tial interest in romantic relationships (Collins,
who have received sexual health education, and 2003; Connolly, Craig, Goldberg, & Pepler,
presumably feel more knowledgeable and likely 2004), and parents believe that talks with these
more comfortable talking about sexuality, are youth help communicate family values, prevent
more likely to communicate with their children negative outcomes, and prepare their children
about sexuality (King, Parisi, & O'Dwyer, 1993). for adulthood (Feldman & Rosenthal, 2000).
Although researchers have not examined
whether parental attitudes toward comprehensive CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATION
sexual health education in school are related to
the sexual health education they provide at home,
The nature of the sexual health topic is a key aspect
a link between these variables is plausible. Per- of any parent-child sexual communication. Pa-
ceiving comprehensive sexual health education rents are more likely to communicate with their
teenagers about biological topics than personal
at school as important likely reflects generally pos-
itive attitudes toward and comfort with sexuality. issues (Rosenthal & Feldman, 1999). Although
Individuals with positive attitudes toward sexual-
Raffaelli et al. (1998) found different patterns of
predictors for parent-adolescent communication
ity generally are more likely to engage in a range
of sexually related behaviors, including providing
about each of three sexuality topics, we are aware
sexuality information to their children (Fisher, of no studies that have examined factors related to
Byrne, White, & Kelley, 1988). Therefore, wedifferent patterns of communication across a wide
expected that parents who regard comprehensiverange of sexuality topics. We evaluated character-
sexual health education at school as more impor- istics associated with parents' reports of communi-
cation about 10 sexuality subjects that included
tant would be more likely to have in-depth discus-
sions with their children about sexual health both biological (e.g., puberty) and nonbiological
(e.g., sexual decision making) topics.
topics, particularly nonbiological topics such as
sexual decision making. Opponents to school-
based sexual health education, however, argue that HYPOTHESES
parents should provide sexual health education to
We investigated the extent to which characteris-
their children in order to pass on their own values
and beliefs (Jaccard et al., 2002). Thus, it is also
tics of the parental source, the child recipient,
possible, although less likely, that parents who and the communication itself are associated with
view comprehensive school-based sexual health parents' reports of their sexual communication
with their children. We predicted that parents
education as less important may talk to their chil-
dren about sexuality in more depth. who received better sexual health education
Finally, a number of studies have found
from their own parents, felt more knowledgeable
that mothers are more involved than fathers in about and comfortable providing sexual health

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 88 Journal of Marriage and Family

