Revision Notes

Class 12 - Biology
Chapter 8 - Human Health And Diseases

DEFINITION
Health can be defined as the state of mental, physical, and psychological well-being
of an individual. Factors Affecting Our Health
1. Our dietary habits: A well-balanced diet is required for a healthy body. If the
person is taking a nutritionary deficient diet then the required amounts of nutrients
are not provided to the body resulting in an unhealthy body.
2. Lifestyle: A person doing a moderate amount of work in a life is having a healthy
lifestyle in comparison to the person living a sedentary lifestyle.
3. Our social environment: A person who constantly lives under the social pressure
and stress will always be accustomed to living a stressful life with various mental
conditions and is more susceptible to stress-related disorders than a person living in
a relaxed environment.
4. The work-related to earning: Those people that work in the industries or factories
will mostly suffer from respiratory or hearing problems as they are working
conditions include noise and air pollution.
5. State of the mind: The person’s state of mind is responsible for the proper
functioning of the body and mind. The neural system, endocrine system, and the
immune system will work according to the state of mind of a person and will play a
major role in keeping us healthy.
6. Genetic information: There are several genetic abnormalities and disorders that
are inherited from the parents to their offspring, thus genetic material is also
responsible for the healthy state of the body.
7. Our physical environment: The area with hygienic conditions and greenery will
be more healthy and beneficial in comparison to the unhygienic and polluted area.
8. Economic conditions of the individual: The amount of money a person has is also
responsible for the maintenance of health in an individual. If a person is spending a
quality amount of money on their health then they will be more healthy.

Disease
Definition – A disease tells us about the abnormal dysfunctioning of the mental-

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physical states which leads to the illness. The state includes the altered functioning
of various body organs. Diseases can be classified as Infectious and Non-infectious
Diseases.

Infectious Diseases –Those diseases that can be transferred easily from one person
to another are called infectious diseases. They are generally caused by pathogens.
Examples include Common cold, malaria, AIDS

Non-infectious Diseases –Those diseases that cannot be transmitted from one

person to another are called non –infectious diseases. Examples – Cancer and
Diabetes.

Pathogens: The pathogens are the organisms that are responsible for the causing of
diseases in a host. They include the microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.

Widal test: A serological test that helps in detecting whether a person is suffering
from typhoid or not.

Disease caused by Bacteria

Disease Name of bacteria Mode of Symptoms

transmission

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi Contaminated food Sustained high

and water. fever Stomach
pain Weakness
Constipation Loss
of appetite (in
severe cases –
Intestinal
perforations and
death ).

Pneumonia Streptococcus Sharing of glasses Alveoli of the

pneumoniae/ and utensils, lungs get infected
Haemophilus inhaling droplets leading to
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 influenzae from patients. respiratory
problems, fever,
chills, cough, and
headache (lips and
nails become grey
in severe cases ).

Disease caused by Viruses

Disease Name of Viruses Mode of Symptoms

transmission

Common Cold RhinoVirus Air – through Infection of the

droplet nuclei, and nose and
through respiratory tract.
contaminated Nasal congestion
objects. and discharge,
hoarseness, cough,
headache
tiredness.

Disease caused by protozoa

Disease Name of Protozoa Mode of Symptoms

transmission

Malaria Plasmodium By vector (Female High fever and

(P.falciparum Anopheles chills at fixed time
,P.vivax, P. mosquito). intervals due to
malaria) release of
hemozoin after
rupturing of
infected RBCs.

Amoebiasis Entamoeba Houseflies act as constipation,

(amoebic histolytica mechanical abdominal pain,
dysentery) carriers) serve to and cramps, stools
transmit the with excess mucus
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 parasite from the and blood clots.
feces of an infected
person to food
(faeco-oral
transmission.