the surveys
education, and perceived that were returned, 51 (1%) were
comprehensive school-
excluded because the
based sexual health education asparticipant
more did not indi-
important
cate mother or father
would report having provided and 25 (1%) quality
better were dropped sex-
ual health education because
to their children,
they were completed encour-
by both parents,
leaving
aging their children toa sample
ask of 3,413 mothers (89%) and
questions about
426 fathers (11%).
sexuality more frequently, and engaging in more
in-depth discussionsThe across a mothers
majority of both range of
and fathers livedsexua
in a city
health topics. We also (46%) or rural community
predicted that(38% and
parents
would report that they37%,
hadrespectively),
talked were in
in their 30s (53% anddepth
greater
54%) with
across a range of topics or 40s (35%their
and 33%), and had completed
daughters than
high schooltheir
with their sons and with (36% for both)
youngor a postsecondary
adolescent
trade or technical
(grades 6-8) than with their school (35% and 36%). Parents
preadolescent
(grades 4-5 and K -completed
3) children. Inrespect
some survey questions with addition
to
we evaluated whether a target child (i.e.,gender
child your oldest childandenrolled child
in
grade level moderated elementary
the or middle school, grades K - 8).
relationships In
between
parent characteristics terms
andof grade
the level, extent
28% of the targetof children
parents
sexual communication with their children. We were in grades K to 3, 19% were in grades 4 to
did not make specific predictions about the extent
5, and 53% were in grades 6 to 8. Half of the target
to which these factors would be associated with children (51%) were girls.
each of a broad range of sexuality issues.
Measures
METHOD
Predictors. Parents provided demographic infor-
mation (e.g., gender, age, level of education).
Participants and Procedure
Using 5-point Likert scales ranging from
strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5), pa-
Thirty-three elementary and middle schools were
selected geographically from around a small rents indicated whether (a) the sexual health edu-
Canadian province so that an approximately
cation provided by their parents was satisfactory
equal number of parents would have children (Satisfaction with Parent Sexual Health Educa-
tion), (b) they wished their parents had talked
attending rural and urban schools; 30 of the 33
more to them about sexuality (More Parent
targeted schools agreed to participate in the study.
Classroom teachers distributed surveys, sealed in Talk), (c) they felt they had adequate knowledge
to provide sexual health education to their chil-
privacy envelopes, to students in their class, with
dren (Knowledge), and (d) there were sexual
the request that children take them home to be
health topics they would not be comfortable dis-
filled out by their parents. Surveys were returned
to the school with the child and were returned to cussing with their children (Comfort). Comfort
the researchers by the school. scores were recoded so that higher scores indi-
Of the 9,533 surveys that were distributed, cated greater comfort. Parents also indicated, on
3,915 (41%) completed surveys were returned. a 5-point scale ranging from not at all important
Parents who received multiple copies because (1) to extremely important (5), how important it
they had more than one child enrolled in grades was that each of 10 topics be covered in the sex-
K - 8 in the selected schools were asked to com- ual health curriculum. The topics were personal
plete only one copy and return the extra(s), indi- safety (to prevent child sexual abuse), correct
cating that they had already completed thenames for genitals, puberty, reproduction, sexual
survey; very few parents did so. It is not possiblecoercion and sexual assault, sexually transmitted
to calculate an accurate response rate because itdiseases, abstinence, birth control methods and
cannot be determined how many parents receivedsafer sex practices, sexual decision making in
multiple copies but did not return the extras. dating relationships, and sexual pleasure and
Almost half (46%) of parents reported having enjoyment. Scores on the 10 items were summed
a child in elementary and in middle school and to yield a total Importance of Comprehensive
many parents had more than one child at one orSexual Health Education score (a = .86).
both of these levels. Thus, 41% represents the
minimum estimate of the response rate and theDependent variables. Parents were asked about
actual rate likely was significantly higher. Of the quality of the sexual health education they

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Parents' Sexual Communication With Their Children 89