Life Cycle of Plasmodium:

-The malarial infection starts when an infected female anopheles mosquito bites a
healthy human. Thus, injects the plasmodium parasites into the bloodstream in the
form of sporozoites.
-The sporozoites travel quickly into the human liver with the help of the bloodstream
and there they asexually divide into the liver cells for 7 to 10 days. In this period no
symptoms are produced in the human body.
-After the multiplication of the sporozoites, converted into merozoites and they are
released from the liver cells in the vesicles. They travel through the heart and arrive
in the lungs where they settle down in the lung capillaries.
-The disintegration of the vesicles allows merozoites to enter the blood phase of their
development.
-The merozoites enter the red blood cells in the bloodstream and there they multiply

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until the cell burst. Then they start to enters more red blood cells. These repeated
cycles of parasites cause fever each time when the parasites break the red blood cells
and then invade the blood cells.
-Some blood cells which are infected leave the asexual multiplication cycle and
instead of replicating, merozoites develop into the sexual form of the parasite known
as gametocytes.
-When again the mosquito bites an infected person the gametocytes enter into the
mosquito body, where they further develop into mature sex cells called gametes.
-The female gametes develop into ookinetes and remain in the midgut wall of the
mosquito where they form oocysts on the exterior surface.
-Inside the oocyst, many active sporozoites are present. When the oocyst, breaks
down, a large number of sporozoites are released into the body cavity and they travel
to the mosquito's salivary gland.
-This led to the cycle of human infection starts again when the mosquito bites
another person.
-Hence, the primary host is the mosquito, and the secondary host is the human.

Diseases caused by worms:

Disease Pathogen Mode of Symptoms

Transmission

Ascariasis Ascaris Faeco-oral Fever, anemia,

transmission. muscular pain,
internal bleeding,
and blockage of
intestinal passage.

Elephantiasis/Filar Wuchereria Bite of female Chronic

iasis bancrofti, mosquito vectors. inflammation of
W.malayi lymphatic vessels
of lower limbs and
genital organs
causing gross
deformities.

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 Diseases caused by Fungi

Ringworm Microsporum, Direct contact Dry, scaly lesions

Trichophyton, through the soil, on skin, nails, and
Epidermophyton. contaminated scalp accompanied
clothes, combs, by intense itching.
etc. Symptoms worsen
with increased heat
and moisture.

Prevention and Control:

1. To maintain personal and public hygiene
2. Isolation and Quarantine
3. To eliminate vectors and also their breeding places
4. Protection against vectors
5. Vaccination
6. Antibiotics

8.2: IMMUNITY
Immunity is the ability of a person to fight against the diseases which can be
achieved through the presence of antibodies in the person’s system.
Immunity is of two types:
(i) Innate immunity
(ii) Acquired immunity.

8.2.1 Innate Immunity

The immunity which is present since the time of birth and is a non-specific type of
immunity is called innate immunity. The entry of pathogens is restricted with this
immunity with the help of certain barriers.
Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers. These are —
(i) Physical barriers: Examples - Skin, gastrointestinal, mucus coating of the
epithelium lining the respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
(ii) Physiological barriers: Acid in the stomach, tears from eyes, saliva in the mouth.
(iii) Cellular barriers: Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body can
phagocytose and destroy microbes. For example, the polymorpho-nuclear
leukocytes (PMNL-neutrophils), natural killer (type of lymphocytes) in the blood,

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monocytes, as well as macrophages in tissues.
(iv) Cytokine barriers: The cells that are infected by the virus will produce proteins
called interferons that help in protecting the other non-infected cells from getting a
viral infection.

8.2.2: Acquired Immunity

Acquired immunity is developed during one’s life and is pathogen-specific. When
the person develops an infection or a disease due to their exposure to the pathogen
and the person’s body becomes immune to the disease which is caused due to the
development of the immune response in the body is called the active immunity
which is acquired naturally or secondary or anamnestic response. The lymphocytes
B and T lymphocytes are the types of lymphocytes that help in the primary and
secondary responses. The function of B lymphocytes is to recognize foreign
substances and get attached to them whereas the T lymphocytes function is to
remember the antigens and also recognize them and respond against them and help
B-lymphocytes to produce antibodies.

Antibody Structure
Antibodies are 'Y' shaped pretentious structures, which are made up of four
polypeptide chains. Two heavy polypeptide chains and two light chains constitute
the antibody and help in performing various functions. It is represented as H2L2.
The different types of antibodies in our bodies are IgA, IgG, IgE, and IgM.