or their spouse or partner or both

the quality of had provided
the sexual health education they
their child or children (Quality of to
had provided Sexual Health
their children. Parent gender,
Education Provided) using aage, 5 and
-point
educationscale
level wererang-
entered at Step 1 .
ing from poor (1) to excellentThe two (5). Next,
variables related tothey
parents' own sexual
indicated, using a 5-point scale ranging
health education at home from
(Satisfaction with Par-
not at all (1) to very often ent
(5),
Sexual
how Healthoften
Education,they
More Parent Talk),
had encouraged their childparents'
or children
assessments ofto ask
their knowledge and
questions about sexualitycomfort(Encouraged Ques-
providing sexual health education to
tions). Parents were then instructed to respond
their children (Knowledge, Comfort), and pa-
to the next set of questions rents'
with respect
ratings to their
of the Importance of Comprehen-
sive Sexual Health or
oldest child who was in elementary Education
middle were entered at
school and asked to indicate Step 2. the gender
The interactions andparent gender
between
grade level of this child (Target
and the Step Child Gender,
2 predictors, variables were cen-
Target Child Grade Level). tered,
They werewere
entered provided
at Step 3. Because of the large
with the same list of 10 sexual
samplehealth topics
size, we used an a ofthat
.00 1 for all analyses.
were used for the Importance At of
Step Comprehensive
1, parent demographic characteristics
Sexual Health Education ratings and associated
were significantly asked with to parents' per-
indicate the extent to which they
ceptions had
of the discussed
quality of sexual health education
each topic with this child using
they had a provided
scale from notfor only 1% of
but accounted
the (4).
at all (1) to in a lot of detail variance,
The F(3, 3835) = 10.71,
extent of p = .000 (see
communication about each topic was used
Table 1). Mothers as an
and parents with more educa-
individual variable. In addition, a total
tion rated Extent
the quality of health educa-
of the sexual
Sexual Communication score tionwas
they computed
had provided more bypositively. The
summing the ratings for the variables
10 topics entered(oe at Step 2 added significantly
= .91).
to the equation, accounting for an additional
26% of the variance, F-change(5, 3830) =
Results
278.07, p = .000. Parents who were more satis-
fied with
In terms of parental source characteristics, the sexual health education they had
on
average, parents "slightly disagreed" received
that the from their own parents wished their
sexual health education their parents parents had talked to them more about sexual-
had pro-
vided to them was satisfactory (Mity, felt more knowledgeable and more comfort-
= 2.50,
able talked
SD = 1.18), wished that their parents had talking about sexuality with their children,
and
more to them about sexuality (M = 3.75, SD saw-comprehensive school-based sexual
1.05), indicated that they had adequatehealth education as more important rated the
knowl-
edge to provide sexual health educationsexual health education they had provided to
to their
their
children (M = 4.02, SD = 0.76), felt quite children more positively. The block of
com-
two-way
fortable discussing sexual health topics with interaction terms was not significant,
indicating
their children (M = 3.39, SD = 1.22), and ratedthat these relationships did not differ
for mothers
comprehensive school-based sexual health edu- and fathers, F-change(5, 3825) =
.82, SD
cation as very important (M = 40.85, ns. The
= interaction terms were dropped
from the
6.21). In terms of the dependent variables, onanalysis.
average, parents rated themselves as having
done a good job providing sexual health educa-Encouraged Questions
tion to their children (M = 3.19, SD = 1.00),
and reported that they had encouraged their We used the same design to predict Encouraged
children to ask questions a few times (M = Questions (see Table 1). At Step 1, parent demo-
3.42, SD = 1.16) and had communicated about graphic characteristics accounted for 3% of the
sexuality topics in general terms only (M = variance, F(3, 3835) = 49.89, p = .000. Moth-
21.34, SD = 7.08). ers, parents who were older, and parents with
more education reported that they had encour-
aged their children to ask questions about sexu-
Quality of Sexual Health Education Provided
ality more frequently. The variables entered at
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was Step 2 added significantly to the equation,
used to identify predictors of parents' reports of accounting for an additional 20% of the

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 90 Journal of Marriage and Family

Table 1 . Predicting Parents' Reports of Quality of Sexual

Encouraged Questions About Sexuality (N =

Quality of Sexual Encouraged Questions

Health Education Provided About Sexuality

Predictors P sr P sr

Step 1
Parent gender .06* .06 .11* .11
Parentage .01 .01 .13* .13
Parent education .07* .07 .08* .07
/?2-change .01* .03*
Step 2
Parent sex education .15* .12 .03 .03
More parent talk .09* .07 .12* .10
Knowledge .31* .28 .19* .17
Comfort .28* .26 .29* .27
Importance of sex education .06* .05 .14* .13
/?2-change .26* .20*
Final/? .27* .23*

*p<.001.

variance, F-change(5, 3830) = 198.51, p = tions with parent gender and with Target Child
.000. Parents who wished their parents had Gender did not add significantly to the equation,
talked to them more about sexuality, felt more F-change(5, 3823) = 3.09, ns and F-change(5,
knowledgeable and more comfortable talking to 3818) = .47, ns, respectively, they were drop-
their children about sexuality, and rated com- ped from the analysis, and the analysis was
prehensive school-based sexual health educa- redone including only the two-way interactions
tion as more important reported that they had between the Step 3 predictors and Target Child
encouraged their children to ask questions about Grade Level at Step 4.
sexuality more frequently. The block of two- At Step 1, the demographic characteristics
way interactions entered at Step 3 was not sig- accounted for 3% of the variance in Extent of
nificant, indicating that these relationships did Sexual Communication, F(3, 3835) = 35.83,
not differ for mothers and fathers, F-change(5, p = .000 (see Table 2). Mothers and older parents
3825) = .68, ns. The interaction terms were reported more extensive parent-child sexual
dropped from the analysis. communication. The target child variables
accounted for 21% additional variance, F-
change(2, 3833) = 538.03, p = .000, such that
Extent of Sexual Communication
parents whose target child was a girl and at
Parents indicated the extent to which they had a higher grade level reported more extensive
talked about each of 10 sexual health topics with parent-child sexual communication. The varia-
respect to a target child (i.e., their oldest child in bles entered at Step 3 added significantly to the
kindergarten to grade 8) rather than with respect equation, accounting for 15% additional vari-
to their children in general. Therefore, in predict- ance, F-change(5, 3828) = 182.45, p = .000.
ing Extent of Sexual Communication, we entered Parents who were more satisfied with the sexual
parent gender, parent age, and parent education at health education they had received from their
Step 1 , and then the gender and grade level of the own parents, wished their parents had talked to
target child at Step 2. The five predictors used in them more about sex, felt more knowledgeable
Step 2 of the previous analyses were entered at and more comfortable talking about sexuality
Step 3. Finally, at Steps 4 to 6, we added the inter- with their children, and rated comprehensive
actions between each of the Step 3 predictors and school-based sexual health education as more
parent gender, Target Child Gender, and Target important reported more extensive sexual com-
Child Grade Level, respectively. As the interac- munication. At Step 4, the five interaction terms

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 Parents' Sexual Communication With Their Children 91

Table 2. Predicting Parents' Reports of Extentdiscussing

more comfortable of sexual health topics
Parent-Child Sexual Communication
and had a(N = 3,839)
target child in grades 6 - 8 (B = 2.35,
Extent of Parent-Child
P = .41, p = .000), followed by those whose tar-
Sexual Communication
get child was in grades 4 - 5 (B = 1.78, P = .31,
p = .000), and then those whose target child was
Predictors P sr in grades K - 3 (B = 1.21, p = .21, p = .000)
(see Figure lb). Parents with a target child in
Step 1
grades 6-8 had, on average, reported that they
Parent gender .08* .08 had communicated about sexuality with their
Parentage .16* .15 children in general terms only.
Parent education -.00 -.00
A multivariate multiple regression analysis,
/?2-change .03* using the same design as in the previous analysis
Step 2
but with the 10 sexual health topics as dependent
Target child (TC) gender .10* .10 variables, assessed whether the pattern of predic-
Target child (TC) grade level .50* .45 tors was the same for each of the 10 sexual health
/?2-change .21* topics. The multivariate tests examining the con-
Step 3
tributions of the parent demographic characteris-
Parent sex education .10* .08
tics, target child characteristics, and the five
More parent talk .10* .08
Knowledge .14* .13
figure l. Simple Slopes analysis Results for the
Comfort .25* .23
Target Child Grade Level by (a) Knowledge and
Importance of sex education .15* .14 by (b) Comfort Interactions Predicting parents'
/?2-change .15* REPORTS OF THE EXTENT OF PARENT-CHILD SEXUAL
Communication.
Step 4
TC grade level X Parent .00 .00
sex education

TC grade level X More .00 .00

parent talk
TC grade level X Knowledge .06* .05
TC grade level X Comfort .07* .07
TC grade level X Importance .04 .04
R2 -change .01*
Final/?2 .40*
*p<.001.

with Target Child Grade Level accounted for

1% additional variance, F-change(5, 3823) =
16.59, p = .000. The two-way interactions with
Knowledge and with Comfort were significant.
Simple slopes tests, conducted according to
Aiken and West (1991), showed that parents
with a target child at a higher grade level com-
municated more extensively with that child
about sexuality. Specifically, communication
was more extensive when parents felt more
knowledgeable discussing sexual health topics
and had a target child in grades 6 - 8 (B = 3.12,
p = .33, p = .000), followed by those whose
target child was in grades 4 - 5 (B = 2.28, P =
.25, p = .000), and then those whose target
child was in grades K - 3 (B = 1.45, P = .16,
p = .000) (see Figure la). Similarly, communi-
cation was more extensive when parents felt