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Humoral Immune response
People who are administered preformed antibodies get passive immunity. It is the
transfer of active humoral immunity through these readymade antibodies present in
the blood (body humor).

Cell-mediated immunity
It defends against intracellular pathogens and cancer by binding to antigens and
lyzing the infected cells or cancer cells that do not involve antibodies instead release
phagocytes, antigen specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and various cytokines in
response to an antigen. This helps the body to differentiate between ‘self’ and ‘non-
self’.

8.2.3: Active immunity v/s Passive immunity

Active immunity. Passive immunity

When the person develops an infection People who are administered preformed
or a disease due to their exposure to the antibodies get passive immunity. It is
pathogen and the person’s body the transfer of active humoral immunity
becomes immune to the disease which is through these readymade antibodies.
caused due to the development of the
immune response in the body is called
the active immunity.

It takes a lot of time to get activated. The protection offered by passive

immunity is short-lived, lasting for most
weeks or months.

The memory cells are produced that will No memory cells are produced and thus
help in producing a stronger response log term immunity is not provided.
when the same antigen is found in the
body.

Examples – Vaccines like BCG, MMR. Examples – Anti-Tetanus injection,

Injections for snake bite,
colostrum(yellowish fluid produced by

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 the mother in the initial days of
lactation) contains abundant IgA
antibodies to protect the infant against
infections.

8.2.4: Vaccination and Immunization:

Vaccination: Vaccination is based on the memory of the immune system. When an
antigenic material is injected into a healthy person, it generates antibodies and
memory cells as primary immune response. The vaccine is a suspension of
inactivated pathogens or antigenic proteins of a pathogen that is taken orally or
injected to provide immunity for that pathogen. During the infection B and T
lymphocytes will get activated and forms a large number of antibodies after
recognizing the antigen a.
People who are administered preformed antibodies get passive immunity. It is the
transfer of active humoral immunity through these readymade antibodies. This
process is done when the person needs antibodies in a short span.
Newer techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used in the production of
several vaccines and the vaccines produced will be having fewer side effects. It also
helps in the production of antigenic polypeptides in bacteria and yeast.

8.2.5: Allergies
Definition: Allergies are also known as allergic diseases. They are the number of
conditions which is caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to various
typically harmless substances present in the environment. When the immune system
reacts to a foreign substance like pollen, or bee venom, or a food that does not cause
a reaction in most people then the allergies occur. The antibodies produced to these
are of IgE type.
Common examples of allergens are outdoor pollutants including ozone and diesel
exhaust, indoor pollutants such as tobacco smoke and nitrogen dioxide, microbial
products, mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, running nose, watery eyes, and
difficulty in breathing. Due to the production of histamine and serotonin in the mast
cells, allergies are caused while drugs like anti-histamines, adrenalin, and steroids
are taken to reduce the symptoms of allergy.

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8.2.6: Autoimmunity
Autoimmunity is the ability of the human immune system to differentiate between
the antigens that are foreign to the body and the antigen wIt is observed in some
cases that due to certain genetic and reasons the body attacks its own cells leading
to the damage and this is called auto-immune disease. Example -Rheumatoid
arthritis.

8.2.7: Immune System in the Body:

It consists of Lymphoid organs, tissues, cells, and antibodies.
The immune system functions as follows:
• It helps in differentiating between self and non-self.
• It protects the body against non-self or foreign antigens.
• It is based upon the production of memory cells and reacts according to the antigens
present previously.
• It is involved in allergic reactions.
• It is important in auto-immune diseases.
• It is important in organ transplant and graft rejection.

Lymphoid organs
The organs are responsible for the origin and maturation of lymphocytes and help
the body to fight against infections. They are composed of primary, secondary, and
tertiary lymphoid organs that include the different types of leukocytes or white blood
cells.

The primary lymphoid bone marrow, thymus. immature lymphocytes

organs differentiate into antigen-
sensitive lymphocytes.