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 92 Journal of Marriage and Family

predictor variables to parents'

Finally, reports
the block of interaction terms with of the
extent of parent-child Targetcommunication
Child Grade Level added significantly to about the
10 topics were all significant, F(30,
the prediction of extent of communication about 10485) =
10.72, p = .000, F(20, 7144) = 129.65, p = six topics: puberty, sexually transmitted diseases,
.000, and F(50, 16294) = 22.19, p = .000, abstinence, birth control methods, sexual deci-
respectively. sion making, and sexual pleasure and enjoyment.
We followed up the significant multivariate The interaction between Target Child Grade
effects with individual hierarchical multiple re- Level and Knowledge was significant for
gressions using the same design and the 10 sex- puberty; the interaction between Target Child
ual health topics as dependent variables. The Grade Level and Comfort was significant for sex-
demographic characteristics significantly pre- ually transmitted diseases, abstinence, birth con-
dicted all the topics, accounting for between trol methods, sexual decision making, and sexual
1% and 6% of the variance (see Table 3). Moth- pleasure and enjoyment; and the interaction
ers reported that they had talked more with their between Target Child Grade Level and Impor-
children about personal safety, correct names for tance of Comprehensive Sexual Health Educa-
genitals, puberty, and reproduction. Older pa- tion was significant for birth control methods.
rents reported having talked more about all of Simple slopes analyses showed the same pattern
the topics except personal safety and correct for each of these interactions as was described
names for genitals. Parents with more education earlier for overall Extent of Communication.
reported that they had talked more about correct
names for genitals, puberty, and reproduction. CONCLUSION
Parents with less education reported having
talked more about sexual coercion and sexual Overall, the results strongly supported our pre-
assault, sexually transmitted diseases, and birth dictions. That is, in keeping with Jaccard et al.'s
control methods. (2002) conceptual framework, parental source
Characteristics of the target child added signif- characteristics, child recipient characteristics,
icantly to the prediction of extent of communica-and characteristics of the communication were
tion about all sexual health topics, accounting forall associated with parents' reports of the quality
1 % to 28% additional variance. Parents reportedand extent of parent-child sexual communication.
that they had talked more to girls about five Parent demographic characteristics were related
topics: puberty, reproduction, sexual coercion to but accounted for little variance in the sexual
and sexual assault, abstinence, and sexual deci-communication measures. Other parental source
sion making. They reported talking more exten-characteristics, however, were important predic-
sively to children at higher grade levels abouttors of parent-child sexual communication. First,
all the topics. parents' own sexual health education was posi-
The five predictor variables also added signif-tively associated with their ratings of the quality
icantly to the prediction of all 10 topics, account- and extent of the sexual health education they
ing for 7% to 14% additional variance. Parentshad provided to their children as well as with
who were more satisfied with the sexual health the frequency with which they had encouraged
education they had received from their parents their children to ask questions. These results sug-
reported that they had talked more extensively gest that the parents were trying to provide the
about all the topics except personal safety, cor- sexual health education to their children that they
rect names for genitals, puberty, and reproduc- wished they had received from their own parents
tion. Parents who wished their parents had (Geasler et al., 1995). Although parents with
talked to them more about sexuality indicated better sexual health education from their own
that they had talked more extensively about sex- parents were somewhat successful discussing
ual coercion and sexual assault, sexually trans- biological topics, their reports indicate that they
mitted diseases, birth control methods, sexual still had difficulty discussing more sensitive
decision making, and sexual pleasure and enjoy- topics (e.g., sexual coercion and assault, sexually
ment. Knowledge, comfort, and attitudes toward transmitted infections) and encouraging their
the importance of comprehensive sexual health children to ask questions. Second, consistent with
education were positively associated with pa- previous research on sexual communication
rents' self-reported communication about all between parents and adolescents (Jaccard et al.,
10 topics. 2000; Raffaelli et al., 1998), we found that

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Parents' Sexual Communication With Their Children 93

Table 3. Predicting Parents Reports of Extent of Communication Ab

Correct Names Sexual Coercion &

Personal Safety for Genitals Puberty Reproduction Sexual Assault

Step Predictors p sr P sr p sr p sr P sr

1 Parent gender .09* .09 .10* .10 .12* .12 .07* .07 .05 .05
Parentage -.02 -.02 -.01 -.01 .21* .21 .11* .11 .08* .07
Parent education -.01 -.01 .15* .15 .06* .06 .12* .11 -.10* -.10

/?2-change .01* .03* .06* .03* .02*

2 Target child (TC) gender .04 .04 -.03 -.03 .19* .19 .11* .11 .08* .08
Target child (TC) grade .13* .12 .12* .11 .54* .50 .32* .29 .34* .31
/?2-change .02* .01* .28* .10* .10*
3 Parent sex education .04 .03 .04 .03 .04 .03 .02 .01 .09* .08

More parent talk .05 .04 .06 .05 .05 .04 .05 .04 .10* .08
Knowledge .13* .12 .14* .13 .13* .12 .14* .12 .10* .09
Comfort .16* .15 .24* .22 .18* .17 .24* .22 .14* .13

Importance of sex education .16* .15 .16* .16 .09* .08 .13* .12 .14* .14
/?2-change .09* .14* .08* .12* .08*
4 TC grade X Sex education .01 .01 .01 .01 -.01 -.01 -.01 -.01 -.02 -.01
TC grade X More parent talk .02 .02 .01 .01 -.01 -.01 -.01 -.01 -.01 -.01
TC grade X Knowledge .01 .01 .03 .03 .07* .07 .06* .05 .02 .02
TC grade X Comfort .05 .04 .01 .01 .03 .03 .02 .02 .05 .05
TC grade X Importance .03 .02 -.02 -.02 .02 .02 .01 .01 .01 .01
R2 -change .00 .00 .01* .00 .00
Final/?2 .12* .18* .43* .26* .20*

Sexually Transmitted Birth Control Sexual Decision Sexual Pleasure &

Diseases Abstinence Methods Making Enjoyment

Predictors p sr p sr P sr P sr p sr

1 Parent gender .04 .04 .05 .05 .03 .03 .02 .02 .02 .02
Parentage .19* .18 .14* .14 .14* .14 .15* .14 .12* .12
Parent education -.09* -.09 -.02 -.02 -.08* -.08 -.02 -.02 .02 .02

/?2-change .04* .02* .02* .02* .02*

2 Target child (TC) gender .02 .02 .10* .10 .04 .04 .09* .09 .03 .03
Target child (TC) grade .52* .48 .48* .44 .44* .41 .42* .38 .25* .23
/?2-change .23* .20* .17* .15* .05*
3 Parent sex education .12* .10 .07* .06 .11* .09 .10* .08 .11* .09
More parent talk .10* .09 .03 .03 .10* .08 .08* .07 .09* .08
Knowledge .08* .07 .09* .08 .09* .08 .09* .08 .06* .05
Comfort .17* .15 .20* .18 .16* .15 .16* .15 .19* .17
Importance of sex education .08* .07 .06* .06 .11* .10 .10* .09 .11* .11
/?2-change .07* .07* .07* .07* .07*
4 TC grade X Sex education -.00 -.00 -.02 -.01 .03 .02 .01 .01 .03 .03
TC grade X More parent talk .02 .01 -.02 -.02 .02 .01 .00 .00 .01 .01
TC grade X Knowledge .05 .05 .05 .04 .04 .04 .04 .04 .03 .02
TC grade X Comfort .06* .05 .09* .08 .06* .05 .09* .08 .09* .08
TC grade X Importance .04 .04 .03 .03 .07* .06 .05 .05 .05 .05
R2 -change .01* .02* .01* .02* .01*
Final/?2 .34* .30* .27* .25* .16*
*p < .001.