Secondary lymphoid Spleen, lymph nodes, provide the sites for

organs tonsils, Peyer’s patches of interaction of
small intestine and lymphocytes with the
appendix. antigen, which then
results in the formation of
the effector cells.

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The main lymphoid organ is the bone marrow where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced.
The thymus is found within the upper front, a part of the chest, within the anterior
superior mediastinum, behind the sternum, and ahead of the heart. It's made of two
lobes, each consisting of a central medulla and an outer cortex, surrounded by a
capsule. The Thymus gland is also called the ‘Throne of immunity’ or ‘training
schools of T-lymphocytes.’ The T-lymphocytes improve the cell-mediated
immunity with the help of thymosin.
The The organ spleen organ and is the same in the structure as a large lymph node.
The spleen’s function is to filter blood. It also plays important role in immunity and
also to red blood cells. Spleen is also known as the graveyard of the red blood cells.
The lymph nodes are the part of the lymphatic system that are small solid structures
that help in the trapping of antigens inside the tissue or lymph fluid which then
results in the activation of lymphocytes present within the lymph nodes. This leads
to the immune response. The lining of the major tracts (respiratory, digestive, and
urogenital tracts) are composed of lymphoid tissue. It is called mucosal-associated
lymphoid tissue (MALT). It forms approximately 50 percent of the lymphoid tissue
in the human body.

8.3: AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)

HIV-AIDS is Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, caused by the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus, and interferes with the body's ability to fight infection.
This virus is transmitted through contact with the infected blood, semen, or vaginal

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fluids. AIDS was first reported in 1981 and in approximately the last twenty-five
years, it has spread all over the world killing more than 25 million persons.
-Flu-like symptoms appear within a few weeks of infections such as fever, fatigue,
and sore throat.
-Then disease becomes asymptomatic until it progresses into AIDS. weight loss,
fever or night sweats, fatigue, and recurrent infections are the symptoms of AIDS.
-Till now, no cure is available for AIDS but antiretroviral regimens can slow the
progress of the disease as well as prevent secondary infections and complications.
Causative Agent: It is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency and is a member of
a group of viruses called a retrovirus. Their genome is RNA which is enclosed in an
envelope and they also consist of the reverse transcriptase gene.

Transmission of HIV-infection
(a) Sexual contact with an infected person: individuals who have multiple sexual
partners.
(b) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products: Individuals who
require repeated blood transfusions (certain cancers, anemia, and thalassemia).
(c) By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers: drug
addicts who take drugs intravenously.
(d) From infected mother to her child through the placenta: children born to an HIV
infected mother. HIV/AIDS does not spread through mere touch or physical contact.

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It primarily spreads through sexual contact but also through infected blood from
shared intravenous needles and so on. This incubation period may vary from a few
months to many years (usually 5-10 years).

How HIV affects the body?

When the virus enters the person’s body then it will infect the macrophages. Then
with the help of reverse transcriptase enzyme, the viral genome RNA replicates and
forms viral DNA. Thie viral DNA will go into the host cell and then these infected
cells will produce virus particles. Thus, macrophase will prince viruses.
Simultaneously, the HIV virus will enter the helper T cells and produce the virus
progeny in the blood which will attack other helper T lymphocytes. This cycle
continues until the number of T lymphocytes decreases in the infected person. This
leads to the person suffering from several diseases that include infections and
diseases such as those caused by bacteria especially Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi,
and even parasites like Toxoplasma. Thus the patient becomes immunodeficient
leading to a very weak immune system.

Detection:
The detection of AIDS can be done by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA): It is a biochemical test that helps in detecting the presence of an antibody

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or an antigen in a sample. To confirm the results of the ELISA test a Western Blot
test is also done.

Treatment:
The treatment of AIDS is done by using the anti-retroviral drugs which increases the
life span of a person by it cannot prevent death.

Prevention of AIDS
There is no cure for AIDS so it’s best to prevent it from occurring. The main thing
that must be kept in mind for preventing AIDS are blood transfusion, transmission
from mother to newborn.