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 94 Journal of Marriage and Family

parents' reports of their these discussions

sexual and negative attitudes toward
knowledge and
comfort were linked comprehensive to their sexualperceptions
health education. of the
quality of their sexual These results are based on correlational
communication data, so their
with
middle and elementary school
the direction agedrelationships
of any cause-effect children as
well as the extent of communication about all between parent attitudes and behaviors and the
10 sexual health topics. Third, we extended past influence of any third variables (e.g., liberalism
research by demonstrating that parents whoor conservatism) on attitudes and behavior cannot
were more supportive of comprehensive sexual be determined. Nonetheless, there are two impor-
health education reported providing higher tant possible implications of these findings. First,
quality sexual health education, encouraging the factors most strongly associated with parents'
their children to ask questions more frequently, reports of the quality and extent of the sexual
and discussing each of 10 sexual health topics health education they provided - attitudes toward
in greater detail. comprehensive sexual health education and per-
Also in keeping with Jaccard et al. (2002), we ceptions of knowledge and comfort talking to chil-
dren about sexuality - are amenable to change.
found that child recipient characteristics, particu-
larly the child's grade level, were associated with
Thus, it is possible that initiatives aimed at increas-
parents' reports of their sexual communication ing parents' support for comprehensive sexual
with the child. That is, parents reported talking health
in education, knowledge about age-appropriate
greater depth to children who were in higher gradesexual health education, and comfort talking
levels about a wide range of sexual health topics.about sexuality could affect the quality and depth
Yet parents rated the extent of their discussions of the sexual health education they provide at
with their children, even their children in gradeshome. Even short interventions designed to
6 to 8, as "in general terms only." Thus, many pa-increase parent-child sexual communication can
rents do not appear to be providing detailed sexu-have a positive effect on sexual communication
ality education to their children even on topics in the family (Huston, Martin, & Foulds, 1990;
that are developmentally appropriate. This result Lefkowitz, Sigman, & Au, 2000). Second, the re-
is troubling given that parents tend to evaluate sults inform the continued debate about compre-
themselves more positively as sex educators than hensive versus abstinence-only sexual health
their adolescents evaluate them (Feldman &education in schools. Contrary to the argument
Rosenthal, 2000; Jaccard et al., 2000). Interest- by opponents to comprehensive school-based
sexual health education that sexual health educa-
ingly, parents' reports of their knowledge and com-
tion is a parental responsibility and should be
fort were more strongly associated with the extent
of sexual communication with their children in provided at home, parents who were less support-
grades 6-8 versus children in grades K - 3 or ive of comprehensive sexual health education
4-5. This finding was particularly true for topics reported providing lower quality sexual health
that acknowledge the child's potential sexual education, encouraging questions less frequently,
involvement, such as sexually transmitted infec- and talking to their children in less depth than
tions, birth control methods, abstinence, sexual parents who saw school-based sexual health
decision making, and sexual pleasure and enjoy- education as more important. Clearly, schools
ment. A similar pattern was found between have an important role to play in ensuring that
parents' views about the importance of com- all children receive comprehensive sexual
prehensive sexual health education and the health education.
extent of their discussions about birth control These results must be interpreted in light of the
methods and sexual pleasure and enjoyment. The study's limitations. First, the findings may reflect
results indicate that parents' perceptions of their bias in our sample of volunteer participants.
knowledge about sexual health topics, comfort Although our minimum response rate of 42% is
discussing these topics with their children, and at- comparable to that in similar surveys (e.g., Lehr
titudes toward comprehensive sexual health educa- et al., 2005; Raffaelli et al., 1998), it may be that
tion play a larger role in their behavior as they are parents who chose not to complete the survey had
faced with their children's developing sexuality. more negative attitudes toward sexual health edu-
Parents' failure to talk to their children about sex- cation or lower comfort with this topic or both
uality in detail appears to reflect barriers to their (Wiederman, 1999). Second, parents' assessment
own participation in the process, such as concerns of the quality of the sexual health education they
about having adequate knowledge and comfort for provided to their children represented their