Role of government and non-government organizations in limiting the spread

of this disease.
To make people aware and educate them about AIDS which is done with the help of
the National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) and other non-governmental
organizations (NGOs). There are various programs conducted by WHO to prevent
AIDS from spreading.

Prevention and Control Methods:

● Making blood transfusions safe from HIV.
● To ensure not to use the same needles that are already used.
● Free distribution of condoms.
● Controlling drug abuse.
● Advocating safe sex.
● Promoting regular check-ups for HIV in susceptible populations.

Role of Society in preventing the spread of this disease

Sympathy for HIV/AIDS patients.
To make people aware of AIDS so as to prevent it from spreading.
Cooperation between the society and the medical facility to prevent the spread of
this disease. Disclosure about the HIV status to prevent further spread to more
people.

8.4: Cancer
Cell growth is highly controlled and coordinated in our body but when this is

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controlled, mechanisms breakdown it will result in the differentiation of cells
uncontrollably which will result in the growth of cancer cells leading to
uncontrollable growth. These cancerous cells will divide continuously leaving the
formation of mature cells called tumors.
Tumors are of two types:
1. Benign tumor is the one that is differentiated and capsulated. Benign tumors
generally have a slower rate of growth and normally remain limited and do not
spread to other parts of the body causing less damage.
2. They develop when cells grow uncontrollably. If the cells still grow and spread,
the disease can become life-threatening. Malignant tumors can grow quickly and
spread to other parts of the body during a process called metastasis

Causes of cancer:
The normal cells are transformed into the cancerous cells through physical,
chemical, or biological agents. These agents are called carcinogens.

Common carcinogens:
● Ionizing radiations: X-rays and gamma rays.
● Non-ionizing radiations: UV Both ionizing and non-ionizing radiations cause
DNA damage that causes neoplastic transformation.
● The chemical carcinogens are the major cause of lung cancer that are present
in tobacco smoke.
● Oncogenic viruses consist of genes called viral oncogenes that are cancer-
causing viruses. In normal cells, several genes are identified called cellular
oncogenes(c-onc), or proto-oncogenes that can be activated under certain
conditions thus resulting in the oncogenic transformation of the cells.

Cancer Detection and Diagnosis:

When cancer is detected early then the disease can be treated successfully. Cancer
detection is based on:

Biopsy: In this process, a small suspected tissue is taken and is then stained called
Histopathological studies of the tissue (thin sections are examined under the
microscope).

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Blood and bone marrow tests: To detect leukemia and to measure the increased
cell counts.

Radiography: (use of X-rays),

CT (computed tomography): To generate the three-dimensional structure of an

organ through X-rays.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): It is the use of strong magnetic fields and
non-ionizing radiations that are used to detect the changes in the living tissues.

Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens: Used for detection of certain cancers.

Techniques of molecular biology: It is used to detect various types of cancers and
also in the identification of genes that help in preventing cancers. Those individuals
in which these are detected are advised to stop the use of carcinogens that are harmful
to them like tobacco and smoking in the case of lung cancer.

Treatment of cancer:
Treatment of cancer can be done by one or a combination of different approaches.
The common approaches for the treatment of cancer are surgery, radiation therapy,
chemotherapy, and immunotherapy.
In radiotherapy, the tumor cells are irradiated lethally while the normal cells
surrounding them are taken care of.
There are several drugs that are used to kill cancerous cells called chemotherapeutics
which may be specific for particular tumors. These drugs will show certain side
effects that include the side effects like hair loss, anemia, etc.
The majority of the cancers are treated by a combination of all the above methods.
The Tumor cells can be detected by the immune system with the help of certain
substances called the biological response modifiers. They are substances such as α-
interferon that destroy the tumor by activating the immune system.

8.5: Drug Abuse

The consumption of drugs which are chemical substances that are not prescribed by

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The consumption of drugs which are chemical substances that are not pthe doctors
and are taken in a high dosage very frequently results in the impairing of a person’s
physical, psychological functions leading to the drug abuse.
Commonly abused drugs are opioids, cannabinoids, and coca alkaloids.

Drug /Chemical Obtained from Taken by Action

nature

Opioids / Latex of Poppy snorting or -bind specifically

Diacetylmorphine plant (Papaver injection to the opioid
somniferum) receptors present
in the CNS and GI
tract.
-acts as the
depressant and
slows down body
functions.

Cannabinoids Inflorescences of Oral ingestion Has an effect on

plant Cannabis Inhalation the cardiovascular
sativa systems of the
body.

Coca alkaloids or Coca Plant Snorted It interferes with

Cocaine Erythroxylum coca the Dopamine
neurotransmitter
transportation and
also effect the CNS
by producing a
sense of euphoria
and increased
energy. Excessive
dosage leads to
hallucination.

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Smoking
Tobacco is either smoked, chewed, or used as a snuff and consists of various
chemical substances that include nicotine (alkaloid). It results in the adrenal gland
releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones into the blood leading to a rise in
blood pressure and heartbeat.
Continuous smoking may cause lung cancer, affects the urinary bladder, and throat
causing bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart diseases, and gastric ulcers, the
chewing of tobacco may increase the risk of oral cavity cancer. Smoking reduces the
heam-bound oxygen in the blood and increases the CO content in the blood which
will lead to anemia and oxygen deficiency. increases CO content in the blood and
therefore reduces the content of haem-bound oxygen. To get free from the addiction
of drug an addict require medical counseling.

8.5.2: Adolescence and Drug/Alcohol abuse:

The period of adolescence starts when an individual reaches reproductive maturity.
This stage comes in between childhood and adulthood. During this period the person
undergoes various physiological and psychological changes leading to the emotional
and behavioral growth of the individual. During this period the individuals are highly
emotional and vulnerable. Thus the youngsters lay lead towards the life of drug
abuse due to:
● Curiosity
● Need for adventure
● Experimentation
● Perceived benefits of alcohol and drug use
● Stress and academic pressure
● Need to appear cool/peer pressure
● Influence of popular media
● Unstable family structure

8.5.2: Addiction and Dependence:

Addiction: It is the feeling of eu[horia which a person feels when they are
continuously under the effect of drugs and alcohol. Due to repeated use of drugs they
are now highly tolerant towards large amounts of drug doses. Thus the receptor of
the person’s body will respond to a higher drug dose leading to the intake of more
drugs and thus more addiction.

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Dependence: It is the condition of an unpleasant withdrawal syndrome in a person’s
body if the regular dose of drugs/alcohol is stopped suddenly leading to anxiety,
nausea, shakiness, and sweating which will stop only when the person consumes the
drug again. In some cases, the withdrawal symptoms are also found to be life-
threatening and the person may require medical supervision. To satiate their needs
the person will ignore all the social norms and may even choose the wrong path
leading to social problems.

8.5.3: Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse

● Reckless behavior.
● Vandalism and violence.
● The use of excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to
respiratory failure, heart failure, or cerebral hemorrhage.
● Injecting drugs could lead to increased susceptibility to diseases like AIDS,
Hepatitis, etc.
● Damage to the nervous system and Liver cirrhosis.
● Adverse effect on the fetus due to consumption during pregnancy.
Side effects of performance-enhancing drugs for sports:
In females: masculinization, mood swings, increased aggressiveness, depression,
excessive facial abnormal menstrual cycle, and body hair, enlargement of the
clitoris, and deepening of the voice.
In males: acne, mood swings, aggressiveness, depression, decreased sperm
production, reduction in testicles, kidney and liver dysfunction, premature baldness,
breast enlargement, enlargement of the prostate.

Common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse

Drop-in academic performance.
unexplained absence from school/college.
lack of interest in personal hygiene.
Withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive and rebellious behavior.
Deteriorating relationships with family and friends.
Loss of interest in hobbies.
Change in sleeping and eating habits.
Fluctuations in weight, appetite, etc.
Stealing to get money to buy drugs/alcohol.

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8.5.4: Prevention and Control
1. Avoid undue peer pressure.
2. Education and counseling.
3. Seeking help from parents and peers.
4. Looking for danger signs.
5. Seeking professional and medical help.

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