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Parents' Sexual Communication With Their Children 95

evaluation of what had been done adolescent

at perspective
home on sexual health education
gener-
ally (i.e., by them or by their at school and
spouse orat home:
partnerI. High school
or students.
Canadian Journal
both) rather than their own behavior of Human Sexuality, 12, 1-17.
specifically.
Third, these data are limited Byers,
to E. S., Sears, H. A.,
parents' Voyer, S. D., Thurlow,
percep-
T. L., health
tions of the quality of the sexual Cohen, J. N., & Weaver, A. D. (2003b).
education
they provided to their children. Reports
An adolescent perspectiveof pa-health educa-
on sexual
tion atfor
rents with certain characteristics, school example,
and at home: n. Middle
pa- school stu-
rents who value sexual healthdents. Canadian Journal
education, mayof Human
beSexuality, 12,
19-33.
biased given they would want to believe that they
have done a good job of providing
Collins, W. sexual health
A. (2003). More than myth: The develop-
education to their children. Fourth, although
mental significance we relationships dur-
of romantic
assessed the target child's grade ing level,
adolescence.
we Journal
did of notResearch on
Adolescence,child
evaluate other potentially relevant 13, 1 - 24.recipi-
Connolly, J.,context
ent (e.g., pubertal status) or family Craig, W., Goldberg,
(e.g., A., & Pepler, D.
(2004). Mixed-gender
family composition) characteristics, which groups, dating, and roman-
may
further our understanding of tic relationships
parents' in early adolescence.
sexual com- Journal of
munication with their children. Research on Adolescence, 14, 185 - 207.
In conclusion, the results of this study add to our Croft, C. A., & Asmussen, L. (1992). Perceptions of
understanding of multiple aspects of parent-child mothers, youth, and educators: A path toward de-
sexual communication. Specifically, we identified tente regarding sexuality education. Family Rela-
a new parental source characteristic - attitudes tions, 4 7,452 -459.
toward comprehensive sexual health education - Downie, J., & Coates, R. (1999). The impact of gen-
that contributes significantly to parents' self- der on parent-child sexual communication: Has
reported sexual communication with their children. anything changed? Sexual and Marital Therapy,
Our inclusion of parents of younger school-aged 74,109-121.
children also allowed us to demonstrate that parents Feldman, S. S., & Rosenthal, D. A. (2000). The effect
have difficulty with age-appropriate sexual discus- of communication characteristics on family mem-
sions even before adolescence. In addition, our bers' perceptions of parents as sex educators. Jour-
findings regarding variation in parents' behavior nal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 1 19 - 150.
by grade level of a target child and sexual health Fisher, T. D. (1990). Characteristics of mothers and
topic document the importance of both child fathers who talk to their adolescent children about

recipient characteristics and the content of the sexuality. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexu-
communication for understanding and promoting ality, 3(2), 53 - 70.
parent-child discussions about sexual health. Msher, W. A., Byrne, D., White, L. A., & Kelley,
K. (1988). Erotophobia-erotophilia as a dimension
of personality. Journal of Sex Research, 25,
NOTE 123-151.
Geasler, M. J., Dannison, L. L., & Edlund, C. J.
We thank the parents who participated in this survey, Mark
Holland and Margaret Layden-Oreto of the New Brunswick (1995). Sexuality education of young children:
Department of Education, the Directors of Education and Parental concerns. Family Relations, 44, 184 - 188.
principals of the participating school districts, Alexander Huston, R. L., Martin, L. J., & Foulds, D. M. (1990).
McKay of the Sex Information and Education Council of
Effect of a program to facilitate parent-child
Canada, and Tricia Beattie, Jacqueline Cohen, Krista Byers-
Heinlein, Tammy Harrison, Jamie Hart, Justin Matchett, communication about sex. Clinical Pediatrics, 29,
Shelly Matchett, Hilary Randall, and Jennifer Thurlow. We 626-633.
also acknowledge the financial support of the New Brunswick Jaccard, J., Dittus, P. J., & Gordon, V. V. (2000).
Department of Education.
Parent-teen communication about premarital sex:
Factors associated with the extent of communication.
Journal of Adolescent Research, 15, 187 - 208.
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